Public Administration: Journal of

Journal of
Public Administration
Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015
JOPA
JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
South Africa
Tel: +27 12 382 9769/ 9255 Fax: +27 12 382 9042
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Chief Editor and Chairperson
Prof M H Maserumule, Tshwane University of Technology
Deputy Editor
Prof K Phago, University of Limpopo
Book Review Editor
Dr O Nzewi, University of Fort Hare
Policy Review Editor
Prof F M Lucky Mathebula, South African Association of Public Administration and Management
Copy Editor
Lynne Southey
Executive Director
Prof T Khalo, South African Association of Public Administration and Management
MEMBERS
Prof B C Mubangizi, University of Kwa-Zulu-Natal
Prof M J D Matshabaphala, University of Witwatersrand
Prof D M Mello, North-West University
Prof K J Maphunye, University of South Africa
Prof Z Mpehle, University of Limpopo
Prof M Ndletyana, University of Johannesburg
Prof M J Mafunisa, University of Venda
Prof C Hofisi, Vaal University of Technology
Dr L Ntonzima, Cape Peninsula University of Technology
Dr V Naidoo, University of Cape Town
EDITORIAL BOARD
Prof S Vil-Nkomo, University of Pretoria
Prof K Kondlo, University of Johannesburg
Prof S R Malefane, University of South Africa
Prof D Rich, University of Delaware
Prof M Aristigueta, University of Delaware
Prof B Basheka, Uganda Technology & Management University
Prof L Mollo, Department of International Relations and Cooperation
Dr Pan S Kim of Korea, Yonsei University, Kangwon-Korea
Dr I Kabumba, African Association for Public Administration and Management
Prof E O C Ijeoma, School of Public Management and Development, University of Fort Hare
Prof K B Moeti, Tshwane University of Technology
Prof T Potgieter, National School of Government
Prof P FritzGerald, University of Witwatersrand
Prof B Hanyane, North-West University
Prof M H Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council
Prof S Binza, Cape Peninsula University of Technology
Prof Y Penceliah, University of Kwazulu-Natal
Prof N Nkuna, University of Limpopo
Dr K I Theletsane, University of Stellenbosch
Prof G Zhou, University of Zimbabwe
Prof P Haruna, Texas A & M International University
©2015, SAAPAM
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s funders or sponsors.
ISSN: 0036-0767
The Journal of Public Administration is accredited with the South African Department of Higher Education and Training,
and International Bibliography of the Social Sciences.
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Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015

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Public Administration.

Contents
420 Editorial
Building a Humanitarian Public Service Imbued with
Strong Ethics and Values:
In Honour of Great Leaders of Our Time
Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo
423 Exemplar Profile

In Conversation with Professor Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo:
Recipient of the South African Association of Public Administration
and Management's Highest Honour
Mashupye H Maserumule and FM Lucky Mathebula
439 Science of Public Administration:

Critiquing the Past, Recognising the Present and Imagining the Future
Mashupye H Maserumule and Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo
466 Indigenous Africa’s Governance Architecture:

A Need for African Public Administration Theory?
Benon C Basheka
485 Meaning and Significance of Conscience and Consciousness

in Public Leadership in the Post-1994 South Africa
Kwandiwe Kondlo
496 Leadership and Good Governance in the Public Service:

Lessons from African Philosophy
Manamela DJ Matshabaphala
505 Martin and Mandela:

Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal
Leland Ware
522 The Transformation of Violence to Peace:

Sketches of Leadership Skills That Matter
Berhanu Mengistu and Stephanie J Menefee

532 World Affairs and South Africa:
Country Rankings
Jonathan Story
549 Class Dynamics and State Transformation in South Africa

Joel Netshitenzhe
562 State Attributes:

South Africa as a Declaratory Developmental State Through Diktat?
Chris Landsberg
578 Public Service By, Of and For the Public

Barry Gilder
589 Administrative Culture of the South African Public Service:

A Finity of Transformation
William Gumede
600 Defining, Designing and Delivering Induction Training in the

South African Public Service
Thean Potgieter and Fran Greyling

Editorial
Building a Humanitarian Public Service Imbued
with Strong Ethics and Values: In Honour of
Great Leaders of Our Time
Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo
Guest Editor
University of Pretoria
Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection (MISTRA)
This September edition of the Journal of other asks the question of whether South
Public Administration is a collection of art Africa is a developmental state. In situating
icles that reflect and close an era of the South Africa in world affairs, a question is
great public servants of our time. It chal- asked in the article that follows those on
lenges future generations to take the baton state transformation: are country rankings
of humanitarianism and make it a reality neo-liberal tools or perceptions? Against the
for service delivery, human development, context set by all these articles, a humanitar-
responsible leadership and ethical behaviour ian public service is theorised in the analyses
in the conduct of public affairs. For reasons of the leadership traits of Martin Luther King
of context, the edition starts with an article Jr, Nelson Mandela and Mohandas Gandhi.
that asks an important question, which has The theorisation continues with a discourse
always been a firmament of the disciplinary on "public service by, of and for the public".
discourse: Is public administration a science? This is followed by an article on the criti-
This question is important in theorising cal analysis of the post-1994 administrative
humanitarian public service. A reflection on culture. Induction training is emphasised as
it is followed by an argument for African important to achieve a humanitarian public
public administration theory. Yet another service.
article that contextualises the thematic
thrust of this edition determines the mean- This edition is dedicated to the late Nelson
ing and significance of "conscience"' and Mandela, Albert Luthuli, Martin Luther King
`"consciousness" in public leadership. Follow- Jr, John Frederick Kennedy, Ralph Bunche,
ing this are articles on state transformation, Mohandas Gandhi, Mother Teresa and Dag
one focusing on class dynamics, while the Hammarskjold. All these personalities are
Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 420

Editorial: Building a Humanitarian Public Service Imbued with Strong Ethics and Values...
Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo
Nobel Peace Prize Recipients, because they because of the apartheid system. The inter-
served humanity with humility and dignity. national sanctions movement contributed
The edition was put together in memory of significantly to the demise of apartheid.
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela, of South Africa, Nowhere in the world were sanctions as
who died on 5 December 2013. In paying effective in bringing about the end of human
tribute to Mandela, the Executive Director inequality. The 1994 settlement ushered in
of the Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic democracy, which had not been experienced
Reflection (MISTRA), Joel Netshitenhze, in this country for almost three centuries.
wrote: "contained in the attributes he embed- As this was achieved, numerous inherited
ded in the South African psyche were the structural features remain intact within the
Gandhian quality for simple humaneness, South African economy. The South African
the Leninist tact in managing a revolution- economy remains a raw commodity depend-
ary moment of political authority changing ent exporting economy. The existence of
hands, and a Kennedian touch in making it abundant exploited cheap labour continues.
look so eminently reasonable". The monopolisation of the South African
economy by a few companies remains a
South Africa, in evolving into a democratic reality (even oligopolies struggle to exist).
developmental state, is fortunate to have had The establishment of small viable businesses
Mandela. This nation is deliberately defining remains a dream, because of the unrelent-
itself as such. Developmental states in Asia ing monopolies (government policy has
were not self-defined, but were given the title been very successful in breaking the major
by multi-lateral organisations. South Africa's monopolies). The inherited educational
quest, as a democratic developmental state, system continues to bedevil human capi-
allowed all South Africans to participate tal development and investment (unfortu-
in the development of a viable democracy. nately, the focus has been largely on wanting
Such an achievement would not only create to solve the school level of education and
opportunities for the nation, but would also far less on university education). The role
make all South Africans own and protect of the public service, in contributing to the
the political economy that belongs to all development of the South African political
of them. This would be consistent with the economy as an emerging market economy,
democratic political dispensation that was is not clearly articulated. In recent times, we
established on 27 April 1994, with Mandela have witnessed how public services, such as
as the first democratic president. The world in Greece, have to a certain extent contrib-
at large has cherished this achievement and uted to the demise of a nation's economy.
encouraged South Africans to continue with
this important journey of humanitarianism. Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace
Prize Laureate, sparked debates in the early
Prior to the democratic dispensation, South stages of democracy in South Africa on the
Africa was a beleaguered and pariah state, potential pitfalls of not respecting the public
421 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015

Editorial: Building a Humanitarian Public Service Imbued with Strong Ethics and Values...
Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo
or prudently utilising government revenue because both have had an impact on the
accumulated through taxation. The context publics of different nations. Can certain
of his observation was the increases in the ethics and values be infused in both to focus
salaries of public officials. He was vilified on the actual implementation of the notion
for cautioning against the dangers of the of Batho Pele or Ubuntu? Nobel Peace Recip-
potential existence of what he referred to ient and President of the United States of
as the "gravy train". It can be deduced that America, Barack Obama, eloquently engaged
the caution was overall about the frugal the notion of Ubuntu in his eulogy to the late
use of public financial resources. This has Nelson Mandela.
bedevilled the South African public sector
to the present period with the challenges of All these issues raised in this editorial are
bad governance, which could culminate in intended to encourage further thinking to
inefficient and ineffective service delivery advance the South African public service and
if not addressed. The world abounds with those of the world, to understand govern-
such challenges. The elements behind excel- ment versus markets, and analyse the chang-
lent service delivery are the ethos and values ing economic role of the state. As the global
that public servants must uphold at all times. political economy is reshaping itself, so
South Africa is confronted with these issues, must public services search for appropriate
as most countries in the world are. Success- approaches to humanitarian public services.
ful political economies are the result of As the Mapungubwe civilisation has aptly
good governance and visible participation demonstrated, as leaders become alienated
or operational citizenship. Against this back- from their citizens, the decay of societies
ground, the big question is: how do we estab- ensues, resulting in instability, hopeless-
lish humanitarian public services that con- ness and despair. These further encourage,
tribute to the existence of good governance, in some situations, the rise of dictatorships
growth and development? This question has and the emergence of bogus leaders who are
become more pertinent as nations are expe- unaccountable to the citizenry.
riencing largely negative economic growth
rates and their public services are struggling
to effectively and efficiently deliver services. NB: The Journal of Public Administration
What is obviously apparent is that the role uses the Harvard referencing system. Special
of the public sector remains paramount. permission to use the footnote system in this
Strong nation formation is related to the Edition was granted by the Chief Editor.
public sector significantly contributing to
the existence of strong political economies.
The lack of understanding of how the public

and private sectors collude at the expense of
the general public, requires interrogation,

Exemplar Profile
In Conversation with Professor Sibusiso
Vil-Nkomo: Recipient of the South African
Association of Public Administration and
Management’s Highest Honour
Mashupye H Maserumule
Chief Editor
FM Lucky Mathebula
Policy Editor
Introduction shapes the evolution of the discipline, both

as a science and as praxis. The fraternity
The Journal of Public Administration finds Vil-Nkomo's scholarship authoritative,
belongs to the South African Association while his contribution to the transformation
of Public Administration and Management of the public service remains an indelible
(SAAPAM) – the custodian of the fraternity. imprint on the history of the post-apartheid
Its pride lies in its thought leadership, as state. At the time of the award, Vil-Nkomo
demonstrated in the scholarship of its was part of the advisory board constituted
high-impact publication, as the bibliomet- by Minister Lindiwe Sisulu – who at the time
ric indicators show, and in its well-themed was leading the Department of Public Ser-
conferences hosted annually where, coupled vice and Administration (DPSA) – to assist
with the rigour of the discourses, excellence her in establishing the National School of
is recognised. In the 14th Annual Conference Government (NSG), a strategic initiative to
of SAAPAM, themed The path traversed –20 build the capacity of the state.
years of democracy in South Africa, a Life-
Time Achievement Award was presented This award could not have been given at
to Professor Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo for his a more appropriate time than when South
outstanding contribution and exemplary Africa was turning 20 years. Vil-Nkomo
leadership in the field of public administra- is one of the architects of our democracy,
tion. This is the highest honour the fraternity which is coming of age. Because of how
bestows on an individual whose contribution democracy fared in post-colonial Africa,

Exemplar Profile: In Conversation with Professor Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo...
some thought that South Africa, being the in sustaining its relevance in the 21st cen-
last country on the continent to achieve tury in Africa? What are the alternative
freedom from apartheid colonialism, would paradigms of knowledge for the discipline?
not be able to sustain the pursuit of a new In other words, as a science, what does
country. Afro-pessimists argued that South Public Administration seek to achieve? Can
Africa would go the same route as the rest it spawn "solutions to the myriads of prob-
of the continent – a narrative that charac- lems confronting African states and peo-
terises post-colonial African countries as ples?"1 The chief editor and policy editor of
failed states. Their false premonition is that the Journal followed-up on these questions
the future of Africa is bleak as the crisis of in a conversation with Vil-Nkomo, showing
governance is becoming increasingly intrac- the profundity of his insight on the science
table. The democratisation path traversed, and praxis of governance, which is repro-
and the extent to which subsequent democ- duced in its entirety below for the benefit
racy was consolidated, exposed Afro-pessi- of the fraternity. Perhaps before this, the
mist narratives on Africa as, in the words question that must be addressed is: who is
of Donaldo Macedo, a "pedagogy of big lies" Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo?
peddled through the modernisation theories
that still largely undergird the ontology of Alchemy of Excellence
the epistemology of public administration.
An analysis of his resum leads one to the
The 14 Annual Conference of SAAPAM,
th
conclusion that Vil-Nkomo is an alchemy of
hosted in conjunction with the University excellence. SAAPAM takes pride in its asso-
of Limpopo, was a moment for reflection ciation with him. By the way, Vil-Nkomo
on the democratic path traversed, especially is a very important factor in the history
as it relates to the question of governance. of SAAPAM. In other words, a history of
To contextualise the discussions this ques- this Association, which is yet to be writ-
tion was asked at the outset: how did South ten, would not be complete without him.
Africa come this far? The discussion on An international scholar par excellence,
this question necessarily historicised the Vil-Nkomo studied in the United States of
post-1994 South African state. Yet another America (USA), Lincoln University, Pennsyl-
important question at the thematic thrust vania (where he obtained a Bachelor of Arts
of the Conference was concerned with the Magna Cum Laude, majoring in Economics/
implication on public administration of the Public Affairs) and University of Delaware
20 years of democracy in South Africa. From (where he obtained a Master of Arts and
the perspective of governance as a science, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Public Affairs).
further questions were: what are the theo-
retical paradigms that disciplined the epis-
1
Uche, N. 2015. Coloniality and governance in
Africa in the twenty-first century: The challenge
temological evolution of the discipline? of public administration. Journal of Public Ad
What is the extent of their appropriateness ministration, 50(2): p. 191.

