Investigating trust in information and impression management

of students on Facebook
Guruprasad Gadgil Victor Prybutok Gayle Prybutok
University of North Texas University of North Texas Department of Disability and
1155 Union Circle #305249 Eagle Student Services Center Addiction Rehabilitation
Denton, TX 76203 1155 Union Circle, 305459 College of Public Affairs and
Guruprasad.Gadgil@unt.edu Denton, TX 76203-5017 Community Service
Victor.Prybutok@unt.edu University of North Texas
Daniel Peak Gayle.Prybutok@unt.edu
University of North Texas
Business and Leadership Building
1155 Union Circle # 311160
Denton, TX 76203-5017
Daniel.Peak@unt.edu

ABSTRACT
trust in a social networking site information, and awareness of
The growth of social networking sites in the last few years has
various features of the technology. The implications of this study
changed the pattern of its utility thereby providing yet another
emphasize the value of the impression management framework
new social phenomenon. Of particular interest is the intention
and attempts to explain the very complex human behavior in an
of recruiting managers to use social networking sites like
online platform. The authors of this research acknowledge
Facebook and MySpace to conduct background checks on
limitations. This study does not consider whether impression
prospective job candidates. Also, school authorities and law
management in the context of online social interactions results
enforcement officials have occasionally used evidence gleaned
in perceived resonant or discordant realities of the actors
from a user’s Facebook account to trace or confirm evidence of
creating the impression for the target audience, which is outside
criminal activities. This research contributes to the existing
the scope of this research. Future research will test this posited
literature by extending existing theory that integrates the
model.
theoretical framework of digital impression management
with trust in the accuracy of digital information using nine
independent variables: visibility indicator, SNS information CCS CONCEPTS
currency, visibility awareness, technology awareness, impression • Network types → Overlay and other logical network
motivation, SNS information quality, information objectivity, structures; Online social networks
information relevance, and SNS information trustworthiness to
• Web applications; Social networks
predict a dependent variable, impression construction. The
authors developed the proposed model based on the existing • Web applications→ Crowdsourcing; Trust
literature. Using Impression Management Theory, and Trust in
Digital Information Theory, this work posits a framework that KEYWORDS
describes how user behavior is related to visibility awareness, Facebook, Social Media, Digital Impression Management,
Visibility Awareness, Trust in Facebook, Impression motivation,
SNS Impression construction, SNS image

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DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3085228.3085246
dg.o 2017, June 2017, Staten Island, NY
1 INTRODUCTION
The last decade has seen an exponential growth in the
usage of social networking sites (SNS). Facebook, introduced by
Mark Zuckerberg in 2004, was originally designed for the use of
college students and was available only to students within the
college community having email addresses ending in .edu. By
the end of first year, it had over one million users, and as
Facebook opened to public and corporate networks, usage has
grown exponentially.
As reported by Statista, a leader in digital statistics, Facebook
users have crossed 1500 million users in third quarter of 2015 [1].
A demographic study of Facebook users has shown that
originally 18-24 year olds made up one third of the total users of
Facebook [2]. Facebook very quickly gained the curiosity of
users, and enjoyed a growth of popularity as Facebook users
realized its appropriation as a tool for being socially connected
as well as an alternate form of communication with friends and
family [3]. Features like photos, wall posts, Like, friend searches
and connections, and group messaging allow users to create a
profile that reflects the personality users want to exhibit. The
very design of the website encourages users to share a certain
amount of personal information. People are sometimes less
cautious when they provide personal information online. The
anonymity provided by the Internet and the lack of face-to-face
interaction provides a false sense of security. Most of the
personal information provided is for friends, and users forget
that others may see that information. In doing so, users risk
revealing information that they would want to keep from their
current or future employer, school administrators, or those in a
position to make decisions about them. Such content can also
affect their personal security [4, 5]. There is an increasing trend
that prospective employers are looking at social media sites
while screening their candidates, particularly when the
candidates are fresh college graduates without an employment
history. Similarly, school administrators are also using the
content posted on Facebook as evidence against the students,
which can result in disciplinary action. The usage of SNS and
computer-mediated communication media has been appropriated
beyond its intended purpose. People engage in impression
management, which is all about people controlling and
manipulating opinions that other Facebook users have of them.
