66
Improved Respiratory Muscle Endurance of Highly Trained
Cyclists and the Effects on Maximal Exercise Performance
M. S. Fairbarn, K. C. Coutis, R. L. Pardy, D. C. McKenzie
Departments of Sports Science & Family Practice and Pulmonary Research Laboratory,
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
Abstract
M S. Fairbarn, K. C. Coutts, R. L. Pardy, D.
C. McKenzie, Improved Respiratory Muscle Endurance of
Highly Trained Cyclists and the Effects on Maximal Exer-
cise Performance. mt J Sports Med, Vol 12, No 1, pp 66—70,
1991.
Accepted: April 20, 1990
Insufficient respiratory muscle endurance
(RME) may be one of the factors limiting ventilation during
peak athletic performance. Our purpose was to determine
whether the RME of highly trained cyclists could be en-
hanced and if so, to determine the effects of improved RME
on their maximal exercise performance. Ten male cyclists
(maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) > 60 mlkg 5
began the study by peforming 3 tests. These were VO2max,
RME measured as maximal sustainable ventilatory capac-
ity (MSVC) and maximal exercise endurance (tlim)
measured by an endurance cycling test to exhaustion at
90% of their maximal power output. Five subjects then
completed 4 weeks of isocapnic hyperpnea training (16 ses-
sion) and 5 subjects were controls. Following this training
interval, each subject repeated the initial tests. After the
RME training, the MSVC increased from 155 11 to
174 12 1/mm (p = 0.004) for the training subjects while
there was no change in the controls (155 26 and 150 34
1/mm). There were no changes for any of the 10 subjects in
either the maximal exercise performance (VO2max =
66.1 4.7 to 66.5 4.8 mlkg 5 or the maximal exercise
endurance (tlim=335±79 to 385± 158 see). In conclu-
sion, 4 weeks of respiratory muscle endurance training in-
creased respiratory muscle endurance but had no effect on
the maximal cycling performance of highly trained cyclists.
Key words
respiratory muscles, endurance, maximal
oxygen consumption, maximal sustained ventilatory ca-
pacity
tnt. J. Sports Med. 12(1991)66—70
GeorgThieme Verlag Stuttgart New York
Indroduction
Exercise scientists generally have not thought
that the ventilatory system was a limiting factor to peak athletic
performance. However, respiratory muscle fatigue has been
demonstrated following both voluntary hyperpnea (1) and
Downloaded by: University of British Columbia. Copyrighted material.
marathon running in normal humans (9). Exercise perform-
ance decreased following a long-term hyperpnea regimen
which caused respiratory muscle fatigue (10), and maximal
ventilation decreased following 60 minutes of exhausting ex-
ercise (3). Theoretically then, it is possible that the ventilatory
system might contribute to exercise limitation during very in-
tense exercise where high minute ventilation is maintained.
The significance of hypoventilation during intense exercise
was demonstrated during a study (5) where athletes breathing
air while running on a treadmill developed hypoxemia, but
when the exercise was repeated breathing a HE:02 mixture,
they had higher minute ventilation and the hypoxemia was
preveted. If respiratory muscle fatigue does indeed contribute
to such activities, respiratory training could hypothetically re-
sult in improved exercise performance (15).
There is good evidence that respiratory muscle
endurance can indeed be increased in normal humans. This
has been achieved both by an intense exercise running pro-
gram (13) and by specific voluntary hyperpnea training of the
respiratory muscles (2, 6, 8, 12). In two of these studie, the ef-
fects of the increased respiratory muscle endurance on exer-
cise performance was examined. In both the normal elderly (2)
and moderately trained athletes (12), there was no effect of the
increased respiratory muscle endurance on exercise perform-
ance. To date, there have been no studies to examine whether
or not the respiratory muscle endurance of highly trained ath-
letes can be improved by specific respiratory muscle hyper-
pnea training. Furthermore, it is not known whether exercise
performance in such individuals is improved by specific re-
spiratory muscle training.
Thus, the first purpose of this study was to train
the respiratory muscles of highly trained endurance athletes
(cyclists) using a protocol that mimicked the high ventilation
achieved in exercise. The second purpose of this study was to
determine the effects of respiratory muscle endurance training
on exercise performance.
Methods and Procedures
Ten well-trained male cyclists volunteered for
this study. The three criteria for inclusion in the study were:
ImprovedRespiratory Muscle Endurance of Highly Trained Cyclists and the Effects
maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) greater than 60
mlkg 1min normal values for spirometry, and an active par-
ticipation in cycling events. Since the subjects were known to
be highly fit athletes and both the experimental and control
subjects were matched for fitness, quantifying the amount of
aerobic training during this study was not included in the pro-
tocol. However, subjects were asked to report any substantial
changes in their cycling training. In addition, testing of all sub-
jects was completed while the cycling competitions were being
held on a regular schedule. Informed consent was obtained