His dissertation received the Mark Haskell has become. The focus moved thereafter to
Political Economy Award. Vil-Nkomo taught, his political and scholarship consciousness.
and was associated with various universities We were curious to find out what attracted
and organisations in the USA. He has been him to anti-apartheid politics, to the extent
a researcher at the Brookings Institution that he left the country in protest against
Library, the World Bank, the International the system. Coming to the issue of scholar-
Monetary Fund Libraries and the Library of ship, we were more interested in his insight
Congress. Upon his return to South Africa, into the science and praxis of governance,
Vil-Nkomo was appointed by President including his view on the state of the disci-
Nelson Mandela as a Public Service Com- pline. We solicited his guidance on how the
missioner and played a very important part discipline could be elevated to the status of
in the transformation of the South African being respected and recognised as one of
public service. He later joined the University the strategic fields of study. He also shared
of Pretoria as Dean of the Faculty of Eco- his views on how the future of the discipline
nomic and Management Sciences, and was a should be imagined and enhanced.
member of the executive management of the
same University. In 2011-2012, Vil-Nkomo Formative Years: The Context
was a Fulbright Scholar at Fordham Univer- of Who You Became, and
sity and Fellow of the Fordham Business Your Political and Intellectual
School Consortium in New York. He is cur- Consciousness
rently Research Professor at the University
of Pretoria's Centre for the Advancement Editors: Your history reflects a boarding
of Scholarship and the Chairperson of the school environment; to what extent would
Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflec- you attribute what you turned out to be to
tion (MISTRA). Vil-Nkomo was one of those your early upbringing?
who conceptualised and founded MISTRA,
which, according to the Global Go-To Think Vil-Nkomo: How would you contrast that
Tank's Report of 2013, is one of the Best with opportunities available for the current
New Think Tanks globally. This is one of his generation of young people? I did attend
many achievements that defines his traits boarding school, St Francis College, which is
as a trailblazer. commonly known as Mariannhill. We were
taught by Germans who took us beyond the
Vil-Nkomo’s Conversation confines of what was then known as Bantu
with the Editors of the Education. They challenged our young
Journal minds and built on the abilities or signal-
ling effects we were reflecting. We learned
We started by probing his formative years, to be deep thinkers, wanted to know more
the intention being to try and understand and we were made not to be comfortable
the context that spawned and shaped who he with the status quo of apartheid and life

in general. At Mariannhill, we were also Young people of today have more oppor
exposed to political thinkers such as Steve tunities than we did. They are intelligent but
Biko, Terror Lekota and others who were also misunderstood by some seniors. If we
our seniors or had been at Mariannhill could excel with limited opportunities they
before us. We would, on some weekends, can achieve even more. They must never
go to Wentworth, the Medical School, where allow themselves to be misled by those
we interacted with some brilliant minds and who do not give priority to education. The
they would in return come to Mariannhill fact of the matter is that education is a
and hold intellectual dialogue with us. liberator of major significance. Earlier on
I talked about knowledge being power and
The Mariannhill environment was about through a proper education you will have
academic excellence, competitiveness, that power. There are more opportunities for
achievement, exposure, knowledgeability, young people of South Africa to be inventors,
leadership, integrity and high performance. designers, scientists, leading intellectuals
If there is a facility I would develop into a and so on. Remember young people, today
private not-for-profit university it would you are not only competing with your peers
be Mariannhill. You can tell that Marian- in South Africa, but competing with others
nhill had a deep impact on me and hence in the world. The world is your playing field.
I think in those terms of excellence. When Questions for you: (1) Is South Africa going
I was exposed to institutions like Tuskegee, to sustain its place in BRICS? (2) Is South
Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, Howard Africa going to be a significant player in
University, Wilberforce University, More- the G20? (3) Is our development sustain-
house University, Spelman University, etc., able enough from a knowledge point of view
I concluded that we needed many of our or will South Africa become a basket case
own such institutions in South Africa that nation? (4) Have we learned why nations
would reflect our own values and pedagogy fail? (5) Can we develop Public Affairs
of education, and Mariannhill was an obvi- programmes that can become models for
ous candidate. I know that my name is on a the world? These are a few questions that
plaque at Mariannhill. The combination of young people will have to deal with because
my family upbringing, the neighbourhoods this country is no longer the new kid on the
(Newclare and Orlando West) where I grew block or the flavour of the month.
up and the Mariannhill rigour shaped my
future. By the way, Mariannhill taught me Editors: Why did you become a knowledge
to be independent and to survive in tough worker and why did you choose to make
conditions and hence I was able to handle this your lifelong career in the midst of post-
life in exile where I did not have a mother, apartheid opportunities?
father, uncle or proper support systems
to protect me. Dependency is a recipe for Vil-Nkomo: I come from a family that has
underdevelopment. always valued education. This family is made

of W.F. Nkomo, A.S. Vil-Nkomo, J.R. Rath- inquiry that will develop South Africa and
ebe and Mahabanes Mokoena, the mathe- give it global credibility.
matician in the days of Fort Hare, Congress
Mbatha at Cornell University, etc. I was Anti-Apartheid Politics and
exposed and had the opportunity to learn Intellectualism
and work with people such as Professors
Ann Seidman, the late Robert Seidman, the Editors: There is emerging evidence of
late Mark A. Haskell (part of whose library early African intellectualism in South Africa.
I inherited), Andre Gunder Frank, Emma- Which early intellectuals have inspired your
nuel Wallerstein, and many others. As generation of thinkers and intellectuals and
young exiles, under people like Ms Barbara why would you say this?
Masekela, the late Johnny Makatini, Prof.
Bernard Magubane, Prof. Fred Dube and Vil-Nkomo: This is a very important ques-
others, we mobilised the world by saying tion because a lot of South Africans think
Bantu education is inferior and pronounced that African intellectuals never existed in the
the words of the Freedom Charter about an past, as you also commonly hear that black
equal education for all. Were we espous- South Africans are not entrepreneurial. The
ing these words just to occupy positions of latter requires further discussion because
power in government buildings? Were we the negative is punted by people who are
lying about the inequalities of education in ignorant about the history of black South
South Africa? Were we interested in educa- Africans as entrepreneurs. There is plenty of
tion and research for freedom for all? evidence that African intellectualism flour-
ished. Obviously, my first experience on this
All of the above made me pursue the path subject and exposure was with my family
of being a knowledge worker. I knew and and I have previously mentioned some of
continue to pursue Public Affairs scholar- their names. Before I mention some names
ship as one of the key pillars or commanding let me identify the places of intellectualism
heights of our society's development. Look, such as the Bantu Men's Social Centre where
the old saying that "knowledge is power" intellectual discourse took place with South
still holds today. I even go on to say to stu- Africans such as Ray Phillips.
dents: "Knowledge is the ultimate liberator
and never believe the saying that the sky is Sophiatown was the centre of the South Afri-
the limit". The limit is when you are a victim can renaissance. Sophiatown incorporated
of "isomorphic mimicry." What other oppor- academic, political, business and cultural
tunities are there in post-apartheid South awakening. This would not have taken place
Africa? Is the answer to be rich? Is it to chase without intellectual brainpower. The Uni-
tenders? Is it to talk from all sides of your versity of Fort Hare was another location of
mouth? In my book, the real answer is to intellectual discourse. Schools such as Mari-
be involved in knowledge generation and annhill, Ohlange, Healdtown, Lemane and

St Peters, were places of young intellectual Azikiwe, and Martin Luther King Jr. They
growth. A.S. Vil-Nkomo wrote the following also interacted and were exposed to dias-
in Umthetheli Wabantu in February 1946 pora thinkers such as Ralph Bunche (the
about John L. Dube: "No one else in his gen- first black Nobel Peace Prize recipient who
eration has accomplished so much with such visited South Africa), Booker T. Washington
meagre economic means. He was a scholar, (the founder of Tuskegee Institute that later
gentleman, leader, farmer, teacher, patriot became Tuskegee University), George Pad-
and philanthropist." This observation was more (a Pan-Africanist who became advisor
about the brainpower of Dube who asked to Kwame Nkrumah), and many more.
Isitha Somuntu Nguye. In simple translation,
`"Have we given up on ourselves", because Editors: What does it mean to be an intel
if we do not exercise our intellectual brain- lectual in post-apartheid South Africa as well
power, we are our own worst enemy. There as post-colonial Africa?
were also other intellectuals such as Dr A.B.
Xuma, Chief Shadrack F. Zibi, Mr R.V. Selope Vil-Nkomo: Search for new knowledge,
Thema, Professor James Thaele, Mr Allen K. understand the development trajectories
Soga, Mr T.D. Mweli Skota, Dr P. Ka I. Seme, of this fledgling democracy, teach so that
Dr Walter B. Rubusana, Mr A.M. Qunta, Ms others can learn, aspire for a globally com-
G. Ntlabati, Mr Lionel T.E. Mtimkulu, Mr petitive South Africa, ask the right ques-
S.E. Rune Mqayi, Mr Geo D. Montsioa, Mrs tions, inquire about why we are in BRICS,
Elizabeth Buthiwe Mbatha (nee Ncwana), challenge the curriculum and research in
Mr Ignatius Monare, Dr D.S. Moleme, Mr public affairs. Furthermore, strive to inter-
Davison Don Tengo Jabavu, and Mr R.R.R.R. rogate why civilisations come and go, why
Dhlomo. This list of African intellectuals of nations fail or succeed. In the field of Public
the past era is not exhaustive but the tip of Affairs, why are our schools of Public Affairs
the iceberg. It must be stated that because of in South Africa and the African continent
the colour bar and apartheid a large number not globally ranked, and can we even rank
of African intellectuals left the country to go each other objectively? A true intellectual in
and conquer new global intellectual fron- post-apartheid South Africa, as well as post-
tiers and these included people like Mazisi colonial Africa, searches for knowledge and
Kunene, Alfred Molea, Congress Mbata, is honest to their role. An intellectual in this
Bernard Magubane and others whose names continent is a soldier who must venture into
read like the who's who in many countries. the unknown territory of knowledge.
The history that is not known about some Editors: Minister Nene has just been app
of the African intellectuals is that they were ointed and the media referred to him as
inducted into fraternities like Phi Beta Sigma the first black African, a classification that
and Alpha Phi Alpha whose members were attracted the ire of many commentators.
people such as Kwame Nkrumah, Namdi Do you think there is still space for black

intellectuals to operate in the context of tunity to meet and interact with J.J.N. Cloete.
being black? If yes, what then is the role of What is your view of his contribution to
black or rather African intellectuals in the Public Administration?
changing global geopolitical architecture?
Vil-Nkomo: His work was sufficient for the
Vil-Nkomo: I am not sure what it means to time when South Africa was what it was.
be a black intellectual. Black merely identi-
fies the colour of your skin. What we really Editors: In the context of the influence of
need in South Africa are excellent intellectu- the Cloetenic approach in the study of Public
als who have a clear understanding of the Administration in South Africa, therefore by
political economy of an emerging develop- extension on the praxis of governance, per-
mental state like South Africa. They must haps a follow-up question could be: do you
strive to come up with a model that will think our public administration system is
make South Africa globally competitive. We sufficiently geared to deliver a non-racial,
have been there before when intellectuals non-sexist and democratic South Africa?
were driving a race agenda that crippled the
majority of the population and disadvan- Vil-Nkomo: This is a work in progress.
taged scholarship. What must drive South Even more importantly, our public service
African intellectuals is excellence. still has to embrace all nationalities and be
gender sensitive in the workplace. Ageism
Editors: Is there a list of South African has become a visible problem in our public
intellectuals and scholars of your genera- service. Nannyism is also there. I may be
tion whose writing and teaching you think wrong, but my observation is that our public
we should pay attention to? What about the service is viewed as a place for employing
African continent and the diaspora? `"blacks" and the private sector is for "whites".
These internal challenges can become the

Vil-Nkomo: There are and I will list the fol- albatross of delivery of services to all.
lowing few: Joel Netshitenzhe, Barry Gilder, Therefore, our public service will have to
Themba Masilela, Graeme Bloch, Olive be grounded in our political economy and
Shisana, Margaret Mabugu-Chitiga, Abba socio-economy for it to be non-racial and
Omar, Mcebisi Ndletyana, Itumeleng Mosala, non-sexist.
Charlotte du Toit, Michael Kahn, Berhanu
Mengistu, Tanya Abrahamse, Elaine Salo Editors: As the first black dean at the Uni-
Phandelani Matoma, and Garth Le Pere. versity of Pretoria, what is your experience
of transformation at South African universi-
Science and Praxis of Governance ties? The interest of this question is, in the
main, on scholarship and intellectualism,
Editors: You are one of the foreign univer- but you may respond to any area of interest.
sity trained academics who had the oppor- Have you ever heard someone talking about

unstable transformation? I am introducing future and problem solve through effective

this kind of language because "talk is cheap". research.
Vil-Nkomo: There has not been sufficient Editors: In the discourse of the various
financial investment in the field of Public public administration orientations, what
Affairs to make it a model of excellence. Public would be your decisive pronouncement on
Affairs in modern times, in general and also in the direction South African Public Admin
our country, must be transdisciplinary and as istration should take?
a result requires substantial investments. Why
is this so? It covers all aspects of societal devel- Vil-Nkomo: Public Administration in South
opment. Look at Greece, Spain and Portugal, Africa must enrich the public service through
and how their societies are today challenged education, training, development, profess
in all aspects because their Public Affairs were ionalisation and rigorous research. The last
dysfunctional and as a result their economies effort to advance public administration was
collapsed. You invest in excellent scholarship, led by the Former Minister of the Public Ser-
you laterally buy excellent intellectuals while vice and Administration, Ms Lindiwe Sisulu,
creating the appropriate environment for in 2013. The intention was to establish a
them to flourish, and you take a long-term competitive National School of Government
view of your investment. Nobel Prize win- (NSG). The question is: why was it imperative
ners are individuals who have been backed to establish such a school? To set the norms
by good financial resources and environ- and standards for public service education,
ment. Look, never assume that you can build training, development, professionalisation
excellent scholarship and intellectualism in and research; to create a nationally and glob-
Public Affairs with limited financial resources ally competitive public service that must be
and soft money. You must institutionalise appreciated locally, as well as admired by
resources for long-term success. Better still, in other nations; to reclaim and bring back the
academic institutions and research institutes credibility of the public service and public
you build your academic capacity. administration as was experienced in the early
stages of our democracy; and to fulfil the aspi-
Editors: You are on record as having rations articulated in the National Develop-
attempted to establish a training institute to ment Plan (NDP). It is essential that all public
the level and magnitude of the British civil ser- servants and Public Administration scholars
vice college. With your appointment as chair- and teachers familiarise themselves with the
person of the National School of Government, NDP, in particular Chapter 13. We know about
what would you say is or should be the central the debates on the NDP, FOR and AGAINST.
thrust of such a school?
Yes, we also know that the NDP is a living doc-
Vil-Nkomo: Education, training, profess ument with good intentions for our nation.
ionalisation and the ability to determine the Let us all engage in at least Chapter 13,

which is paraphrased as follows: It is an I have, over many years of our democracy,

imperative to establish a "capable and reflected on the thinking processes that can
focused developmental state in order to make our public service a model of excel-
improve the lives of our citizens"; the public lence far and above any other field. I have
service must be well vested in the develop- also been concerned about how we can
ment agenda of governance and must be encourage future generations to respect
`"insulated from undue political interference"; public service and public administration. As
public servants at all levels must be in con- we embark on new approaches to strengthen
trol of their work, grounded in institutional our public service and what we offer in our
and relevant knowledge developed and lecture rooms, the challenges of thinking,
acquired over a period of time; there must analysis and professionalisation loom very
be interlocking relations among the three high. Our successes depend on an integrated
spheres of government that will culminate approach to our endeavours because our
in a unified approach on service delivery country is certainly a democratic develop-
issues; and state-owned enterprises are an mental state that is deeply involved in the
important part of service delivery and hence projects of nation formation, political eco-
their "governance structures require simpli- nomic development, excellent governance,
fication". To achieve all of this, the NSG is unbundling the economics of poverty and
a key player as articulated in the previous discrimination, income maintenance and dis-
points that have been underscored. The NSG tribution, policy development, understand-
is compelled to set the norms and standards ing new knowledge associated with the use
that will demand excellence throughout of sophisticated technologies and in search
the sector that purports to educate, train, of the role of government versus markets.
develop and professionalise public serv- These are a few challenges that confront our
ants. The Council that was given the task to fledgling democratic state and the public
develop the NSG clearly understood that this service sector as a whole. We all know why
is not an easy undertaking, was cognisant this is central and the full participation of
that this is a gradual development that must the public service is a sine qua non. In light
be properly thought through. As it is often of this, I also urge you to participate in pro-
said: Rome was not built in a day and in our fessional associations like the South African
context "apartheid was not demolished in Association for Public Administration and
a day". The admission that public service Management (SAAPAM).
education, training and development are
medium to long- term projects mandates There is room to establish a think tank on
that the NSG must collaborate with depend- public administration because it is obvious
able partners that emphasize excellence. that there is an opportunity to undertake
The partners must also, with confidence, in-depth research to advance public admin-
articulate the values and ethics of a develop- istration to create a well-developed public
mental state. service. This is a niche area of focus for the