They manipulate viewers’ opinions through their Facebook
profiles, which are the cumulative result of the content they
upload using various Facebook features such as timeline, about,
newsfeed, events, groups, friends list, news feeds, pages feeds,
market place, fund raisers, photos, videos, offers, moments,
communities etc. When people upload content to Facebook, they
are inadvertently engaging in information sharing behavior. As
people process verifiable information assimilated by chance from
Facebook, their confidence in Facebook as a reliable and
trustworthy source of information is reinforced. Impression
management results in resonant or discordant impressions and
relies heavily on the quality of the uploaded information that
constitutes the user's Facebook profile. In this context, the
authors of this research find it pertinent to explore impression
management theory through the lens of digital information
theory. This paper attempts to develop a model framework for
G.Gadgil et al.
how impression motivation, which is the awareness that
Facebook is used for other than its intended uses, and is used for
Image Construction, which is the behavior exhibited through the
creation of their online profile through images. The rest of the
paper is structured as follows: the literature review is followed
by the definition of constructs developed and then by the
proposed theoretical model.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
2.1 Framework of Impression Management
Theory
This research takes its theoretical framework from the seminal
works on impression management originally theorized by
Goffman Erving in 2004. Using the metaphor of theater, an actor
creates a resonant or a discordant impression on the target
audience. This theory explains the motivations of complex
human behavior [6]. Leary and Kowalski (1990) expanded on this
theory by describing the process through which people control
the impressions that other people have of them in two discrete
processes. Impression motivation, which is the degree to which
people are motivated to control how others see them, and
Impression construction, which is the process of building the
public image that viewers see on Facebook [7].
2.2 Trust in Digital Information Theory
As per the studies conducted by Romney & Weller (1984)
McGraw & Seale (1988), and Turban & Tan (1993), any
information that is generally agreed upon by many people is
consensus information. Consensus information is more useful
and valuable information than information generated from a
single source. Consensus helps in the process of verifying
information. Trust in information is developed if information
can be verified [8]. Perceived security, privacy, trust, attitude and
intention are the factors that influence cognitive and affective
attitudes leading to the acceptability of social networking sites
[9]. In the context of Facebook, use of different features like
groups and friends have an impact on the user's life satisfaction,
social trust [10]. Facebook use, and Facebook group use offers an
increase in social capital and satisfaction for users [10]. Research
in social networking sites ‘privacy concerns’ and ‘attitudes
towards social grooming’ have been influential [11].
2.3 Research on Social Networking Sites (SNS)
SNS are defined as web-based services that allow individuals to
construct a public or semi-public profile within the site, identify
a list of other users with whom they want to be connected, and
view the pages of those on their list of connections and those
made by others within the system. [12]. Prior research indicates
that a social networking site’s primary utility serves the societal
need for people to be in touch with their friends primarily, and
then their families and other people in their personal and
professional lives [13]. Studies have revealed that all age groups
are using social networking sites extensively. For instance, while
younger teenagers use SNS to recreate continuous and elaborate
identities, older teenagers use SNS to create identities that reflect
authentic relationships [45], Young adults use SNS to develop
intimate relationships by forming and maintaining
interconnections with people in their lives [60]. Senior citizen’s
use SNS to “enrich their lives” so that they can have an easy way
of staying in touch with their families [44]. Studies have also
indicated that people use SNS like Facebook to learn more about
people they meet offline and are less likely to use the site make
new contacts [28]. Facebook has allowed people to strengthen
immature or distant relationships, and thus to increase social
capital and reduce loneliness [22]. It follows that people will
engage in impression management on SNS and will take into
consideration that the profile they create is largely public [42],
and that the impression or the image they create will not be
rejected by the target audience [21].