from each subject. Five subjects were assigned to the training
group and five to the control group. The three tests used to
evaluate the effect of the isocapnic hyperpnea training were:
the maximal sustainable ventilatory capacity test (MSVC), a
maximal incremental cycle ergometer test, and an endurance
cycle test at 90% of the maximal power during the VO2max
test. Each of these tests was performed by all subjects both
before and after the four-week training period for the experi-
mental subjects. Subjects continued their regular aerobic
training programs and were required to record the number of
kilometers per week that they cycled.
Maximal Incremental Cycle Test
The initial maximal incremental cycle test was
used both to ensure that subjects had a VO2max greater than 60
mlkg — min1 and to measure maximal exercise ventilation
(VEmax). The test following training was an index of whether
the aerobic fitness of the subjects had changed during the pro-
ject as well as a measure of the effectiveness of the isocapnic
hyperpnea training. The incremental cycle test was performed
on an electronically braked cycle ergometer (Mijnhardt, Hol-
land) using a ramp protocol beginning at 0 watts and increas-
ing by 30 watts per minute. Expired gas was measured and ana-
lyzed by either a Medical Graphics system with the associated
2001 software package or with a separate system consisting of
oxygen and C02 analyzers (Beckman OM 11, LB2,FulJerton,
CA), and a heated pneumotachograph (Fleisch, Switzerland)
to calculate minute ventilation. Each of the analysers were Ca-
librated with air and calibration gases before and after each
test. Data was processed on-line by an IBM microcomputer.
Heart rate (HR) was recorded using direct lead ECG
(Lifepack 6, Physio Control Canada, Agincourt, Ontario).
Criteria for attaining VO2max was a plateau in V02 with an in-
creased workload, a respiratory exchange ratio greater than
1.15, and HR greater than 180 beats per minute (90% pre-
dicted maximum heart rate).
Maximum Sustained Ventilatory Capacity
(MSVC)
The MSVC test was used to measure respir-
atory muscle endurance; this was determined by measuring
the maximum ventilation the subjects could sustain for 10
minutes (2). As a warm up to the test, the subjects breathed on
the ventilatory endurance apparatus (see below) for two
minutes at 50% of their maximal exercise ventilation (VEmax)
followed by one minute of rest. During the first two minutes of
the test the air flow was gradually increased from the warm-up
level to the maximum ventilation that the subjects could
tolerate for the next 8 minutes. To ensure the baseline MSVC
values were maximal, the test was peformed by each subject
until two tests, separated by 48 hours, were within 5% of each
Int.J.SportsMed. 12 (1991) 67
P
A - Pump
B — Air Plow Meter
C — Mixing Chember
D— CO2 Cylinder
H Spirometer 9 I
F — Aneathnit Bag 5 I
o — ln.pired Gag Analyzer
H • 2—way Valve & Mouthpiece
I — Pneumotachograph
I — Expired On Analyzore
K — Microcomputer
Downloaded by: University of British Columbia. Copyrighted material.
Fig. 1 Ventilatory endurance apparatus for respiratory muscle en-
durance testing and training. Arrows indicate direction of airflow.
other. The mean ventilation reached during the last eight
minutes of the highest test was the baseline measurement.
Ventilatory Endurance Apparatus
The ventilatory endurance apparatus (Fig. 1)
was designed to allow isocapnic hyperpnea for both testing
and training the endurance of the respiratory muscles. On the
inspired side of the circuit, a vacuum pump (Bodine Electric,
Chicago, IL) supplied a variable air flow which passed
through an air flow meter (Vacumetrics, Ventrua, CA) and
then into a 13.5-litre mixing chamber. 100% CO2 was added at
the rate of 3.4 to 4.25 1/mm to maintain the fractional concen-
tration of mixed expired C02 (FECO2) at each subject's pre-
determined resting level. A 9-liter Respirometer (Collins, Bos-
ton, MA) provided the visual reference for the target ventila-
tion for the subject. The subject was instructed to keep a mark
on the bell of the respirometer below the water reservoir level.
A 5-litre anesthesia bag was included on the inspired side of
the system to provide a dampening effect. Distal to this bag
was a sampling tube connected to a CO2 analyzer (Medical
Graphics, St. Paul, MN) to measure the fractional concen-
tration of inspired C02 (FICO2). The subject breathed
through a low-resistance 2-way valve (Hans Rudolph K.C.,
MO) and the expired gas passed through a heated pneumota-
chograph (Model 3 Fleisch, Switzerland) to calculate minute
ventilation. A temperature gauge recorded expired gas tem-
perature. Ventilation was processed on line by an IBM micro-
computer (Armonk, N. Y.). The gas analyzer was calibrated
using air and calibration gas before each test. The pneumota-
chograph was calibrated at the maximum volume of 230 1/mm
as measured by air flow meter. The resistance of the circuit was
0.035cm H2O/l/min.
Endurance Cycle Test
Each subject performed a cycle ride to exhaus-
tion at a power which represented 90% of the maximum work
rate previously achieved during the incremental cycle test. The
purpose fo the endurance cycle test was to simulate a competi-
 mt. J. Sports Med. 12 (1991) M. S. Fairbarn, K. C. Coutts, R. L. Pardy, D. C. McKenzie