SAAPAM, the newly established NSG and governing, public service (civil service) and
MISTRA (ranked in the top 10 global newly policy failures that have resulted in the col-
established think tanks by the University of lapse of service delivery, economic crises
Pennsylvania). The purpose is to have aca- and human suffering. The cases of Greece,
demics and professionals establish a symbi- Spain, Italy and the Middle East countries
otic relationship grounded in research and immediately come to mind. In these crises,
practical application. As an example, before the civil services feature prominently in a
you go to the moon, you must develop a negative manner. It is for this reason that
model that approximates reality and this broad-based education, training and devel-
must be grounded in proper analysis and opment approaches are recommended not
research. In short, do not short-change your- only in teaching methodologies but also in
selves by culminating your development by the content that is taught. We must have a
only receiving a certificate. The old saying transdisciplinary approach to the education,
that knowledge is power holds even today. training and development of public servants
What you have acquired is knowledge that and even for those in the public sector. Why?
will help us perfect our practical work and We are a democratic developmental state
will contribute to our ability to project the and we have self-defined ourselves in this
future. MISTRA succinctly underscores the way because we understand our develop-
importance of think-tanking: "South Africa mental challenges; we have a sense of the
has not had a think tank that devotes its history as well as current state of our politi-
attention to strategic approaches to the cal economy; we want a public service that
country's challenges, from a long-term per- is deeply steeped in humanitarianism.
spective." This observation is very apparent
in public sector thinking and analyses and With the latter, our history dictates that
MISTRA is currently leading in this effort Public Administration must be taught in a
and hence the global recognition of this five- way that is value and ethics laden. This is
year-old knowledge reservoir. what distinguishes Public Administration
from Business Administration/Management.
The stagnation of the field of public man We want this field not only to respond to the
agement has tremendous ramifications needs of service delivery, but to also have
for not only service delivery but also lat- dignity, and be a reputable area of study that
eral across-the-board problem solving, has a multiplier effect of having the public
policy implementation, alternative policy sector viewed as a career of choice by those
recommendation and results-driven eval who are making career choices at an early
uation. Even more worrisome is dovetail- age. They must embrace the idea that the
ing policy, as developed by the legislative public service is about human and societal
arm, with policy implementation (that is, the development. As the economy, business and
responsibility of public servants). In recent science advance, so must Public Adminis-
times, the world has become littered with tration as part of the social sciences. The

latter in our country are not respected at all to intervene rather than try and do
and thus public administration must take a everything. This thinking prevents the
lead in this applied and theoretical science. state from overcrowding the economy,
Hence, I advocate for a transdisciplinary which can result in communities and
approach in Public Administration educa- businesses becoming helpless, leading
tion, training, development, professionalisa- to a lack of innovation, inventions and
tion and research. new designs. It is important not to create
a nanny state with public servants
To concretely justify a transdisciplinary edu- viewing themselves as the custodians of
cation in Public Administration, one uses the everything that has to be achieved.
example of the global debate on government
versus the market. As Vito Tanzi has stated To summarise, Adam Smith's logic on gov-
in his seminal work Government versus mar- ernment versus the market, I underscore the
kets: The changing economic role of the state, following two as presented in Tanzi's study:
`"Adam Smith acknowledged the centrality of Firstly, the need to provide services that are
the state". He analyses a number of issues essential for an organized society, especially
that have serious relevance to administering one based on commerce, but are not likely
the state while at the same time understand- to be provided, or to be provided in needed
ing the role of a developmental state. These quantity, by private markets. Secondly, he
include the following: identified the need for the state to build large
public works and to provide some essential
●● Understanding the role of public finance services that, because of their high costs or
versus redistribution. their nature, would not be provided by pri-
●● The role that had to be undertaken by vate individuals (p. 57).
the community rather than the state.
This has serious ramifications for those Furthermore, my emphasis on a trans
who serve as public servants. disciplinary approach in the teaching and
●● The prudent utilisation of taxes that studying of public leadership is for the sector
are an important contribution made as a whole to go beyond the confines of the
by taxpayers. This emphasis is on the dry definitions of management and leader-
understanding by public servants that ship. Our political economy, the develop-
taxes are revenue generated from ment challenges that confront us, and the
compulsory taxation. In other nations fact that we exist in a developmental state
there have been tax revolts because compel us to use tools of the trade that are
of the lack of accountability and over experimental and practical. I have empha-
spending. sized the notion of transdisciplinarity. At the
●● The emphasis that the state must play a Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflec-
careful and constructive role in nation tion (MISTRA), the study appropriately con-
development. As a state, know when cluded and summarised transdisciplinarity as

follows: `"Transdisciplinarity is an attempt at in Public Administration is concerned. But

formulating an integrative process of knowl- let's specifically focus on innovation and dis-
edge production and dissemination. Trans- covery, important aspects that feature prom-
disciplinarity is, in part, a reaction against inently in your writings on public affairs.
the twentieth century occurrence of narrow Could you elaborate on what you mean?
discipline focus and hyper-specialization.
It attempts to directly respond to the Vil-Nkomo: Yes I can. Innovation is not
multi-layered challenges of diffuse disci- classified as being scientific and can result
plines, interlinked socio-economic problems, in short-term thinking. Discovery is coming
impacts of globalization, de-territorialized across what you thought did not exist. Since
nation states, technological advancements, 1994, the field of Public Administration in
environmental concerns, food security and South Africa has been frozen. In this field
so on." (Hester Du Plessis, Jeffrey Sehume under discussion, we need to go beyond
and Leonard Martin: 18.) innovation and discovery and begin to
invent. Hence, I have consistently spoken
Use of institutional memory and emerging about the difference between the logic of
young minds is also about future leadership invention and the logic of discovery. We con-
in the three spheres of government. This is stantly, as South African "scholars" in this
also mandatory for continuity, self-preserva- field, discover that we can establish Schools
tion and innovation in our sector. To develop of Government, Schools of Governance and
a vibrant and effective public service is a long Schools of Public Affairs. We do not invent
journey. It takes several generations to reach these Schools on the basis of epistemology
a point of satisfaction, while at the same time and scientific approaches that have long-
accepting that public services continue to term implications. The logic of invention
evolve. Thus, the generation-to-generation makes true scholars come up with something
development of proper values and ethics in that is new and can be replicated by other
the public service remain the cornerstone nations. If you are stuck in the knowledge of
of success. Finally, we must understand and discovery, you certainly do not make a sig-
work within the NDP and understand that the nificant contribution to knowledge genera-
public service is a major cog for economic tion. In fact, with the latter you mimic what
growth and development. In addition, public others have tried and tested. South Africans
servants do not develop from nothing, but are more intelligent than to get involved in
rely to a great extent on excellent education mimicking.
and training programmes. We must also not
be ashamed to underscore the importance of As a Fulbright Research Scholar, I became
meritocracy as well as career pathing. more concerned that our field of Public
Affairs, 20 years later, is frozen in isomor-
Editors: Your lengthy response almost agg phic mimicry as it was with conversion of
regates everything insofar as the discourse Public Administration to the so-called New

Public Management. Yet, our public affairs establish an excellent public service, and so
space is a laboratory that requires dynamic on. Our National Development Plan helps
thinkers, researchers, terrific students and us to identify the purpose of government.
outstanding think tanking. South Africa has Defining theory at this juncture will not help
voluntarily defined itself as a democratic us that much unless we have done some-
developmental state and has, without cohe- thing more important. That is, first things
sion, allowed itself to be part of the emerg- first, things that have long-term objectives.
ing markets group and the BRICS group of This something is the paradigm that drives
nations. What does our Public Affairs field our thinking, how we formulate policies,
say about this? Are we aware that Public what our Public Affairs should look like, how
Affairs can be the cause of the development we engage with the world, our understand-
of underdevelopment? Are we concerned ing of having a war against poverty, why we
about Public Affairs and the economy? If we educate our children, etc. Once we agree
as scholars are not aware of these issues, to the paradigm we can then come up with
Greece, Spain and Italy will look like a picnic theories. Thomas Kuhn and V.V. Nalimov
when South Africa tumbles, and there will be help us to think about the importance of
no global economic crisis but what Former having a useful guiding paradigm.
President Thabo Mbeki talked about and
that is the two economies. Sadly enough, our Editors: You were involved in the anti-
Public Affairs institutions have not engaged apartheid struggle. There were objectives
this dichotomy that co-exists with the public set by your generation when you were
service right in the middle of it. exiled. Do you think, from the perspective
of the discipline, that these objectives were
Editors: What do you understand theory to or are being met?
be? Is there a theory of the business of
government? If yes, what are its key com- Vil-Nkomo: In the case of those you want
ponents? to reflect on as unmet, tell us why? Categori-
cally, they have not been met. We have not
Vil-Nkomo: There is a foundation to con established a "School of Thought" in this
structing a theory of government success. field of study and analysis. We are caught
Before we can talk about a theory, let me in isomorphic mimicry. We are not bold
list a few reasons why states exist: (1) To enough to break new ground. There are too
govern the territory in which its citizens many chance-takers who are teaching so
live; (2) To manage the economic resources much unscientific "stuff". As you all know,
of the nation through monetary and fiscal a "school of thought" develops out of obser-
policies; (3) To create a conducive environ- vation, research, asking the right questions
ment for economic growth and development and attracting the best minds. A "school of
(the latter includes education, infrastructure thought" also develops when those who are
development, health provision, etc.); (4) To involved with experiential work also take

part in their own professional development. Vil-Nkomo: Love for one's country and
The latter must be members of a profes- continent, commitment to excellent Public
sional association, and they must partici- Affairs and the consciousness to be a role
pate in the community of practice and its model and not a follower. African countries
discussions. When some of us worked with are challenged to be viewed as making a
leading thinkers, such as Ann Seidman, the significant contribution to Public Affairs.
hope was that South Africa would create Another factual observation is that our
outstanding ideas on Public Affairs as well Public Affairs academic programmes are
as approaches. Their thinking was not for a not in the global rankings. Failure to achieve
newly democratised country to mimic what the latter will result in more international
was old hat. institutions creating their programmes on
this continent. When I was Dean of the Fac-
What has happened is what Professor ulty of Economic and Management Sciences,
Robert Seidman eloquently articulated by I visited a leading international institution
saying: `"The status quo tends to co-opt in this field ( I will not mention the name)
even the new unless you quickly apply the and they told me, right to my face, that they
ROCCIPI methodology (Rules, Opportunity, do not enter into collaboration agreements,
Capacity, Communication, Interest, Pro- because we are competing with them with
cess, and Ideology) to ensure that the legal the opening up of South Africa to the rest
framework, institutional capacity and indi- of the continent. Hence, scholarship looms
vidual behaviour are aligned to achieve the high on my agenda and this is what has
new objectives and goals." He meant that made me remain committed to the search
changing the laws alone will not change the of knowledge relevant to Public Affairs. By
outcomes because of a range of factors that the way, I started this journey long before
impinge on individual behaviour. In our case, South Africa was free from apartheid,
we have not applied problem-solving meth- when I contributed to the establishment of
odologies such as ROCCIPI. Hence, the field a strong Public Affairs programme and a
of Public Affairs has remained pretty much Centre for Public Policy and Diplomacy at
the same 20 years after the change, and Lincoln University in Pennsylvania. With
has failed to provide appropriate solutions. the late Mr Oliver R. Tambo's call "Prepare
The trajectory of our development remains to govern", we used Lincoln as the orienta-
blurred and hopefully the National Develop- tion centre and we also worked with the
ment Plan will intensely guide our future Seidmans at Clark University in Massachu-
strategies of development, service delivery setts to prepare South Africans intellectually
and human behaviour. to govern.
Editors: What consciousness do you think Editors: What do you think has been the con-
African scholarship should espouse, and tribution of your generation in the scholar-
why? ship realm of being South African?

Vil-Nkomo: We contributed to the end of South Africans. The international colleagues

apartheid through scholarship and this was we collaborated with were curious about what
recognised worldwide. Scholars of my gen- was coming out of South Africa. As a recent
eration also significantly contributed to the Fulbright researcher, I still find that we need
transitional arrangements that ushered in a South African journals in major libraries in
fledgling South African democracy and rela- the world. Asia has their journals in the differ-
tive stability in this country's political econ- ent world libraries. Contemporary intellectuals
omy. Through the Bilateral and Multiparty must take advantage of South Africa as being
Negotiations, we collectively used our intel- a frontier nation. The continent as a whole
lectual brainpower to safeguard the stability is an exciting laboratory for future research
of this country and hence we became the envy undertakings in the field of Public Affairs. Con-
as well as model for the world. Public Affairs temporary African scholars must define for
was in the forefront of all of this. Let me add themselves what the notion of "Africa rising"
that the next generation of scholars, after us, means for Public Affairs. Asian countries, to a
must build on these humble achievements. great extent, defined their own development
They must not be afraid or be intimidated by agenda using their structural features and
institutional memory. Those with institutional advanced their intellectual brainpower.
memory must also be willing to engage with
the younger minds. That is how knowledge is Conclusion
sustained and passed on from one generation
to the other. Editors: In moving towards a conclusion,
we are curious about your personal experi-
Editors: What do you think is the role of ence in the first post-apartheid and Mandela-
contemporary intellectuals in Public Affairs? appointed Public Service Commission. What
was it like serving an iconic president of
Vil-Nkomo: Their role is to break new ground Mandela's stature, and what is your char
that will address the needs of a democratic acterisation of his leadership?
developmental state that seeks to be success
ful and at the same time globally competitive. Vil-Nkomo: President Mandela was a strong
As I said earlier on, we are playing in BRICS, and humble statesman and had no fear of sur-
the G20, the UN Security Council and we rounding himself with knowledgeable persons.
dream about being ranked internationally Most of the time, I come to the conclusion that
and otherwise. Contemporary intellectuals in never again in South Africa or the world will
this field must also strive to advance the South you have people voluntarily wanting to serve
African journal they publish in, so that it must a leader as they did with President Mandela.
have global recognition as well as accredita- I have concluded that he was not a politician
tion. As exiles, we were always in search of but more of a statesman. I never experienced
journals produced in South Africa, because we him as a person who was desperate for power
wanted to understand the thinking process of and would talk from all sides of his mouth.