2.4 Studies on Impression Motivation
There has been a considerable effort to study online behavior in
computer-mediated communications [17, 23, 27, 30, 32, 37, 38, 41,
44, 55], largely based on Impression Management Theory [6,7].
Users evaluate other users’ profile before adding them to their
Facebook friends list. Users thus engage in impression
management. There is an element of risk taking behavior, as the
users post content about self (self -presentation), expecting the
same from their target audience [26]. “The private/public balance
present in each social networking site has encouraged new styles
of self-presentation [51]. Attitudes towards privacy and
impression management, when mediated by technology,
translate into social interactions [26]. The costs associated with
self-presentation in impression management on SNS are trust
and expected cooperation [25]. Impression management and
voyeuristic surveillance are two major psychological factors that
motivate individuals to post and read personal messages on SNS
[36].
An individual’s Facebook profile serves as the individual’s first
exposure to having a prospective employer check their Facebook
profile [62]. Many organizations that recruit fresh graduates
through college campus interviews used earlier search platforms
like Google or Yahoo to background check. Since college
students often upload risqué or teasing photographs and
provocative comments about drinking or recreational drug use
in the mistaken belief that partial privacy will be maintained, the
trend has now moved from those search engines to SNS like
Facebook, MySpace, Xanga, and Friendster [29]. This can lead to
the recruiting process becoming biased if an applicant's
Facebook page contains inappropriate information, or if some
applicants do not have Facebook pages, or if legally protected
demographic information becomes part of the selection process
[59]. Many students make a conscious attempt to portray a
particular image and this can be problematic when their
intended image is related to posting inappropriate information.
Those who intend to present a hardworking image are unlikely
to post inappropriate information, whereas students who intend
to portray a sexually appealing, wild, or offensive image are
most likely to post inappropriate information [38,52]. Popular
media like Business Week, hubpage.com, CBS News, CNN,
Telegraph, dumblittleman.com, Business Insider, and Forbes
have addressed the trend of employers scrutinizing Facebook
profiles in their recruitment screening process. Companies are
more cautious about profiles exhibiting provocative pictures,
evidence of drinking and drug use, Venting and bad grammar,
political and controversial issues, and discriminatory comments
[16, 15, 14, 34, 24, 33, 43, 53, 58]. School authorities are also
increasingly using Facebook as a source of evidence about
students that can result in disciplinary action. There have been
instances where school authorities have expelled students. In
October 2005, Fisher College in Boston expelled sophomore
Cameron Walker for posting comments about a campus police
officer [57]. In Feb 2006, Oxford police arrested a Miami
University student for inducing panic via Facebook [56]. Users
are not aware of the risks associated with revealing personal
information on SNS which can be used by criminals for activities
like identity theft, cyber stalking, etc. [61]. Teenage volunteers
were used by Thames Valley Police officers to catch people who
engage in bullying using the Internet [19]. Lyndon et al. (2011)
suggest that those who harass other on Facebook admit to
stalking behavior on Facebook that is often an obsessive
relational pursuit involving covert provocation, public
harassment and inappropriate venting [47]. This research brings
home the fact that the profiles that students create on Facebook
result in impressions formed by an external audience that can
inadvertently include prospective employers and school
administrators.
2.5 Studies on Trust in Digital information
Moreno et al (2013) used a concept mapping methodology to
arrive at group consensus that explained the factors that
influence Facebook users’ attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. A
huge amount of information from its millions of users
constitutes the database of Facebook. Users tend to reinforce
their beliefs or opinions by seeing that others hold the same
beliefs or opinions. They also can see what is currently popular
and follow the social norms themselves [49].
SQA websites are systems where the users post their questions,
which are answered and also rated by the users of the site. The
best reply to the question is usually a solution, which has the
highest rating. Gazan’s study (2011) on Social Q&A sites showed
that the aggregate opinion of a large number of individuals
represents relative information quality [31].
This indicates that trust in the information on computer-
mediated communication (CMC) is consensus-dependent.