Table 1 Anthropometric Data for 10 Subjects 200

(Mean SD)
Experimental Control 80
(n=5) (n=5) 'I
Height (cm) 174 178
E 160
7.7 3.8
Weight (kg) 69 73 0
6.2 6.8 so
140
Age (yr) 22 23 0s
>
2.7 4.0
FVC (liters) 5.5 5.7
120
0.9 0.7
FEy1 (liters) 4.4 4.8
0.3 0.6 A

MVV12 (1/mm) 206 215 2 4 6 8 10

15 20 time (mm)

FVC = Forced vital capacity

FEV1 = Forced expiratory volume in one second Pre-Exp. — — Pre-Con. Post.-Exp. -. A Post-Con.
(n—SI (n..5( (n5) (n5(
MW12 = Maximal voluntary ventilation in 12 seconds.
Fig. 2 Mean ventilation for each minute during the MSVC test for

Downloaded by: University of British Columbia. Copyrighted material.

tive cycle ride while standardizing the external environment.
Previous experience in this laboratory with similar subjects
has shown that the approximate time for a test at this work level
is from 6 to 10 minutes, a duration similar to the MSVC test and
isocapnic hyperpnea training times. Following a 3-minute
warm-up, resistance was increased over 10 seconds until the
predetermined work rate was attained. From this point, ex-
pired minute ventilation (VEtlim) was recorded as well as the
time to exhaustion (tlim). The criterion for the end of the test
was the inability to maintain the minimum pedal frequency of
60 rpm for 3 consecutive revolutions. Subjects were not aware
of the elapsed time.
Pulmonary Function Tests
both the experimental and control groups pre- and post-training pe-
riod. The mean of the last 8 minutes of the MSVC was greater for the
experimental group (—A—) post training.
the eighth training session, the duration of both the work and
rest intervals was increased to 10 minutes each.
Statistical Analysis
Analysis of variance was used to test the simi-
larity of the experimental and control groups prior to respir-
atory muscle endurance training for the following variables:
age, height, weight, FYC, FEVi, MVV12, MSVC, VO2max,
VEmax, tlim, and VEthm.

Pulmonary function tests were performed to
ensure normal spirometry of the subjects. Forced vital capac-
ity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in one second (FEVi),
and maximal voluntary ventilation in 12 seconds (M\TV12)
were measured and analyzed using the Medical Graphics
computerized spirometer system (St. Paul, MN) with the as-
sociated 1070 software package.
To determine the effects of the respiratory
muscle endurance training, the mean group pre- and post-
training differences were tested by multiple analysis of vari-
ance for the variables in the following groups:
1. Pulmonary functions: FVC, FEY1, MYV
2. Maximal aerobic capacity test: VO2max, VEmax
3. Endurance cycle test: turn, VEtlim.