I remember him holding a 10-minute meeting Vil-Nkomo: Firstly, I would have insisted on
with the Public Service Commission and his the public service not being driven by hidden
words were "I do not want the public service agendas. Secondly, I would have encour-
to collapse because if it does, there will be aged public servants to understand their
no government". The Commissioners at once role in the South African political economy.
understood what had to be done to safeguard Thirdly, internships for young people who
the functioning of the public service. Serving were studying at universities and wanted to
under President Mandela was a major honour. join the public service would have been pri-
oritised. Finally, I would have insisted that
Editors: If you were to be given an oppor high schools must teach about the public
tunity to relive the moment, what would service so that young people would view the
you have done differently to impact on public service as a career of choice and for
the present? good reasons.

Science of Public Administration:
Critiquing the Past, Recognising the Present
and Imagining the Future
Mashupye H Maserumule
Tshwane University of Technology
Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo
University of Pretoria
Abstract The reconsideration of the science of Public

Administration in the contemporary dis-
"If nature abhors a vacuum, historiography
` course inevitably invokes nostalgia. For, it
loves a void because it can be filled with any has been hotly contested in the evolution
number of plausible accounts."1 These are of Public Administration as a field of study.
Nicholas Howe's words, which we find apt This article is intended to contribute to the
to punctuate the article's reconsideration discourse on the science of Public Adminis-
of the question: is Public Administration a tration, starting with a critique of some of
science? This is an old question in the his- the perspectives that emerged in the 20th
toriography of the discipline, which just century scholarship, contesting the idea of
doesn't go away. It emerged in the 20th cen- Public Administration as a science. This is
tury to seemingly frame the rejoinders to the followed by a recognition of the contem-
contentions that Public Administration is a porary scholarly endeavours aimed at the
science. In the 18th century, Cameralism had ``"epistemological introspection" of the discli-
2
been preoccupied with what it referred to pine. Towards the end, the future of the dis-
as the science of government. Did this refer cipline is imagined. The logic of the article is
to Public Administration? In other words, is framed with the intention to critically review
the science of government the same as the the past, recognise the present and imagine
science of Public Administration? To some, the future of the discipline. Based on the
these questions are pedantic, bordering on critique of the 20th century scholarship and
trivialities. This cannot be true. On the con- the analysis of the contemporary scholarly
trary, they are important for seeking concep- endeavours, with insights from the theory of
tual clarity, especially in the discourse, and evolution and African scholarship, the arti-
as important as the science of a discipline. cle contends that Public Administration is a

Science of Public Administration: Critiquing the Past, Recognising the Present...
science. The purpose of the article is simply theory. Gottlieb proved this in the assess-
to add to the contestations. ment of his students, most of whom demon-
strated a lack of understanding of science.
Introduction Even among scientists, contestations on
what science is abound. In various instances
Gregory Daneke makes a very interesting humanities/socials sciences, as compared to
observation in his article, A Science of Public natural/physical sciences, are not regarded
Administration: "Many realms of social as sciences. Because of this, the meaning
inquiry, particularly public administration, of science is at the outset determined to
are in the midst of an era of unprecedented contextualise the answer to the question of
epistemological introspection, driven pri- the article. Based on the critique of the 20th
marily by frustration with the prevailing century scholarship, and the analysis of the
positivism of applied research".3 This is a contemporary scholarly endeavours, the
firmament of the disciplinary discourse on article contends that Public Administration
the science of Public Administration. The is a science. It ends by imagining the future
article revisits the question of the science of the discipline. Its objective is to critically
of Public Administration. It critiques the per- review the past, recognise the present and
spectives of the 20th century, which emerged imagine the future of Public Administration.
as rejoinders rejecting the idea that Public
Administration is a science. The article starts Meaning of Science
by reflecting on the meaning of science.
This is because, in various instances, what Perhaps the best approach to consider the
is meant by science is not what science is. meaning of science is to start with what
Sheldon Gottlieb demonstrated this in his science is not, at least to the extent of the
presentation at the Harbinger symposium, logic of positivism, the influence of which,
themed Religion & Science – The best of in the specification of the conceptualisation
enemies, the worst of friends.4 He did this of the concept, is enormous. A good example
by relating a story of his encounter with of what science is not is what an Alaskan
a science teacher, in Alaska, who made a science teacher said: "Facts are only as good
statement that revealed his shocking lack of as the theory on which they are based".6
understanding of what science is. This is twisted logic. The Alaskan teacher
`"failed to grasp one of the most fundamen-
This is what the science teacher is said to tal aspects of the working of science: scien-
have said: "After all, you do have to admit tific theories are derived from facts".7 The
that facts are only as good as the theory on Alaskan teacher had it the other way round.
which they are based".5 It is not only the This is not only his challenge. It represents
Alaskan science teacher who, as demon- a broader conceptual muddle in defining
strated in this statement, does not under- science. Gottlieb's response to the Alaskan
stand the relationship between facts and teacher brings to the fore a question of the

relationship between facts and theory. These doesn't this expose the naivety of positiv-
are important variables in trying to under- ism? Shouldn't knowledge be judged on the
stand the meaning of science. However, they basis of its utilitarian value and contribution
are steeped in positivism. Gottlieb used the to societal advances? If so, there is a lot of
`"erroneous statement" of the Alaskan teacher knowledge out there, much of it coming into
to formulate an examination question for his being through the mechanisms inscribed in
students, intended to establish the extent positivism, which cannot make a science as
of their understanding of the relationship it lacks utilitarian value. Conversely, there is
between facts and theory. It turned out that, a lot of knowledge out there, much of it not
as Gottlieb explained, 48 percent of the coming into being through positivist mecha-
students got the answer wrong.8 Perhaps nisms, which shapes societal advances, but
to the chagrin of scholars such as Gottlieb, cannot be characterised as science. What
the question is: can we really blame them? does all this mean? The answer is simple:
This is asked because scholarship on the science is the concept of hegemogy. Its
meaning of science, including its theory meaning is prescribed in the specification
and philosophy, is not unanimous. As Marie- of Western conceptualisations. But, before
Joёlle Browaeys explains, this exemplifies we muddy the waters further, let's finalise
the "complexity of epistemology".9 Perhaps the simplistic approach of this article using
this is necessary. For, a consensus on what the case of the Alaskan teacher, which we
constitutes science may mark the end of started with, in determining the meaning
the theory of knowledge or philosophy of of science, to contextuate the complexity of
science. In one of his highly-intellectual its meaning.
speeches, Thabo Mbeki made a profound
observation, which illustrates the complex- Going back to Gottlieb's correction of
ity of epistemology and gnoseology. He said: the Alaskan teacher's misconception of
`"The fundamental issue immanent in all phil- science, two important aspects come to
osophical discourse, from ancient times to the fore: facts and theory. Facts construct
date is – what is knowledge?"10 theory; theory constitutes science. This is
an over-simplification. To paraphrase Dave
Isn't knowledge the function of science? Robinson and Bill Mayblin:11 Isn't there
The answer to this question is, it depends more to science than simply accumulating
on how that knowledge came about. An facts? By asking this question, simplicity in
emphasis is on the methodology and the defining science turns complex. Just imagine
validation mechanisms. This is the logic how far this would leave the poor Alaskan
that frames positivist scholarship in defin- teacher! Earlier, a question is asked: what
ing science. Any form of knowledge that does all this mean? The answer is simple:
does not go through the validation mecha- positivism asserts the hegemonic concept of
nisms and the methodological rigour of the science, as prescribed in the specification of
logic of positivism is false knowledge. But, Western conceptualisations. It doesn't end

here. Robinson and Mayblin bring into the ideology and philosophy. That science is
discourse a rationalist-empiricist dichot- not religion is a well-established argument,
omy. As positivists would explain, a fact is which came to the fore in the 19th century
established through empirical processes. Its following Charles Darwin's Origin of spe-
universalisation, for better accounts of the cies.16 In his book, Civilisation, Niall Fergu-
world, shaped the essence of the meaning son makes a very interesting observation,
of science. The theory of empiricism is that which underscores the distinction between
`"the most obvious and important source of science and religion. As Ferguson wrote, in
knowledge is perception" – in other words, accepting Western knowledge, the Turkish
knowledge "originate[s] from sensory expe- government (Ottoman Empire) report of
riences".12 Empiricist philosophy is a rela- 1838, emphasised the following: "Religious
tively new development, which came about knowledge serves salvation in the world to
essentially to contest the rationalist philoso- come, but science serves the perfection of
phy that reason is a source of knowledge. man in this world".17 Karl Marx agreed with
Darwin's views on the distinction between
The rationalist philosophy originated in science and religion. Science is based on
`"pre-Socratic" ancient Greece, where it was facts, religion is based on belief. Along with
said that "true knowledge can only come Frederick Engels, Marx recognised the value
from thinking, not looking".13 The empir- of Darwin's theory of evolution "as just such
icist-rationalist binary polarises the dis- a foundation for their theory of dialectical
course on knowledge. As a rationalist, materialism".18 Darwin's theory of evolution
considered the "first truly systematic phi- infuriated those with religious convictions.
losopher," Plato rejected empiricist philoso- What about ideology and philosophy? Can
phy. He contended that "empirical or sense they be regarded as sciences? In his book
knowledge is inferior because it is subjec- Philosophy and myth in Karl Marx, Robert
tive and always changing".14 Because of this, Tucker explains that:
again paraphrasing Robinson and Mayblin,
a question arises: Has the theory of knowl- By "science", Marx simply means think
edge or philosophy of science "reached a ing that has real life as its object. Science
dead-end of perfection?"15 This contextu- is knowledge of the world as it is, or the
alises the question: what is science? Is it clearer, direct, unobstructed view of
a function of empiricism or rationalism? reality. And this is the materialistic view,
But why would this question even arise? the one that focuses upon the practical
For, it is predicated on the logic of the developmental process and the primary
binary discourse, which does not hold any- datum. Scientific thinking, insofar as man
more. Various attempts to theorise science or history is the object, means materialist
follow positivistic templates. To demon- thinking, i.e. Marxism, and what makes it
strate the purity of empiricism, science is scientific is nothing at all but the fact that
defined in contradistinction with religion, it is true. It is only with the attainment

of genuine materialism, which sees not other undermines their epistemological

consciousness of any kind, but "real life" and gnoseological connection, together with
as the prime datum, that human thought theory, in the continuum of knowledge."25
ceases for the first time in history to be Is it possible that Marx was all these: ide-
infected with ideology.19 ologist, philosopher and theorist? Do these
make a person a scientist? In the search
Ehud Sprinzak observed that, in explaining for the meaning of science beyond conven-
science, Marx used ideology pejoratively.20 tional conceptualisations, these questions
Because of this, can we say Marx detested are important. In the International Weekly
ideology? Tucker appears to have made an Journal of Science of 2013, a very interest-
answer to this question obvious. In defining question was asked: "Who is the best
ing science, on the basis of rejecting ideol- scientist of them all?"26 But even more inter-
ogy, is Marx's theorisation of knowledge not esting was the answer to this question: Karl
reductionism? In his interpretation of Tuck- Marx. The online ranking system of h-index
er's work, Sprinzak is unambiguous: "Marx metrics was used to make this determina-
developed a reductionist approach to every tion.27 Marx is described as "the most influ-
system of thought."21 In deconstructing capi- ential socialist thinker to emerge in the 19th
talism, Marx defined ideology as a system century".28 This is in recognition of his anti-
of ideas of the ruling class for the domina- capitalist work. But, what does this mean, for
tion of the subservients.22 He rejected this the purpose of this discussion? The answer
arrangement of power relations and offered is: human science is science. That this is
an idea of a classless society.23 But, isn't not, as some argue, a real science, and only
this a counter-ideological narrative against natural/physical sciences are, begot false-
capitalism? If so, Marx was an ideologist. hood. The argument that humanities/social
Some characterise Marx's classless society, science is not a science is an anachronis-
an ultimate social organisation, as a theory tic revisionism. The positivist definitions of
rather than an ideology. This brings into science no longer hold. French philosopher,
the equation the question of ideology and Jacques Derrida, made an important contri-
theory – important variables for considera- bution to this argument, which enhanced the
tion in theorising knowledge. Added to this status of humanities/social sciences.29 He
is a gnoseological question of philosophy. adequately responded to the positivists defi-
Kwame Nkrumah explains that philosophy nition of "science [strictly] according to its
is the function of ideology whereas theory empirical methods of observation, analysis
explains facts tested against reality.24 and proof."30 Merson shared his view: "the
purely empirical method is out of date," and
As Maserumule argued: "A crude distinc- no one knows better than Lord Milner that
tion often made between philosophy and when empiricism is abandoned the sphere
ideology that suggests that they are dia- of the scientist begins".31 But, doesn't this
metrically opposite poles far from each reinforce empiricist-rationalist dichotomy,

which we contend trivialises the profundity blacks. Their attitude is, let their decolo-
of the meaning of science? nisation be a pet project of their uncouth
professors who are misguided. Misguided,
Derrida argued that reflections in the because they courageously engage the logic
humanities/social sciences are mature of the Western epistemology? As the nihil-
enough to place these disciplines among the ists argue, their "real sciences" should be
so-called "real sciences".32 However, positiv- left alone. This is a shockingly ahistorical
ism still persists, insisting that humanities/ argument that displays little understanding
social sciences are not as "real sciences" as of the very concept they are claiming to be
natural/physical sciences. This thinking is responding to: decoloniality. It perpetuates
institutionalised, albeit largely in occulted the stereotypes that science has never been
form. For instance, in South Africa the rating part of Africans. If this is so, how do they
of scientists by the National Research Foun- explain the pre-colonial African civilisation?
dation (NRF) is more into natural/physical Do they even bother to think about this? In
sciences than into the humanities/social other words, the question is whether civilisa-
sciences33. The NRF rating system was never tion is not a function of science. Of course
originally intended for the humanities/social it is, as Niall Ferguson demonstrated in his
sciences. It is only recently, albeit steadily, book, where he asked a very important ques-
that changes are being effected. The natu- tion: "How did the Muslim world come to fall
ral/physical sciences – humanities/social behind the West in the realm of science?"35
sciences binary – is ironically entrenched This question is asked because, as Ferguson
in the orientation of those who are sup- observed, "the West owes a debt to the medi-
posed to provide thought leadership on eval Muslim world, for both its custodian-
the theory of knowledge and philosophy of ship of classical wisdom and its generation
science. This plays itself out openly in South of new knowledge in cartography, medicine
Africa's decolonisation discourse, with some and philosophy, as well as in mathematics
arguing that decolonisation is only for the and optics".36 The history of science there-
humanities/social sciences – meaning not fore predates Western civilisation, which is
for the so-called "real sciences". Largely, said to be the consequences of a Scientific
rejoinders to the decolonisation discourses, Revolution. Ferguson's focus on science in
as brought to centre stage by student activ- his book, however, does not make reference
ism of 2015 in South Africa by those who to the pre-colonial African civilisation.
prefer the status quo, are solipsistic, self-
referential, inscriptive nihilism.34 What is Despite a long history of civilisation, the domi-
seriously disturbing in these rejoinders are nant narrative has it that civilisation, as it is
the narratives that seek to assert whiteness largely understood, is the history of the West.
rather than engage with the issues. Lurk- But, in Donaldo Macedo's words, is this not
ing in those counter-narratives is the idea `"the pedagogy of big lies"?
37
Or, is what is gen-
that humanities/social sciences are for the erally considered a science not an instrument