Factors such as enjoyment, self-efficacy, learning, personal gain,
altruism, empathy, social engagement, community interest,
reciprocity, and reputation encourage users to share information
on Facebook [50]. People have a natural tendency to trust, which
influences trust in the source of information and therefore in the
information itself [46]. If people consider that others are more
dg.o 2017,June 2017, Staten Island, NY
G.Gadgil et al.

trustful of other people in general, then they are more likely to impression motivation and the intended SNS image. Thus,
believe and accept the information they receive on CMC. This Visibility Awareness is defined as the knowledge that users have
implies that the believability of the information in a CMC has a of future employers and school authorities looking into their
correlation with social trust [39]. SNS profile, which will impact their impression motivation and
The theoretical model in this paper will use the construct of subsequently their behavior, which is reflected in the way that
impression motivation and trust in digital information to explain they construct their SNS profiles.
the online behavior of the users on social networking websites.
We posit that the higher the SNS visibility indicator, the higher
3 CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND HYPOTHESIS the SNS visibility awareness. Also, the higher the SNS
information currency, the higher the visibility awareness.
The conceptual model for this research is constructed on the
framework of Impression Management and trust in digital
3.4 Technology Awareness
information.
SNS allow privacy settings, which allows the user to either hide
3.1 SNS Visibility Indicator or display their content to other users selectively. On the one
hand, the users may have their friends and family on their
Leary and Kowalski (1990) reported that people engage in
friend's list, and the user may choose not to hide content from
impression management when they perceive that for them to be
them. On the other hand, the user may be a member of a private
able to achieve specific goals of value to them, they need to
group within Facebook, where unwanted people may not be able
create a particular public impression for their target audience
to view this membership. The user may choose to upload content
from whom they expect to realize their aims. This is described as
and make it visible to some users while hiding the content from
goal relevance of impressions. For example, if a job applicant is
other users. Technology awareness is the users’ knowledge of
interviewing for two different jobs of which one is highly
the features like process ability of the media, and the privacy
desirable to the applicant compared to the other job, then the
setting features, which can impact the user in either a negative
candidate is motivated to engage in impression management
or positive manner as they use the SNS. Once a user uploads
with the interviewer. This is described as the value of desired
information to the Internet, it will always be there. A qualitative
goals [7]. Facebook users’ behavior on Facebook will be
study of users using instant messenger on SNS showed that
influenced by their awareness of who is viewing their Facebook
attitudes towards privacy and impression management, when
profile. Facebook visibility indicator measures the awareness of
mediated by technology, translates into social interactions [26].
the user that their Facebook profile is visible to various
It is theorized that this technology awareness will influence the
audiences that may impact their goal relevance and the value of
impression motivation that leads to the user’s online behavior on
their desired goals.
SNS.
We hypothesize that visibility indicator and time sensitivity of
information updated on SNS will impact visibility awareness.
3.5 Impression Motivation
3.2 SNS Information Currency According to Jones and Pittman (1982), Self-promotion occurs
when individuals seek to be viewed as competent by touting
Currency plays an important role in Facebook features such as
their abilities and accomplishments [35]. People will engage in
status updates. Sometimes status updates posted ten minutes
impression management by adopting behaviors that will use to
ago are perceived as ‘old information.' For relevant topics of
control the images that others have of them [54]. To achieve
interest, people tend to believe information based on the
impressions on the target audience, "people will use bargaining,
currency of the time stamp indicating when the information was
reasoning, friendliness, assertiveness, coalitions, and other
posted. For example, services offered in a particular outlet could
strategies to influence the decisions or behaviors of their
be time sensitive. If a user posts that the service is of superior
colleagues, superiors, or subordinates [40]. Bolino and Turnley
quality, people tend to look at the time stamp to make decisions
(1999) developed a scale to measure employee impression
on whether to trust that information. This relates to people’s
management behaviors based on the taxonomy proposed by
perception of the trustworthiness of the information based on
Jones and Pittman [20]. This research adapts the self-promotion
the currency of the information. This research supports the use
as described by the ‘Bolino Turnley scale' to define Impression
of items from Bailey and Pearson’s scale to measure Information
motivation in the context of the impression management on
currency [18].
social networking sites.