Respiratory Muscle Endurance Training
Protocol
To improve the endurance performance of the
respiratory muscles, a volume overload technique, isocapnic
hyperpnea, was selected. The subjects attended three or four
training sessions per week for a total of 16 sessions. Each ses-
sion consisted of three 8-minute work intervals of isocapnic
hyperpnea alternated with 8-minute intervals of rest. The
training overload was a combination of increasing both venti-
lation and duration of the work intervals. Initially, the target
ventilation for each work interval was the ventilation each sub-
ject achieved during the initail MSVC test with the remainder
of each training session at the maximum tolerable ventilation.
Progressively, the subjects were able to maintain this target
ventilation for each of the three work intervals. To provide a
training stimulus, the target ventilation was then increased to a
level that could only be maintained for the first work interval
of a training session and the subject's new goal was to maintain
this larger ventilation for all three work intervals. Following
Analysis of variance was used to determine the
significance of the difference in the MSVC test between the
groups. The data analysis was performed using the statistical
package, SYSTAT, version 4 (16). The level of significance for
each test was P <0.05. Data are expressed as mean SD.
Results
All 10 cyclists completed the study and main-
tained the same average number of kilometers cycled per week
(range 125—500) throughout the study. Prior to the isocapnic
hyperpnea training period, there were no differences between
the training and control groups for any of the variables studied
(Tables 1 & 2).
Following 16 training sessions, the experimen-
tal group demonstrated a significant increase in respiratory
muscle endurance. The ventilation during the MSVC test in-
creased from 155.4± 11.2 to 173.9± 11.6 1/mm, p=0.OO4.
The control groups values were not different (155.1 and
ImprovedRespiratory Muscle Endurance of Highly Trained Cyclists and the Effects mt. J. Sports Med. 12(1991) 69

Table 2 Pre- and Post-Training Exercise Variables

(Mean SD)
Control Experimental
(n=5) (n=5)
Pre-train Post-train Pre-train Post-train

VO2max 68.0 67.1 64.2 65.8

(mI'kg 1min) 6.6 5.8 1.9 4.8
VEmax 171.4 167.5 177.0 177.1
(I/mm) 35.5 21.6 12.6
VEtlim 174.0 176.3 176.0 178.5
(I/mm) 29.2 26.8 19.3
turn 328.6 342.4 427.8
(seconds) 99.0 79.6 74.9

VO2max = Maximal oxygen consumption

MSVC flaX VEttim VEmax Maximal ventilation during VO2max test
FnaCon, EJ PoatCon. VEtlim = Maximal ventilation during endurance cycle test
Froop. Poat•Ex9.
tlim=Time to exhaustion (endurance cycle test).

Fig. 3 Ventilation for each of the three tests: MSVC (maximal sus-
tainable ventilatory capacity test), VEmax (maximal incremental

Downloaded by: University of British Columbia. Copyrighted material.

cycle test), VEtlim (endurance cycle test). Experimental subjects in-
creased MSVC post training ( p=O.OO4). No other changes.
149.5 34 liters) following the four week interval (Fig. 2).
There were no differences in the maximal minute ventilations
in the incremental and endurance cycle tests either between
the 2 groups of subjects before or after training (Fig. 3).
The results of the post-training test showed that
there were no differences in any of the variables measured
during the exercise tests for either the experimental or control
groups (Table 2).
Discussion
This study demonstrates that 16 training ses-
sions of isocapnic hyperpnea increased the respiratory muscle
endurance of highly trained cyclists. The five experimental
subjects were able to increase their maximal sustained ventila-
tory capacity by 12%, demonstrating that their respiratory
muscle endurance was not maximal as a result of their regular
cardiovascular training programs. Since the control subjects
did not increase their respiratory muscle endurance, we can as-
sume the increase for the experimental subjects was due to the
mean age of the subjects of the Belman and Gaesser (2) study
was 67 years and the ventialtions during the MSVC were only
62—64%oftheMVVt 2, while the pre-training value for the sub-
jects in the present study was 75% of their MVVi 2. Morgan (12)
reported a 1 7-fold increase in respiratory muscle endurance in
4 subjects whose VO2max was the nearest to that of our sub-
jects (51 vs 66 mFkg min , but the test of respiratory
muscle endurance they used was not comparable to the MSVC
used in the present study.
Although the MSVC increased with specific
respiratory muscle training, there was no change in maximal
ventilation during either the incremental or the endurance
cycle tests in our study. One potential explanation for the lack
of a carryover effect for the voluntary hyperpnea of training to
the involuntary hyperventilation of exercise was that the
breathing patterns were different. Klass and Dempsey (7)
showed that the end-expiratory lung volume was higher
during the voluntary hyperpnea tests compared to exercise at a
similar ventilation. We did not measure end-expiratory lung
volume, but the breathing pattern seen at VEmax during the
voluntary hyperpnea (tidal volume [VT] 2,56 0.2 1, respi-
ratory rate [RR] 62±3 breathjmin) in the pretraining
MSVC test was different from the breathing pattern seen at
VEmax during the exercise tests (VT = 3.46 0.6 1,