of Western imperialism? Perhaps this ques- fundamental point they miss in the discourse
tion is pedantic, for, its answer had long been on science is: "the true object of scientific
implicated in the body of African scholar- study can never be the realities of nature,
ship,38 which remains largely in the margin of but only our observations on nature".41 In
the mainstream history of science. As we con- this the positivist illusion of objective truth
tend with the challenges of Africa's develop- is exposed, as Jacques Derrida too exposed
ment in the 21st century, the decolonisation it. If it is only the natural/physical sciences
of knowledge is increasingly becoming an that are capable of being "real sciences",
exigency. It is important for our universities therefore secure "absolute truth", why
to become African universities rather than would the "relativistic Einsteinian universe"
simply universities in Africa. It would be help- have evolved to expose the inadequacy of
ful for the counter-decolonisation narratives the "linear Newtonian universe"? Why has
to familiarise themselves with the rich body the non-linear paradigm emerged to offer
of literature on African historiography, such yet another world view?42 The answer is
as the work of Afrocentric scholar Cheikh simple: science is not absolute, either as in
Anta Diop, which reaffirms that "Africa is humanities/social sciences or natural/physi-
the cradle of the first major civilisation".39 cal sciences. Even "the eminent physicist [as]
The work of internationally acclaimed pal- Sir James Jeans (1981) has suggested that
aeoanthropologist, Phillip Tobias, supports the positivist definitions for science may
this thesis. In his study of fossil hominids, not even be wholly satisfactory for the trad
Tobias concluded that Africa is the cradle of itional natural sciences".43 Science is always
humanity. These are the discoveries that the in question.
decoloniality project should facilitate in their
mainstreaming in the university's curricula Another important point Francis Neumann
to correct the myths and falsehoods ped- made, which further exposed the absurdi-
dled in the discourse on science. As Sabelo ties of treating natural/physical sciences
Ndlovu-Gatsheni explains, decoloniality is a and humanities/social sciences as binaries,
`"political-cum-epistemological liberatory pro- is that non-linear systems "appear to have
ject born out of a realisation that ours is an great implications not only for the physical
asymmetrical world order that is sustained world, but also for the social world". What
not only by colonial matrices of power, but does this mean? The answer is simple:
also by pedagogies and epistemologies of natural/physical sciences and humanities/
equilibrium that continue to produce alien- social sciences can intersect. They are not
ated Africans who are socialised into hating binary opposites. That "the seventeenth-
the Africa that produced them, and liking the century scientists had been interested in
Europe and America that reject them".40 discovering how the natural world actually
was" while "the eighteenth-century philoso-
The nihilists dislike decoloniality. In their phers were more concerned to propose how
exasperation when this issue arises, one human society might or ought to be"44, and

does not necessarily create a basis for the titled Decoloniality and governance in Africa
natural/physical sciences-humanities/social in the twenty-first century.49 His answer is
sciences binary. How then can a science be relevant to the article's reconsideration of
defined? "Science is a continous process the question: is Public Administration a
of creation rather than a constructed edi- science?
fice."45 Its goal is to "better the accounts of
the world".46 This brings the discussion to In the pursuit of this question, we start by
the question of this article: is Public Admin- defining Public Administration as a func-
istration a science? tion of optimising co-existence. Its evolu-
tion into a science of public affairs, and the
Science of Public pursuit to discipline it as a field of study,
Administration has always been a subject of contestation.
The 20th century rejoinders refuted the
The question of the science of Public Admin- idea that Public Administration is a science.
istration is an old question of the discipline, These rejoinders jettisoned Cameralism – a
and which this article reconsiders with science of government. Earlier, a question
ancedotes from the theory of evolution and was asked whether a science of govern-
insights from the conceptualisations on ment refers to Public Administration. Look-
the meaning of science. It has always been ing at Cameralism as a study of statecraft,
a subject of contestation. The article adds which the historiography of the discipline
to this contestation. It is premised on the characterised as intensely scientific and
contention that Public Administration is a academic with utilitarian implications,50 we
social science. As Ferguson observed, social are inclined to answer the question with a
science has been a preoccupation of the yes. Cameralism was a science and praxis of
Enlightenment thinkers.47 In other universi- the administration of the state. The origin of
ties, it is classified as part of the humani- the study of Public Administration is traced
ties. However, being a social science is not to Cameralism. As a science of government,
as simple as it sounds. For, as Nnadozie the focus of Cameralism was largely on the
Uche asks: "As a field of academic pursuit, political economy of the administration
has Public Administration been a tool of of the state,51 with accent on public lead-
Western imperialism?"48 African scholarship ership.52 However, the subsequent evolu-
has long determined that social science is tion of Public Administration as a field of
an instrument of Western imperialism. In study along the politics-administration
considering the science of Public Admin- dichotomy – following Woodrow Wilson's
istration, this historical verity is inevitable. 1887 essay on "The study of administra-
For, as Uche asks: What is the implication of tion" – and the New Public Management
Public Administration as a tool of Western (NPM) – which emerged in the 1980s as
imperialism on its epistemological founda- `"the most important reform movement of
tion? He answers this question in his article the last quarter of a century"53 – obscured

the originative essence of the focus of Cam- Historical Review and Insights
eralism as the predecessor of the modern From the Theory of Evolution
science of Public Administration – a subject
which is at the cutting edge of the discourse As a praxis, public administration is as old as
of the discipline exalted as, in the words of homo sapiens, whereas, as a field of study, it
Arthur Brooks, the "principal unanswered is of recent origin. This article defines public
question".54 Some argue that there is noth- administration as a function of optimising
ing like a science of Public Administration. co-existence. In so doing, it implicates the
This needs to be understood within the con- theory of evolution, especially with reference
text that humanities/social sciences have to these bipedal primates – homo sapiens.
always been characterised as not being "real The theory of evolution is not considered in
sciences". any meaningful way in the historiography of
public administration. As evolution theorist,
The contestations on the science of Public Yuval Harari, puts it: "There were humans
Administration are inherently embedded in long before there was history".57 Does this
the history and evolution of the discipline. mean there was science before history?
They have been raging for some time now. This question is asked because, if there was
As Immanuel Kant put it: "Whenever a dis- co-existence in antiquity, surely there was
pute has raged for any length of time, there collective knowledge that spawned and sus-
was, at the bottom of it, never a problem tained it. Wouldn't that knowledge qualify as
about mere words, but always a genuine human science? If the answer to this ques-
problem about things".55 A genuine problem tion is yes, then the science of co-existence
of the discipline is whether Public Adminis- is as old as humans. It precedes history.
tration is a science. Towards answering this This brings to mind a rhetorical question:
question, Robert Behn's words are instruc- does science precede praxis or praxis pre-
tive: "Any field of science is defined by the cede science? A reincarnation of this, in
big questions it asks."56 Cameralism asked the context of the discipline is whether
the political economic questions of the `"(P)public (A)administration is a science or
administration of the state. What "big ques- an art". This question Robert Parker dis-
tion" does modern Public Administration ask missed as "meaningless" and "vacuous". He
that makes it a science? In a negative sense, said: "If there was an art of public adminis-
the same question could be asked: What tration, this would not exclude the possibil-
`"small question" does Public Administration ity of a science of Public Administration".58
ask that makes it not a science? An answer Merson explains that "practice is often in
to these questions is prefaced with a criti- advance of science".59
cal historical overview, for context setting,
framed with anecdotes from the theory of Homo means man whereas sapiens refers
evolution, coupled with insights from Afri- to wise. This exemplifies the cognitive supe-
can scholarship. riority of this species of bipedal primates.

The human species distinction in the homi- of history, these practices are characterised
nids is based on the superiority of its intel- as primitive myths.
ligence. It has "extraordinarily large brains"
and cognitive ability; hence the attribution The discourse on the science of Public
of the Cognitive Revolution [about 70 000 Administration, as approached with anec-
years ago], Agricultural Revolution [about dotal insights from the theory of evolution,
12 000 years ago], and Scientific Revolu- points to the fact that science is a "socially
tion [500 years ago]" to the ingenuity of the embedded activity".63 It is as old as homo
homo sapiens.60 The cognitive imaginative sapiens. These bipedal primates mastered
capacity of homo sapiens spawned social the art and science of co-existence, exem-
order and constitutive standards to institu- plifying earliest collective knowledge. As
tionalise co-existence. Wasn't this a func- Butler-Adam explains, going beyond the
tion of thought? We are asking this question history of the disciplines as emerged "in the
because if public administration is a func- 18th and 19th centuries, by the late 14th cen-
tion of co-existence, necessarily therefore, tury, science meant collective knowledge".64
it has always been a science. Imagined real- Science "has consistently carried the mean-
ity, to model social order, is the function of ing of being a socially embedded activity:
the interpretation of the experiences, activi- people seeking, systematising and sharing
ties, constructs and artifacts, which homo knowledge".65 In the context of co-existence
sapiens had in antiquity. Using philosopher this means establishing constitutive stand-
John Haugeland's words from his book, ards to optimise social order. Or simply, a
Having thought: social order is a function modelling of co-existence. Isn't this science?
of "socially instituted normativity" and exis- As a function of optimising co-existence,
tential commitment – a dedication or "even hasn't Public Administration always been
a devoted way of living, a determination to a science? In asking this question, it is per-
maintain and carry on", an "insistence" on haps appropriate to further exacerbate the
constitutive standards, obedience to "gov- contestations by invoking the history of the
erning or normative authority [which] comes pre-colonial African civilisation.
from nowhere other than itself, self-disci-
pline and resolute persistence".61 Why would In the 12th century, the City of Timbuktu was
the cognitive activities of the sapiens that established. Apart from being a commercial
spawned socially instituted normativity for hub, the City became the epicentre of intel-
social order, not be characterised as science? lectual activities. In the book, The meanings
Isn't this what human sciences are all about? of Timbuktu, Souleymane Diagne explains
The sapiens interpreted their experiences in that "science and scholarship in Africa have
their interface with the contiguities to order a history" that predates colonialism and
and sustain co-existence.62 The positivist `"the introduction of European languages".
66
narratives do not consider this in their defi- At the confluence of the Shashe and Lim-
nition of science. Because of their predating popo rivers, Mapungubwe exemplified a

pre-colonial African civilisation that dates [in Africa]".68 Rehistoricising Public Adminis-
back to 1200 to 1300 AD. Mapungubwe was tration in order to answer the question about
a centre of trade with the economics based its science is an important consideration for
on agriculture, ivory and gold deposits. Its the decoloniality project. In other words,
conduct of human affairs evinced sophistica- how did the earliest African communities
tion. Mapungubwe traded with China, India manage their affairs? This question needs
and Egypt.67 The City of Timbuktu and the a dedicated, scholarly pursuit in a separate
Kingdom of Mapungubwe are examples study. It is beyond the scope of this arti-
of well-organised pre-colonial societies, cle. Let's conclude with the contention that
with glaring characteristics of civilisation, public administration is a human science. In
whose modelling can only be a function of a more erudite fashion, Michel Foucault in
science – especially as it pertains to the The order of things makes an illuminative
production, distribution and consumption enunciation: "The human sciences are an
of goods and services (economics), includ- analysis that extends from what man is in his
ing the interplay of these functions with positivity to what enables this same being
laws and politics (political economy). The to know what life is, in what the essence
optimisation of that interplay is the function of labour and its laws consist, and in what
of public administration, which is human way he is able to speak. [In other words],
science. Cameralism, as a science of govern- human sciences develop in the exteriority of
ment, underscored this in the originative knowledge".69 Social order for co-existence,
foundation of its institutionalisation – pro- which homo sapiens achieved in antiquity by
mote and enhance the political economy of establishing socially instituted normativity,
the state. exemplifies human science.
From this, can we also hypothesise that the Critiquing the Critiques of
science of Public Administration originated the Discipline
in Africa? This question is asked on the
basis of the conclusions that most scholars The formalisation of the science of co-
arrived at on the origin of humanity and civi- existence into a field of study or an academic
lisation, with Professors Cheikh Anta Diop discipline, called Public Administration, is a
and Phillip Tobias's works being authorita- relatively new development. In modern states,
tive on these subjects. Afrocentric scholar, public administration is intended to facilitate
Diop, argued that Africa is a cradle of human the realisation of the imagined realities or
civilisation. An internationally acclaimed compliance with the constitutive standards of
palaeoanthropologist, Tobias complemented society: public interest, rule of law and social
Diop's thesis in concluding that "Africa has justice. This is a pursuit with precedence
been an astonishing crucible of the earth's in antiquity. It is, perhaps, because of this
history for the last two billion years…nearly that Woodrow Wilson – an American politi-
everything of note or consequences started cian and academic who is regarded by the

mainstream scholarship in public administra- of Public Administration. Science of Public

tion as the father of the discipline – asserted: Administration? This question invoked witty
`"The idea of the state is the conscience of rejoinders critiquing an idea of the science
administration".70 More important for this of Public Administration in the United States
article is Wilson's reference to public admin- (US). Especially in the fifties and sixties, an
istration as "practical science" or "science of avalanche of contestations emerged to con-
administration".71 David Lindenfled char- test essentially Cameralism, the Classical,
acterised the science of administration as Medieval and Enlightenment scholarship of
`"practical imagination". The Germans had the 18th century. Those critiques were based
72
long institutionalised public administration on the positivist logic of the meaning of sci-
as a science in Cameralism, which is said to ence, as inscribed in the specifications of the
be akin to the French mercantilism associ- Western conceptualisations. The dialogical-
ated with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who served ity in the rejoinders was based on the nihil-
as the minister of finance under the kingship ism that Public Administration is not a sci-
of Louis XIV from 1665 to 1683. Among his ence because it does not have a theory of its
achievements, Colbert established the Acad- own. Herbert Kaufman75 specifically under-
emy of Sciences to foster scientific research. scored this, which, in simple terms, means
The academy is now part of the Institut de theory makes science. Frederick Mosher76
France. However, its focus on the administra- and Robert Parker77 agreed with Kaufman.
tion of the state was only from 1795, follow- Mosher argued that Public Administration is
ing the establishment of a faculty of moral an "area of interest rather than a discipline".78
and political sciences. Although the French From how Parker answered the question of
established the Academy of Sciences much whether Public Administration is a science or
earlier, their recognition of the administra- an art in the opening lines of his article, one
tion of the state as a science is antedated by thought that he was to differ with the views
that of the Prussians, who institutionalised that it was not a science. He did not. Apart
Cameralism, established a professorate, and from a good point he made, that if Public
mainstreamed it as a field of study in their Administration was an art there is nothing
Universities of Frankfurt, Oder and Halle in that precludes it from being a science, Parker
1727. Cameralism was also established in the contended that "there is really no such sub-
University of Ultrecht in the Netherlands.73 ject as Public Administration [as] no science
Keith Tribe characterised Cameralism as the or art can be identified by this title, least of
university of the science of government.74 all any single skill or coherent intellectual
This is presented here deliberately to con- discipline".79 Because of this, Parker talked
textualise critiquing of the critiques of the about the end of Public Administration.
discipline. McCurdy and Cleary reiterated Kaufman,
Mosher and Parker's contentions: "Public
As explained earlier, Cameralism is said to Administration is too variable a field to lend
be a precedessor of the modern science itself to systematic exploration".80