3.3 Visibility Awareness: It is theorized that Facebook Impression Motivation is made up
of Facebook Visibility Indicator, Visibility Awareness and
It is theorized that if students are aware that prospective Technology Awareness. We posit that higher the visibility
employers use Facebook profiles to screen candidates during the awareness, will result in higher levels of impression motivation.
recruitment process, and school authorities use information We also posit that higher technology awareness, will in
uploaded on the Facebook as evidence leading to disciplinary impression motivation.
actions against students, it will influence the individual's
3.6 SNS Information Quality
Bailey & Pearson (1983) developed a scale to measure and
analyze computer user satisfaction [18]. This research support
the use of the Bailey and Pearson scale to define and measure the
below described dimensions of trustworthiness namely
information accuracy, believability, objectivity, currency, and
reliability.
SNS information quality is defined as a combination of
information accuracy, information reliability, and information
believability.
3.6.1 SNS Information Accuracy
It is theorized that people develop a sense of trust in the
information they assimilate from the Facebook users when they
think that the information they perceive is correct, consistent,
efficient and sufficient. This links to the trust in the source of
information, how much trust they have in the source to give
them accurate information. This research suggests the use of
items from Bailey and Pearson's scale to measure Information
accuracy [18].
3.6.2 SNS information Reliability
It is theorized that the trust in the information people developed
from information assimilated from SNS is also a combination of
assurance which is a cumulative effect of whether they find the
information appropriate, reliable, and superior and whether they
can sufficiently depend on that information for their need. This
research believes items from Bailey and Pearson's scale are
appropriate to measure Information reliability [18].
3.6.3 SNS information Believability about making that impression. An intended SNS image is the
It is defined as the trust the user feel for the information
received from the Facebook on whether the information seems
credible versus of questionable credibility, is necessarily
believable versus unbelievable and if they find that information
trustable. This study suggests the use of items from Bailey and
Pearson's scale to measure Information believability [18].
3.7 SNS information Objectivity
All the information posted on the Facebook is not relevant to the
user assimilating information from the posts he reads there.
Objectivity is measured based on whether the information of
interest relies on facts, and is reasonably objective, impartial, and
applicable. This study suggests the use of items from Bailey and
Pearson’s scale to measure Information accuracy [18].
3.8 SNS Information Trustworthiness
It is hypothesized that people use social networking sites like
Facebook to primarily share a spectrum of information, which
they encounter in their personal lives. They upload this
information in the form of status updates, pictures, and wall
posts. Over a period of time, people unconsciously use the
information that they have assimilated from Facebook, and
experience it to be somewhat accurate and relevant to their
needs, thereby perceiving the usefulness of the information.
They tend to believe and rely more and more on information
they assimilate from Facebook. This, in turn, influences their
information behavior on SNS in a collaborative manner. For
example, a user who has visited a restaurant after reading a
review posted by a friend on a Facebook wall post, determine the
report to be accurate, and want to reciprocate by uploading other
useful information to Facebook. This study has proposed the use
of items from the scale developed by Jean, Rieh, Yakel, & Markey
(2011) to measure Facebook information trustworthiness [64].
SNS Information Trustworthiness is the combination of SNS
information quality, SNS information objectivity, and SNS
information relevance. SNS information trustworthiness is a
formative construct consisting of the underlying components
SNS information quality, SNS information objectivity, and SNS
information relevance.
3.9 SNS Information Relevance
The relevance of the information received from Facebook is
measured regarding whether Facebook is a medium where the
user can look for information the user feels is relevant, clear, and
appropriate, and whether expectancy of the user is met by
Facebook as the source of specific information of relevance.
3.10 Impression Construction: (Intended SNS
Image)
Intended Image is the adaptation of Impression Construction.