respiratory muscle training. It has previously been established
that athletes involved in sports requiring a high degree of aero-
bic fitness have greater respiratory muscle endurance than
non-athletes (11), but the present study illustrates that the res-
piratory muscle endurance of highly trained athletes may still
be influenced by training programs designed specifically for
these muscles.
The 12% increase in MSVC in this study is not
as large an increase as demonstrated by other studies (2, 6, 8,
12). Some of this difference can be explained by the higher in-
itial MSVC of our athletic subjects. Leith and Bradley (8) re-
ported an increase of 21 %, but the endurance breathing test
(SVC) they used was a composite of 8 to 10 points of different
levels of ventilation against time and therefore not strictly
comparable to the MSVC used in this study. The greater im-
provement reported in the study by Keens et al (6) was possibly
because their subjects (age 28.3 2.6 yr) had 30 training
sessions compared to 16 for the subjects in this study. The
RR 54 7 breaths/mm). At the end of the training sessions
we found that the breathing pattern during the MSVC
(VT = 3.4 0.21, RR = 53 3 breaths/mm) had become al-
most identical to that found at VEmax in the incremental exer-
cise test. We therefore speculate that it is unlikely that the dif-
ferences in breathing pattern during the training compared to
the exercise tests would explain the fact that maximum ventila-
tion did not change after training in either the incremental or
endurance cycle tests. Our study would support the notion that
ventilatory factors do not contribute to exercise limitation in
highly trained athletes.
The VO2max of our subjects did not change
following hyperpnea training, and these results are consistent
with the studies of Morgan et al (12) and Belman and Gaesser
(2). To increase the VO2max, it would be necessary to increase
the amount of oxygen available to the working muscles, and
this can be accomplished by increasing the cardiac output
and/or the systemic arteriovenous oxygen difference. The
70 mt. J. Sports Med. 12 (1991)
best exercise necessary to effect these changes would be activ-
ities which require rhythmic contractions of large muscle
groups, and VO2max would most likely improve as a result of
increased cardiac output (4). Since respiratory muscle training
involves a small group of muscles, there is no reason to antici-
pate an adaptation in the central circulatory response to exer-
cise unless the respiratory muscles become so efficient after
training that their oxygen consumption at any level of ventila-
tion decreases substantially. Under these circumstances, there
might be more oxygen available to the exercising limb muscles
(1, 15). It is apparent from this study that such theoretical con-
siderations did not apply since VEmax and VO2max in exer-
cise did not change with training. Also, these results support
Weibel and Kayar's (14) concept that each component in the
system responsible for oxygen delivery or oxygen utilization
develops simultaneously. Consequently, adaptation of the
respiratory muscles is ineffective without the concomitent
adaptations in other components of the oxygen delivery sys-
tem.
There were no significant changes in the en-
durance cycling test measurements and again these results are
similar to the study of Morgan et al (12). Although the tlim ap-
peared to increase by 86 seconds (from 342 to 428 226
seconds) in the experimental subjects in this study, these re-
sults were affected by one subject whose dim increased for 459
to 801 seconds. Since this subject's V02 and VEtlim during the
endurance cycle test were very similar to the VO2max and
VEmax during the maximal incremental test, perhaps other
variables such as motivation or buffering capacity may have
been responsible for this individual's variability in the tlim.
Neither oxygen consumption of the respir-
atory muscles nor respiratory muscle fatigue were measured
during this study. Under ideal circumstances, measuring these
two variables during a hyperpnea training protocol would pro-
vide information on the intensity and duration of training ne-
cessary to effect metabolic adaptation of the respiratory
muscles.
In conclusion, four weeks of isocapnic hyper-
pnea exercise increased the respiratory muscle endurance of
five highlytrained male cyclists, but did not effect a change in
maximal exercise ventilation or performance.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank the subjects for their time
and effort and also to thank Joe Comeau for his technical assistance.
M. S. Fairbarn, K. C. Coutts, R. L. Pardy, D. C. McKenzie
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M S. Fairbarn
Pulmonary Research Laboratory
St. Paul's Hospital
1081 BurrardSt.
Vancouver, B. C., Canada
V6K 1Y6