Half a century since Parker's prediction, from that of the 1950s and 1960s accent
Public Administration still exists as a field on a lack of theory to its "(supposed) weak
of study and is recognised as an important theoretical foundation". As Rosenbloom
discipline in various universities worldwide. observed: "The discipline of public admin-
Because of this, a question arises: why did istration is plagued by a weak…theoretical
the evolution of the discipline not vindicate core".81 What does this mean? A theoreti-
the critiques of the discipline as a science? cal basis of the discipline existed, but it was
For, if indeed Public Administration was not weak. The epistemological basis of this
a science, it would have long been dead by argument was still embedded in a positiv-
now. How is it that a discipline so severely ist understanding of a science. In making
critiqued as not being a science evolved into reference to science in his ground-breaking
such a growing field of study? Isn't it because essay of 1887, titled The study of Adminis-
Public Administration has always been a sci- tration, was Woodrow Wilson agreeing with
ence, but not always in the positivist sense Cameralism that Public Administration is
of its critiques? Earlier, an argument was a science? A closer analysis of the article
made, with insights from the theory of evolu- indicates that Wilson's contentions were
tion, that Public Administration as a human sharply focused on "administration" with-
science is as old as homo sapiens, who in out the adjective "public". He referred to
antiquity mastered the art of co-existence. the "study of administration" as a "practical
The historiography of Public Administration science", not "Public Administration".82 It is
does not go to this extent. This makes the important to point this out because "public",
critique of the science of Public Administra- as prefixed to "administration", presupposes
tion ahistorical. As evolution theory points a broader meaning than mere "administra-
out, human existence predates history as it tion". Because of this, we wonder whether
is commonly understood. How that exist- the contentions that Public Administration is
ence in antiquity sustained itself is an impor- not a science were rejoinders to what Wilson
tant question worthy of consideration in the did not say? Perhaps. But, what is more
discourse on the origin of science, to conse- important is not the relevance or irrelevance
quently determine whether Public Adminis- of the rejoinders, but their instructional
tration is a science or not. This is the dimen- dialogism on what constitutes a science. In
sion that the critiques of the discipline did other words, the question is: What makes a
not venture into. Their preoccupation has science of Public Administration? In their
largely been on one aspect: Public Admin- rejoinders, as referred to earlier, Kaufman,
istration is not a science because it lacks a Mosher and Parker appear unanimous in
theory. Over time, the consistency of this their answer: Theory makes science. Their
argument waned. conception of science followed a positiv-
ist logic of the theory of knowledge. Isn't
In the eighties, the discourse on the theo- this where a fundamental faux pas lies – a
retical question of the discipline shifted positivist definition of the science of Public

Administration? This question is inevitable, their cognitive outputs as primitive myths of

especially in the context of a discourse that prehistory, not science. This is the same way
invokes insights from the theory of evolu- they would reject the rationalist philosophy
tion, exacerbating the contestations. in favour of empiricism. Just to say theory
makes science – in a positivist sense – bor-
The 20th century scholarship appeared to ders on the illogic that invokes a simple
have not adequately deconstructed Camer- argument to tackle a complex question of
alism, Medieval and Enlightenment schol- epistemology and gneosology. Some of the
arship inframing rejoinders against Public rejoinders that reject the science of public
Administration as a science. Their critique administration do so by using the natural/
of the science of Public Administration is physical sciences as a launching pad. This
hollow. They failed to adequately lay bare argument is entangled in the absurdities of
the inadequacies of Cameralism's theory of natural/physical sciences-humanities/social
state craftor science of government. Theirs sciences binaries. The problem with it is that
was more of a shot from the hip, rather than it undermines efforts towards interdiscipli-
substantively also engaging with the context narity. The natural/physical sciences are
of a phenomenon they critiqued. That Public `"culturally embedded and without a supe-
Administration is not a science, because it rior epistemological foundation".85 Humani-

does not have a theory, was a contextless ties/social sciences are as important as the
argument. Those critiques were solipsistic natural/physical sciences. Instead of com-
self-referential inscriptive nihilism. Donalt peting in the epistemological space, their
Kettl nearly struck a right chord, but did intersections should complement each other
not quite get there. He wrote: "As long as for rounded knowledge. This is what the dic-
humans have been writing, they have been tates of the 21st century require for societal
writing about administration as the art of advances. A graduate of natural/physical
turning big policy ideas into solid results".83 sciences is only complete if he/she also
There is a sense of historicity in this argu- knows the social context of the science of
ment. However, it does not go beyond his/her disciplinary embeddedness. In the
the beginning of history itself. As argued pursuit of knowledge, a distinction between
above, public administration is a function natural/physical sciences and humanities/
of optimising co-existence for the common social sciences is a false one. What does
good. Such was the case in antiquity, which this mean? The critiques of the science of
could have only been the consequences of Public Administration were based on a false
the "socially embedded activity" of "seeking, premise.
systematising and sharing knowledge".84 Is
this not science? A fundamental flaw in the rejoinders against
Public Administration as a science lies in
Homo sapiens had cognitive capacity for sys- the self-referential inscriptive paradigm of
tematic thinking. The positivists characterise their embeddedness and the modernisation

premises of the Western logic of what makes specifications of Western conceptualisations

a science.86 Lurking in this is the German incurs the risk of being defined out of exist-
philosopher, G.W.F Hegel's view that, using ence. As Uche explains, this makes Public
the Senegalese philosopher, Souleymane Administration, as a field of study, "a tool
Diane's words: "Africans could not proof Western imperialism".89 Among others,
duce anything comparable to a thought".87 a science behind "the first major [African]
In other words, nothing can be learned by civilisation of antiquity"90 is yet another
the West from Africa. Because of this, an important contribution Africa would have
opportunity to draw insights from African made to world knowledge. Earlier we made
contexts to increase an understanding of the reference to the City of Timbuktu and the
world was missed. The Black Consciousness Kingdom of Mapungubwe as examples of
philosopher, Steve Biko, said: "In the long well-organised pre-colonial societies with
run the special contribution to the world glaring characteristics of civilisation, whose
by Africa will be in this field of human rela- modelling can only be a function of science.
tionships. The great powers of the world The production, distribution and consump-
have done wonders in giving the world an tion of goods and services (economics), and
industrial and military look, but the great the optimisation of the interplay of these
gift still has to come from Africa – giving with laws and politics (political economy)
the world a more human face".88 This under- is the function of public administration – a
scored the significance of human science, as human science. This is where the essence of
based on the African philosophy of human- the science of government in the Cameral-
ism. Are the great powers prepared to learn ism's theory of statecraft lies. The critiques
from the African experiences in theorising of the science of Public Administration fail
science? The science of Public Administra- to make reference to this. Is this because it
tion has always been an American-European would have weakened their rejoinders?
discourse, with the Public Administration
Review largely a platform for such intellec- A vexing question of public administra-
tual exchanges. This is the Journal of the tion has always been about optimising co-
American Society for Public Administration. existence for the common good. Twentieth
century scholarship that rejected Public
African scholarship uncritically followed the Administration as a science appears to have
American-European discourse rather than been oblivious to this verity. What makes a
assume thought leadership in the discourse science are the big questions the discipline
on the science of Public Administration. asks. The rejoinders against Public Admin-
African scholars have been thought follow- istration as a science should have prem-
ers at the tail-end. In spite of a rich history ised the essence of their discourse along
of African philosophy, their participation these questions: What are the questions
largely exemplified a regurgitation of West- that Public Administration asks? Are they
ern perspectives. Any deviation from the big enough to make it a science? Francis

Neumann asked these questions, towards the early nineties, David Osborne and Ted
the end of the 20th century, in a rejoinder to Gaebler packaged the ideas that comprise
Robert Behn's article, "The big questions of the NPM into a book titled, Reinventing gov-
Public Management". Compared to the ear- ernment.92 This publication literally became
lier approach's preoccupation with Public a prescription for reinventing government,
Administration's lack of theory, hence its as it resonated with the neo-liberal order,
rejection as a science, Neumann's interven- which gained ideological credibility follow-
tion shaped the discourse and redirected its ing the collapse of communism in Eastern
focus. The questions Public Administration Europe in the eighties.
asks, and the extent of their significance,
determine whether it is a science. As indi- A year before Osborne and Gaebler pub-
cated earlier, a vexing question of Public lished their book, Francis Fukuyama had
Administration has always been about opti- already published his book, titled The end
mising co-existence for the common good. of history and the last man. Fukuyama pro-
This is a big question. Various research claimed that neo-liberalism marks "the end
endeavours throughout the years, following of history as such, the end point of man's
its introduction as a field of study, have been ideological evolution and the universalisa-
focused on the various dimensions of this tion of Western liberal democracy as the
question and made important contributions final form of human government".93 If so,
that resulted in a rich body of knowledge why did the global financial meltdown
on how to achieve the common good. This happen, which is said to have emanated in
makes Public Administration a science. the US? The Euro crisis in Europe? Euro-
American crises exposed the inadequacy of
However, the New Public Management neo-liberalism as the ideological template
(NPM), which emerged in the eighties, trivi- for the new world order. The whole concept
alised Public Administration. Its ideological of NPM was based on what Public Adminis-
context is neo-liberalism, which called for a tration is not. Its emergence in the eighties
minimalist state. Its version of reinventing was part of the Bretton Woods Institution's
the state is based on the assumption that Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs),
the private sector is more efficient than the which institutionalised Western science as
public sector. Some characterised NPM as a the finite of ideas on the question of devel-
powerful paradigm or "one of the most strik- opment. As Maja van der Velden observed:
ing international trends in public administra- `"Almost all post-colonial nationalist move-
tion". Was it really? The NPM is concerned ments embraced the modernisation prem-
with "the transfer of business and market ises of Western science", which "has not
principles and managerial techniques from been able to provide these societies [with]
the private sector into the public sector, the promised prosperity".94 Instead, the
symbiotic with and based on the neo-lib- contrary was spawned: "poverty, ecologi-
eral understanding of the economy".91 In cal destruction and the displacement and

museumization of traditional technolo- a well-established field of study in many

gies".95 What does this mean? The big ques- universities worldwide. It is a growing dis-
tion of governance, we argue, means the cipline. The US is leading in the number
science of Public Administration was never of schools of Public Administration, most
really about African issues. offering post-graduate programmes: mas-
ter's and doctoral qualifications. These are
Recognising the Present State of the levels of education where knowledge
the Discipline is created. Especially at doctoral level, the
questions that are at the cutting edge of the
Various attempts to reassert the science field are emphasised as criteria for admis-
of Public Administration are forthcoming. sion, whereas the originality of the contribu-
Janet and Robert Denhardt's book, The new tions to the body of knowledge determine a
public service, serving, not steering, comes successful undertaking of the programme.
to mind as one of the powerful rejoinders to These are forthcoming, especially from the
the logic of the NPM. Its thesis is that "gov- best public affairs schools such as the Syra-
ernment shouldn't be run like a business; it cuse University (Maxwell), Indiana Univer-
should be run like a democracy".96 This is a sity (Bloomington) and Harvard University
very important contribution to the theory of (Kennedy). Doesn't this make Robert Dahl's
a state. In South Africa, Professor Sibusiso conclusion, almost 70 years ago, that "we
Vil-Nkomo has introduced the concept of a are a long way from a science of Public
humanitarian public service, which, as part Administration"97 an antediluvian history?
of the project of the University of Pretoria's
Centre for Advancement of Scholarship and Three decades later, Howard McCurdy and
SAAPAM, is being theorised. This concept Robert Cleary made an observation that sup-
seeks to give epistemological expression to ports Dahl's. They said "Public Administra-
the "great gift [that] still has to come from tion has not come to grips with the basic
Africa", which Biko talked about: "giving the questions of research that should be set-
world a human face". In this, an alternative tled in a mature field of study".98 We have
way of practising science beyond positivism, already contested the arguments that Public
based on the African philosophy of human- Administration is not a science. In making
ism, is pursued. The posture that SAAPAM reference to Dahl, McCurdy and Cleary, the
assumed, coupled with the orientation of intention is to contextualise the present state
the scholarship in the discipline in South of the discipline, especially along the ques-
Africa, including engaging at a global level tion of its science. Seventy years after Dahl's
but grounded in Afrocentricity, is encourag- conclusion on the science of Public Admin-
ing. All these, among others, demonstrate istration, and three decades after McCurdy
the epistemological introspection of the dis- and Cleary's article, one of the authors of
cipline and scholarship vitality in enhanc- this article compiled a research project for
ing the science of public administration, masters' students at a university in South

Table 1: Framework of assessment for doctoral theses

Thematic item Questions of focus
Purpose Is the purpose of the study clearly articulated, indicating whether it is

basic or applied research, empirical or non-empirical research?
Validity What is the methodological validity of the study, especially as it

relates to the research design and techniques? Are they appropriate
to generate data required to answer a research question or solve a
research problem? Does the design of the study give confidence that
the findings are valid? In this, thematic item issues of internal and
external validity should be given more attention.
Utilitarian value and impact What is the usefulness of the study in terms of value addition? In this,
it should be determined whether the impact is at the level of praxis,
theory or both. In other words, did the study enhance praxis,
strengthen or weaken the existing theory?
Causal relationship Does the study test the causal relationship of the variables of the
phenomenon studied? In this, it is important to establish whether
“the major conclusion of the study embodies a causal statement of
any kind”. 99 If it does, is it in a way that suggests synonymity with
theory testing?
Topicality Does the topic suggest that the issue the study considers is a big
question of the discipline?
Cutting edge Closely related to the topicality is the question of whether the study
is at the cutting edge of the discipline. In other words, does the study
“invent new questions or create new experiences?”100
Source: Developed from Howard E. McCurdy & Robert E. Cleary. 1984. Why can't we resolve the
research issue in Public Administration? Public Administration Review, 44(1):49-55
Africa where he teaches. Their instruction five pages. McCurdy and Cleary's template,
was to determine whether the findings as illustrated in Table 1, was prescribed as
of McCurdy and Cleary, which supported an analytical framework.
Dahl's earlier conclusion, three decades later,
are still relevant. This was a class of 2014, Each of these thematic items, along with
comprised of 25 students. Each student was their questions, were extensively explained
required to critically review five doctoral to the students. The exercise was part of the
theses, focusing on their topics, abstracts, research methodology module each student
research methodologies and the findings. was required to complete, where research
Each was required to report on his or her skills and analytical competence should
findings in a submission of not more than be demonstrated. This is a prerequisite for

consideration in the doctoral programmes. theoretical and philosophical questions. In