Given that a person is motivated to create an impression on the
target audience, perhaps a prospective life partner or a future
employer, the tasks now are to determine exactly what
impression one wants to make. and choosing how one will go
intended online image an individual will want to create using his
SNS profile. The three dimensions of intended image are self-
concept, Identity images, and target values. Self-concept is
defined as the self-image as perceived by the individual. Self-
concept is affected not only by how people think they are but
also by how they would like to be or not be. Identity image is
defined as the image a person identifies with and wants to
project to the targeted audience. Target values are defined as the
individual’s perception of the values and preferences of the
target audience. People tailor their public images to the
perceived values and preferences of the people they want to
impress. This research supports the use of the impression
management scale proposed by Jung et al. (2007) to measure the
behavior on social networking sites [36]. This study also uses a
developmental scale to measure impression construction.
Consistent with the theoretical model we also posit that
• The higher the SNS information quality, the higher the SNS
information trustworthiness will be
• The higher the SNS information objectivity, the higher the
SNS information trustworthiness will be
• The higher the SNS information relevance, the higher the
SNS information trustworthiness will be
• The higher the impression motivation, the higher the
impression construction will be
• The higher the SNS information trustworthiness, the higher
dg.o 2017, June 2017, Staten Island, NY
the impression construction will be
• There exists a correlation between ‘Impression motivation’
and ‘Impression Construction’
• There exists a correlation between ‘SNS information
trustworthiness’ and ‘Facebook impression construction’
4 Research Model
5 Discussion and Implications
To investigate our hypotheses, we administered our survey
instrument electronically to undergraduate and graduate
students at a large southwestern university and data was
collected. Data was collected and 511 usable responses were
obtained and analyzed using SmartPLS 2.0. The results indicated
that all the hypotheses are supported at the .01 level because of
the observed significance of the relationship and directionality of
the sign of each path coefficient within the structural model.
Thus, this study analyzed the factors that affect student's online
behavior on social networking sites. Online behavior is not only
the reflection of the profile creator’s true personality, but it can
also be orchestrated based on the desired goals. values, and
target audience upon whom the profile creator wishes to create
impressions. The phrase ‘beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder'
seems to suit this phenomenon, where the impression creator
tries to build an impression by modifying his/her behavior
online, while on another end the target audience, who can either
believe the impression or discard it, seems to depend on the SNS
information trust that has been explored as the second side of
the same coin. The impression creator has attempted to create
the impression by suitably modifying the behavior pattern.
When the target audience believes the impression created by
SNS information, this reinforces the creator’s motivation to
continue impression management. SNS information trust is thus
one of the predictors of online behavior. This study has proposed
and tested a model to structurally examine the interrelationships
among the constructs to better understand the online behavior of
Facebook users, which is explained by Impression Management
Theory. The value of positing such a model is to help describe
the behavior, which is influenced by motivation and allows
testing to either confirm or suggest modifications of the
framework. In future research, we will use this framework to
G.Gadgil et al.
operationalize and test the perceived realities regarding resonant
and discordant perceived reality of the target audience.
Perceived realities for the target audience, in turn, influence how
they are motivated to engage in impression management. The
framework provides value by breaking down a complex social
process in sucessive stages to understand complex human
behavior in an online platform.
6 Limitations and Suggestion for Future
Research:
This research describes one facet of impression management.
This focus of the work was the online behavior of Facebook
users, which is operationalized on their Facebook profiles. The
work describes the factors that influence this online behavior.
Future research can test the model and investigate this aspect of
Impression Management Theory in the context of Facebook
online behavior.
This research also examined the student's viewpoint and has
tried to extend Impression Management Theory to analyze
students’ online behavior on social networking sites. There has
not been much research done to determine the factors picked up
from their prospective candidate's SNS profile that employers
take into consideration while making their recruitment
decisions. Also, this work has considered only two target
audiences: friends, and prospective employers. The author of
this paper acknowledges this as one of the limitations and will
consider more dimensions on the target audience in future
research efforts.
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