A total of 125 theses were analysed, with the 30 percent found wanting, five of them
each student compiling a report for pres- were wholly inadequate in all the thematic
entation before a panel of professors of items. This represents 1.5 percent. Eight
the department. All students submitted of the 30 did not meet the utilitarian value
their reports. A week was allocated for the and impact, causal relationship, topicality
presentations of their findings and discus- and cutting edge criteria. This represents
sions. The exercise focused on the doctoral 2.4 percent. Three were found substantially
theses completed between 2000 and 2014. lacking in methodological rigour. This puts
All the professors of the department, who the credibility of their findings in doubt. The
assessed the projects, confirmed that the research design was incongruent with the
quality of the students' review and analysis purpose of the study and the research ques-
was impressive. This was confirmed through tion. This accounts for 0.9 percent. Fourteen
external moderation. Of course, there were of the 30 theses found wanting, did not meet
a few that did not make the cut. This is the topicality and cutting edge criteria – 4.2
because they were badly written with a percent. They were found not to be at the
sloppiness that disregarded the instructions. cutting edge of the discipline, with their
They were therefore not as important for our topics either dull or irrelevant.
purpose. This accounts for only 30 percent.
Eighty percent of the reports were found Social sciences indexes indicate that there
to have valuable input to the discourse on are at least close to 200 journals in the
the science of Public Administration. Their public administration listings worldwide.
findings were that there is a large body of Most are in the United States (US) and
knowledge that makes Public Administra- United Kingdom (UK). SClmago's Journals
tion a mature field of study and therefore Ranking classified some as high impact
a science. This made the professoriate of scholarly publications, as determined by
the department curious, and it undertook to the number of articles with h citations. For
conduct its own independent study on the triangulation purposes, the professoriate
same subject using the same template and studied a sample of a 100 articles in the
theses the students had analysed. Journal of Public Administration, Admin-
istrative Sciences Quarterly and Public
Of the 125 theses, 76 percent or 95 theses Administration Review, published between
were found to be compliant with the thematic 2000-2014. The purpose was to determine
items as indicated above. This is consistent whether the subjects of their consideration
with the findings of the students, save the were at the cutting edge of the discipline. It
five percent margin of variation. In these 95 was part of the recurriculation exercise to
theses, 89 percent of their utilitarian value understand the state of the discipline. The
is at the level of praxis while 11 percent of Journal of Public Administration is pub-
the consideration focused on conceptual, lished in South Africa. It is highly regarded

with most scholars in the fraternity, even public administration in theory development
from other disciplines, preferring to pub- and testing.102 The Administrative Science
lish in it. SClmago ranks Administrative Quarterly deals with important issues at the
Science Quarterly as a top journal in the cutting edge of the theory and praxis of co-
field of public administration worldwide. It existence in the context of organisational
is published in the US. So, too, is the Public dynamics. Although some articles in the
Administration Review, which is in the top Journal address questions on the theory of
10 of the best public administration journals. organisations, most are empirical in their
The findings of the analyses were that these design.
journals dealt mostly with important ques-
tions of governance. In South Africa, insofar Apart from being a top-ranked scholarly
as the Journal of Public Administration is publication in the SClmago subject category
concerned, not much has changed since the of public administration, the Administrative
2008 study of Professor Robert Cameron of Science Quarterly does not deal with the
the University of Cape Town, as published cutting-edge theoretical and philosophical
in the Administratio Publica under the title questions of the discipline. Its top ranking in
Public Administration in South Africa: The this subject category is therefore surprising.
state of the academic field. This article was In other words, how can a journal be at the
co-authored with L. McLaverty.101 top of a list of the best scholarly publica-
tions, while most of the articles published
The focus of most of the articles in the Jour- in it are not necessarily and specifically con-
nal is on the praxis of governance. That said, cerned with the cutting-edge issues of the
articles that pursue conceptual, theoretical discipline? Public Administration Review is
and philosophical questions of the discipline a leading international platform for the dis-
have started to appear in the pages of the course on the epistemology and gnoseology
Journal, especially since 2011. This trend, of public administration. It has always been,
too, is starting to show in the doctoral theses. since its inception 75 years ago. Some of the
Although still very few, as indicated above, contributions in the Public Administration
there are some that deal with the conceptual, Review represent an important intellectual
theoretical and philosophical questions of history of public administration. What does
the discipline. Largely, Professor Jacobus all this mean? The answer is simple: there is
Wessels of the University of South Africa's a substantial growth of knowledge research
findings in the study of South African trends in public administration, which sustains it as
in masters' and doctoral research in public a field of study. Its focus is largely on how to
administration, between the period 2000- optimise the State for the common good and
2005, still stand. The study was published public interest – an important dimension of
in 2008 in the Administratio Publica of optimising co-existence in modern societies.
2008. The finding was that there is under- However, much of what is considered the
representation of research in the field of big question of the discipline is answered

from the Western perspective. Yet Africa considered to be at the cutting edge of the
has so much to offer, especially in theorising discipline, accentuate that Public Adminis-
the common good. tration is a science – a characterisation that
is fitting even from a positivist perspective.
In Iain McLean's words, the common good
refers to "any good that, if supplied to any- Imagining the Future
body, is necessarily supplied to everybody,
and from whose benefits it is impossible or As the challenges of the 21st century abound,
impracticable to exclude anybody".103 Public which, as Greece, Spain, Italy, Libya and
interest characterises commitment to sat- Tunisia have demonstrated, a fundamental
isfy on all aspects of societal life. The state question for the scholarship in the field is:
of happiness of the governed is a measure how do we enhance the science of Public
of public interest.104 This is the essence of Administration as a function of co-existence
the science of Public Administration, which for the common good, from which insights
dates back to antiquity. "One man in the short could be drawn to model the future? In
space of his life remarks a fact, another conscience, we are looking for a better account
ceives an idea; the former invents a means of the world and insights to inform us how
of execution, the latter reduces a truth to a to overcome social complexity. But more
formula; and mankind gathers the fruits of importantly, the science of Public Adminis-
individual experience on its way and gradu- tration should not only be preoccupied with
ally forms the sciences." These are Alexis the praxis of governance, as the empiricists
de Tocqueville's words, in his Democracy would prefer. It should question the basic
in America, which we find apt in character- logic of the epistemology and gnoseology
ising the tapestry of Public Administration of Public Administration. This implicates
towards answering the question whether it how we do research and is very important
is a science. Largely, the 20th century schol- for curricula development or recurricula-
arship did not answer this question in the tion. It requires going beyond the empiricist-
affirmative. Closer to a century since this rationalist binaries, including transcending
question has been bandied about, the 21st a positivist definition of science. It is impor-
century scholarship argues that Public tant to extricate the discipline from the
Administration is a science. There is a large Cartesian logic of knowledge typified in the
body of knowledge of which the research disciplinary autarky, for the pursuit of the
is focused largely on the big question that science of Public Administration to ask dif-
the discipline spawned. This makes Public ferent questions "about government than
Administration a mature field of study. The the ones posed by Newton's science and the
postgraduate studies in the field add to a neo-Darwinism it sustains".105 To secure the
growing body of knowledge, while the schol- future of the discipline, we need to rethink
arship vitality in the journals and books the inventions of the Schools of Public
which are raising important issues generally Affairs, where emphasis, in the essence of

their existence, should be on the epistemol- to respond directly to the multi-layered

ogy and gnoseology. challenges of diffuse disciplines, interlinked
socio-economic problems, impacts of glo-
Scientific approaches should go beyond balisation, de-territorialised nation states,
empiricist-rationalist binaries and the meth- technological advancements, environmental
odological approach of science as "a prior concerns, food security and so on. Transdis-
ontological commitment",106 for this may ciplinarity recognises the complex character
weaken the capacity to challenge the very of realities, which calls for more than one
ontological foundation of the epistemology discipline for interpretation and application.
of Public Administration especially when a This approach acknowledges the need for
need to rewrite "the archeology of knowl- joint-problem solving mechanisms. It seeks
edge"107 in the field arises. Lurking in this is to stimulate unification of the knowledge
an agitation for transdisciplinarity. Basarab paradigms.110 As we contend with the vicis-
Nicolescu is said to have developed the con- situdes of governance, a question arises:
cept of transdisciplinarity in his book The where is the future of the science of Public
manifesto of transdisciplinarity. It is defined Administration? The answer is: it is in trans-
as "that which is at once between the dis- disciplinarity. This is because, as Vil-Nkomo
ciplines, and beyond all disciplines".108 The contends, governing today is a complex ini-
Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflec- tiative that demands broader and in-depth
tion (MISTRA) made a very important con- knowledge and strategies. It is no longer
tribution to the concept and application of about political rhetoric or just administration.
transdisciplinarity, which Vil-Nkomo empha-
sised at the 14th Annual Conference of the Public administration is entangled in this
South African Association of Public Admin- complexity. And Vil-Nkomo warns: the field
istration and Management (SAAPAM), where will die if it does not recognise transdiscipli-
he reflected on this learned society in the narity as the way to safeguard knowledge
next ten years.109 generation particularly in the emerging
economies. In imagining the future of the
Drawing from a well-timed MISTRA pub science of Public Administration, another
lication, The concept and application of point of concern for consideration, which Vil-
transdisciplinarity in intellectual discourse Nkomo also emphasised, is what he referred
and research by Hester Du Plessis, Jeffrey to as isomorphic mimicry, with African schol-
Sehume and Leonard Martin, Vil-Nkomo arship's engagement in the disciplinary dis-
explains that transdisciplinarity represents course following Euro-American scholarship
attempts at formulating an integrative rather than assuming thought leadership on
process of knowledge production and dis- the questions of epistemology and gnose-
semination. It is in part a reaction against ology of the discipline. Africa has much to
the 20th century occurrence of narrow disci- offer the world in matters of science, yet
pline focus and hyper specialisation coming African scholarship is at the tail end of the

mainstream enterprise called education. Afri- insights from the theory of evolution and
can scholars should be part of the discourse, succinct African perspectives. It contends
not followers of the Euro-American discourse that the science of Public Administration is
on the science of Public Administration. This as old as homo sapiens. However, as a field of
is said in the context that Africa is the cradle study, it is of recent origin. This was intended
of humanity and the "first major civilisation to build a contextual basis to critique the
of antiquity".111 The Timbuktu literature, perspectives of the 20th century scholarship,
including the works of professors Cheikh which reject any idea that Public Administra-
Anta Diop, Phillip Tobias, and some theories tion is a science. This was a repudiation of
on the origin of human species, attests to Cameralism, which in the 18th century char-
this. There is an abundance of buried truths acterised Public Administration as a science.
about Africa, and which African scholars The article critiqued the critiques of the
should unearth to shape the discourse on science of Public Administration. Contem-
the science of co-existence–the function of porary scholarship endeavours that assert
Public Administration. Some in the frater- the science of Public Administration were
nity, who have started to master the courage recognised. This laid a basis for imagining
to engage the specifications of the Western the future of the science of Public Admin-
conceptualisations of the discipline, should istration. Based on the critique of the 20th
be supported and encouraged to develop an century scholarship, the analysis of the con-
alternative way of practising science. temporary scholarship endeavours and the
imagination of the future of the discipline,
Conclusion with insights from the theory of evolution,
the article contends that Public Administra-
The article reconsidered the question: is tion is a science. It makes recommendations
Public Administration a science? This is an considered critically important to enhance
old question which just doesn't go away. It the future of the science of Public Admin-
keeps recurring at any given moment. As the istration, including encouraging and sup-
main concept that constitutes the thematic porting those who mastered the courage
essence of the focus of this article is science, to engage the specifications of the Western
the discourse started with its meaning, which conceptualisation of the discipline. African
revealed that it is largely located within the scholarship should assume thought leader-
logic of the positivist epistemology. Beyond ship and should always be at the forefront of
this logic, the article invoked anecdotal the science of Public Administration.
Mashupye H Maserumule is an Associate Professor and the Chair of the Department of Public
Management at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT). He has been the President of the South
African Association of Public Administration and Management (SAAPAM). His areas of research
interest are developmental state, local governance, state reform, politics and theory of knowledge.

He co-edited various books and conference proceedings in the field of governance. He also served
as a discussant in various intellectual gatherings of strategic nature, and participated in the review of
a single public service bill for the Ministry of Public Service and Administration (DPSA).
Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo is the Chair of the Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection (MISTRA)
Board and a Research Professor at the University of Pretoria's Centre for Advancement of Scholarship.
He was the Executive Director and a member of the University of Pretoria's Executive. He is a
member of the Board of Advisors for the School of Public Policy and Administration at the University
of Delaware and a Distinguished Visiting Professor at the Andrew Young School of Policy Studies at
Georgia State University. Among others, he serves on the Editorial Board of the Servant Leadership
Journal published at Gonzaga University. He participated in Fordham University Business School
Consortium think tanking sessions, where, as a fellow, was specifically invited, in Istanbul, Turkey
and New York City, where the future of Business and Governance, Health as a Business, and the Arts
as a Business have been discussed.
References and Notes

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land and post-colonial void. In plexity of epistemology: Theory science. Available at www.allabout
Kabir, J.K. & Williams, D. (eds). of knowledge or philosophy of worldbview.org/marxism-and-
Post-colonial approaches to the science? Fourth Annual Meeting science (Accessed on 14 January
European middle ages: Translating of the European Chaos and Com 2016).
cultures. Cambridge: Cambridge plexity in Organisations Network 19 Tucker, R. 1961. Philosophy and
University Press. p.25. (ECCON), 22-23 October 2004. myth in Karl Marx. London: Cam
2 Daneke, G. 1990. A science of pub Driebergen, NL. bridge University Press.
lic administration? Public Admin 10 Mbeki, T. 2012. The democratisation 20 Sprinzak, E. 1975. Marx’s historical
istration Review, 50(3):383-392. of knowledge: The role of knowl conception of ideology and science.
3 Ibid. edge in the betterment of society. Politics & Society, 5:395-416.
4 Gottlieb, S. 1997. What is Address of the Patron of the TMF, 21 Ibid.
science? Presentation at the Thabo Mbeki, at the University 22 Marx, K. and Engels, F. 1932.
Harbinger Symposium, themed of Stellenbosch Business School A critique of German ideology.
Religion & Science – the best of Knowledge Management Con Marx/Engels internet archives.
enemies, the worst of friends. ference. Bellville, 16 January 2012. www.marxists.org/archive/marx
University of Alabama: Medical 11 Robinson, D. and Mayblin, B. 2004. (Accessed on 27 December 2015).
School Auditorium. http://www. Introducing empiricism. United 23 Kingston, P. 2000. The classless
theharbinger.org/articles/rel-sci/ Kingdom: Icon Books, p. 17. society . California: Standford
gottlieb.html. (Accessed on 21 12 Robinson, D. and Mayblin, B. 2004. University Press.
July 2015). Introducing empiricism. United 24 Nkrumah, K. 1970. Consciencism.
5 Ibid. Kingdom: Icon Books, p. 15. Philosophy and ideology for de
6 Gottlieb, S. 1997. What is science? 13 Robinson, D, and Mayblin, B. 2004. colonisation. London: Heinemann.
Presentation at the Harbinger Sym Introducing empiricism. United 25 Maserumule, M.H. 2011. Good
posium, themed Religion & Science Kingdom: Icon Books, p. 9. governance in the New Partnership
the best of enemies, the worst of 14 Ibid. for Africa's Development (NEPAD):
friends. University of Alabama: 15 Robinson, D. and Mayblin, B. 2004. a Public Administration perspective.
Medical School Auditorium. http:// Introducing empiricism. United Unpublished doctoral thesis.
www.theharbinger.org/articles/rel- Kingdom: Icon Books, p. 11. Pretoria: University of South Africa.
sci/gottlieb.html. (Accessed on 21 16 Darwin, C. 2011. The origin of spec pp. 208-209.
July 2015). ies. London: Harper Press. 26 Van Noorden, R. 2013. Who is the
7 Ibid. 17 Ferguson, N. 2012. Civilization. best scientist of them all? Nature
8 Ibid. London: Penguin Books, pp. 88-89. News, 6 November 2013.

27 Ibid. Africa: the meaning of Timbuktu. 53 Drechsler, W. 2005. The rise

28 Kreis, S. 2008. Lecturers on modern In Jeppie, S. & Diagne, S.B. (eds.). and demise of the new public
European intellectual history. Karl The meanings of Timbuktu. Cape management. Post-autistic Eco
Marx, 1818-1883. Available at Town: HSRC Press, pp. 17-19. nomic Review , 33: on-line.
historyguide.org. (Accessed on 12 40 Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. 2013. Why Available at http://www.paecon.
October 2015). decoloniality in the 21st century? n e t / PA E R R e v i e w / i s s u e s 3 3 /
29 Furton, E.J. 2004. The corruption of The Thinker, 48:11-13. Drechsler33.htm (Accessed on 12
science by ideology. Ethics & 41 Sir James Jeans. 1981, as cited in October 2010).
Medics. 29(12):1-2. Neumann, F.X. 1996. What makes 54 Brooks, A.C. 2002. Can non-profit
30 Neumann, F. 1996. What makes public administration a science? Are management help answer public
public administration a science? its "big questions" really big? Public management’s "big questions"?
Are its "big questions" really big? Administration Review, 56(5):409- Public Administration Review,
Public Administration Review, 415. 62(3):259-266.
56(5):409-415. 42 Neumann, F.X. 1996. What makes 55 Popper, C. 2002. The logic of
31 Merson, F. 1923. Public admin public administration a science? Are scientific discovery . London:
istration: a science. Journal of Public its "big questions" really big? Public Routlege Classics.
Administration, 1(3):220-227. Administration Review, 56(5):409- 56 Behn, R.D. 1995. The big questions
32 Ibid. 415. of Public Management. Public
33 Butler-Adam, J. 2015. What does 43 Ibid. Administration Review, 55:313-
‘science’ mean in the title South 44 Ferguson, N. 2012. Civilization. Lon- 324.
African Journal of Science? South don: Panguin Books, p.77. 57 Harari, Y.N. 2014. Sapiens. A brief
African Journal of Science, 111 45 Berstecher, D., Drëze, J., Fragniëre, history of humankind. London:
(9/10):1. G., Guyot, Y., Hambye, C., Hecquet, Vintage Books, p. 4.
34 Maserumule, M.H. 2015. Why Afri I., Jadot, J., Ladriére, J., Rouche, N. 58 Parker, R. 1965. The end of public
ca’s professors are afraid of colonial 1974. University of the future. The administration. Australian Journal
education being dismantled. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, pp. 50-51. of Public Administration Review,
Conversation Africa, 25 Novem- 46 Haraway, D. 1988. Situated knowl 24(2):99-103.
ber 2015. This article was repub edges: The science question in 59 Merson, F. 1923. Public admin
lished in the Mail & Guardian of feminism and the privilege of partial istration: A science. Public Admin
26 November 2015. See the com perspective. Feminist Studies, 14(3): istration, 1(3):220-227.
ments to the article, in both the 575-599. 60 Harari, Y.N. 2014. Sapiens. A brief
websites of The Conversation [the 47 Ferguson, N. 2012. Civilization. Lon- history of humankind. London:
conversation.com] and Mail & don: Penguin Books. Vintage Books, p. 3.
Guardian [mg.co.za]. See Shaun 48 Uche, N. 2015. Coloniality and 61 Haugeland, J. 1998. Having thought.
Stanley’s solipsistic reading of my governance in Africa in the twenty- Essays in the metaphysics of mind.
article – a self-referrenial inscriptive first century: The challenges of Cambridge: Harvard University
nihilism rather than a rejoinder to a public administration. Journal of Press, pp. 341.
discourse. Public Administration, 50(2):191- 62 Harari, Y.N. 2014. Sapiens. A brief
35 Ferguson, N. 2012. Civilisation. Lon- 200. history of humankind. London:
don: Penguin Books, pp. 51-52. 49 Ibid. Vintage Books, p. 30.
36 Ibid. 50 Small, A. 1909. The Cameralists. The 63 Butler-Adam, J. 2015. What does
37 Macedo, D. 1993. Literacy for stu pioneers of German social policy. science mean in the title South
pidification. The pedagogy of big Chicago: University of Chicago African Journal of Science ?
lies. Harvard Educational Review, 63 Press. South African Journal of Science,
(2):183-206. 51 Lindenfeld, D.F. 1997. The practical 111(1/10):1.
38 Ake, C. 1982. Social science as imp- imagination: The German sciences 64 Ibid.
erialism. The theory of political dev- of the state in the nineteenth cen- 65 Ibid.
elopment. Ibadan: Ibadan University tury. (s.l.): (s.n.) See also Tribe, K. 66 Diagne, S.B. 2008. Toward an
Press. 1988. Governing economy. The intellectual history of West Africa:
39 Diop, D. 1999. Africa: Mankind’s reformation of German academic The meaning of Timbuktu. In
past and future. In Makgoba, M.W. discourse. (s.l.): (s.n.) Jeppie, S. & Diagne, S.B. (eds). The
(ed). African renaissance. Cape 52 Tribe, K. 1995. Strategies of eco meaning of Timbuktu. Cape Town:
Town: Mafube & Tafelberg. pp. 3-9. nomic order. German economic HSRC Press: p. 26.
See also Diagne, S.B. 2008. Toward discourse, 1750-1950. Cambridge: 67 Carruthers, J. 2006. Mapungubwe:
an intellectual history of West Cambridge University Press. An historical and contemporary

analysis of a World Heritage cultural for twenty-first century America. entrepreneurial spirit is transform
landscape. Koedoe, 49(1):1-13. Baltimore, Maryland: The John ing the public sector. New York:
68 Diop, D. 1999. Africa: Mankind’s Hopkins University Press, p. 41. Addison-Wesley.
past and future. In Magoba, M.W. 84 Butler-Adam, J. 2015. What does 93 Fukuyama, F. 1992. The end of
(ed). African renaissance. Cape science mean in the title South history and the last man. New York:
Town: Mafube & Tafelberg, pp. 3-4. African Journal of Science? South Free Press.
69 Foucault, M. 1970. The order of African Journal of Science, 111 94 Van der Velden, M. 2006. A case
things. New York: Pantheon, pp. (1/10):1. for cognitive justice. Available at
353-354. 85 Cohen, B.R. 2001. Science and hu http.www.globalagenda.org/files/6
70 Wilson, W. 1887. The study of manities: Across two cultures and Accessed on 16 June 2013.
administration. Political Science into science studies. Endeavour, 25 95 Ibid.
Quarterly. pp. 197-222. (1):8-12. 96 Denhardt, J.V. & Dehardt, R.B.
71 Ibid. 86 Velden van der, M. A case for cog 2011. The New Public Service .
72 Lindenfield, D.F. 1997. The nitive justice. Unpublished paper. Serving, Not Steering. New York:
practical imagination: The German Available at http://www.globalag M.E. Sharpe.
sciences of state in the nineteenth enda.org/file/24 (Accessed on 5 Oct- 97 Dahl, R. 1947. The science of public
century.(s.l.): (s.n.) ober 2015). administration: three problems.
73 Ibid. 87 Diagne, S.B. 2008. Toward an Public Administration Review ,
74 Tribe, K. 1988. Governing econ intellectual history of West Africa: 7(1):1-11 .
omy: The reformation of German The meaning of Timbuktu. In 98 McCurdy, H. & Cleary, R. 1984.
academic discourse.(s.l.): (s.n.) Jeppie, S. & Diagne, S.B. (eds). The Why can’t we resolve the research
75 Kaufmann, H. 1956. Emerging meanings of Timbuktu. Cape Town: issue in public administration?
conflicts in the doctrines of Public HSRC Press, p. 26. Public Administration Review, 44:
Administration. American Political 88 South African Politics. On- 49-50.
Sciences Review, 50:1057-1073. line. "Giving the world a more 99 Ibid.
76 Mosher, F.C. 1956. Research in human face. Available at https:// 100 Ibid.
Public Administration. Some notes dwa234southafricanpolitics.word 101 Cameron, R.G. & McLaverty, L.
and suggestions. Public Adminis press.com (Accessed on 16 Jan 2008. Public administration research
tration Review, 16(3):169-178. uary 2016). Read also Biko, S. in South Africa: An assessment of
77 Parker, R. 1965. The end of public 1987. I write what I like. London: the journal publications: 1994-2006.
administration. Australian Journal Heinemann. Administratio Publica, 15(2):69-96.
of Public Administration Review, 89 Uche, N.O. 2015. Coloniality and 102 Wessels, J.S. 2008. South African
24(2):99-103. governance in Africa in the twenty- trends in master’s and doctoral
78 Mosher, F.C. 1956. Research in first century: The challenges of research in Public Administration.
Public Administration. Some notes public administration. Journal of Administratio Publica, 15(2):97-
and suggestions. Public Adminis Public Administration, 50(2):191. 120.
tration Review, 16(3):169-178. 90 Diop, D. 1999. Africa: Mankind’s 103 McLean, I. 1996. Oxford concise dic-
79 Parker, R. 1965. The end of public past and future. In Makgoba, M.W. tionary of politics. Oxford: Oxford
administration. Australian Journal (ed). African renaissance. Cape University Press, pp. 412.
of Public Administration Review, Town: Mafube & Tafelberg, p. 4. 104 Swanton, C. 1980. The concept of
24(2):99-103. See also Diagne, S.B. 2008. Toward interests. Political Theory, 8(1):83-
80 McCurdy H.E. & Cleary, R.E. 1984. an intellectual history of West 101.
Why can’t we resolve the research Africa: The meaning of Timbuktu. 105 Dennard, L. 1996. The new para-
issue in Public Administration? In Jeppie, S. & Diagne, S.B. (eds). digm in science and public admin
Public Administration Review, 44 The meanings of Timbuktu. Cape istration. Public Administration
(1):49-55. Town: HSRC Press, pp. 17-19. Review, 56(5):495-499.
81 Rosenbloom, D.H. 1983. Public 91 Drechsler, W. 2005. The rise and 106 Steen, F. 1997. Michael Foucault
administration theory and the separ- demise of the new public man- on the role of the human sciences.
ation of powers. Public Adminis agement. Post-autistic Economic California: University of California.
tration Review, 43(3):219-227. Review, 33: on-line. Available at 107 Foucault, M. 1969. The archeology
82 Wilson, W. 1887. The study of http://www.paecon.net/PAEReview of knowledge . Paris: Éditions
administration. Political Science /issues33/Drechsler33.htm (Access Gallimard.
Quarterly. pp. 197-222. ed on 12 October 2010). 108 Nabudere, D.W. 2007. Cheikh Anta
83 Kettl, D. 2002. The transformation 92 Osborne, D. & Gaebler, T. 1992. Diop: The social sciences, human
of governance, public administration Reinventing government. How the ities, physical and natural sciences

and transdisciplinarity. International (SAAPAM), themed ‘The path trav- Johannesburg: Real African Pub
Journal of African Renaissance ersed – 20 years of democracy in lishers on behalf of Mapungubwe
Studies, 2(1):6-34. South Africa’. Mokopane, Limpopo Institute for Strategic Reflection
109 Vil-Nkomo, S. 2014. SAAPAM in Province. (MISTRA), pp. 18.
the next 10 years. A lecture delivered 110 Du Plessis, H., Sehume, J., Martin, 111 Diop, D. 1999. Africa: Mankind’s
at the 14th Annual Conference of the L. 2013. The concept and applic- past and future. In Magoba, M.W.
South African Association of Public ation of transdisciplinarity in intel- (ed). African renaissance. Cape
Administration and Management lectual discourse and research. Town: Mafube & Tafelberg. p.4.

Indigenous Africa’s Governance Architecture:
A Need for African Public Administration
Theory?
Benon C Basheka
Uganda Technology and Management University
Abstract are advanced. This article advocates for a

deeper understanding of the indigenous
The African continent has suffered a rather governance, administration and manage-
tormented history, following different his- ment systems, practices that, when well doc-
torical epochs like shadows of colonialism, umented, should inform a theory of African
conquest, neo-colonialism, global capitalism public administration. The article examines
and foisting upon the western organizational two opposing views in the existing literature,
management/leadership practices. The but relies on the second set of ideas.
indigenous systems of governance are so
much neglected that they hardly receive the Introduction
significant scholarly attention they deserve
in most public administration write ups and To pause and question whether African soci-
curricula in African universities. This article eties had administrative systems worthy of
sheds light on Africa's indigenous adminis- the name, before the colonial epoch, attracts
trative systems, which have been portrayed two opposing views. First, is the negative
as rather troubled, chaotic and biased in the view that construes Africa to have been
literature, especially where western ideas a mere dark continent without any sense
are portrayed as superior to indigenous of organization. The second confirms how
systems. The article suggests that African African societies, at the time, had systems
scholars are primarily duty bound to por- to manage public affairs that constituted
tray a better picture of the administrative an administrative system. This article sub-
structures. The tendency, by the architects scribes to the second school of thought.
of the colonial enterprise, to believe that While most attempts at understanding
Africa had no administration worthy of the Africa's indigenous administrative systems
name needs to be rejected, while compelling convey them as potentially troubled, chaotic
facts and examples to solidify the robustness and biased with western ideas portrayed as
of the pre-colonial governance apparatus superior to "indigenous systems", the article

Indigenous Africa’s Governance Architecture...
Benon C Basheka
defends the fact that African scholars are institutions as rooted in Africa's history
primarily duty bound to portray a better and culture and formal institutions that
picture. The tendency of the architects of are mostly transplanted from outside. Ball
the colonial enterprise is to believe Africa and Peters4 also insist on how the classical
had no administration needs to be coun- political theorists are important, especially
tered with compelling facts and examples in regard to the nature of the questions they
to solidly illustrate the robustness of the pre- posed, and how ignorance concerning this
colonial governance apparatus, especially isolates any student of politics from some
given the time perspective. of the communication that passes among
political scientists. Indigenous practices of
Nwagbara1 reports how the African continent governance, as they existed, are therefore
has suffered a tormented history, following so paramount that some solutions to today's
different historical epochs with shadows governance challenges have a locus on this
of colonialism, conquest, neo-colonialism, historical epoch. Public administration schol-
global capitalism and having western organi- ars, therefore, should not allow themselves
zational management/leadership practices to be isolated from any attempts at exploring
foisted on it. The indigenous systems of the truth and expanding our understanding
governance are so much neglected that they of indigenous knowledge.
hardly receive scholarly attention in Public
Administration curricula in African universi- Structurally, governance deals with the spe-
ties. Some Public Administration scholars cific functions and responsibilities of differ-
may not even imagine the existence of an ent machineries of government or institu-
indigenous governance apparatus worth tions within a given society and/or state as
historicizing during the teaching of public Kalu5 ably demonstrates. Society, through
administration. In such circumstances, the various stages of evolution, has had some
warning of Sharma et al.,2 against all efforts form of governance structures although
at ignoring indigenous knowledge as leading their complexities have also increased
to a failure in people's development, suffices. along the journey toward civilization. While
Indigenous knowledge on governance infra- Africans might have lived a "miserable"
structure, as it existed before the colonialists life in one form or another before coloni-
arrived, is an important body of knowledge alism, it is completely wrong to posit that
to complement the conventional science/ pre-colonial Africa was devoid of systems
knowledge of public administration. In fact, of administration or social organization. It
indigenous knowledge is a bedrock for a full is the duty of African scholars to diligently
appreciation of our contemporary govern- espouse the true story of how pre-colonial
ance problems. That is why Dia3 posited that African societies were organized socially
many of Africa's problems, of modern times, and politically. Osabu-Kle6 posits strongly
emanate from a structural and functional that if democracy is truly the government
separation between informal, indigenous of the people by the people, the shape and

Benon C Basheka
conditions of African democracy should be does this by elaborating on the governance

determined by Africans and not outsiders. In structures as they existed, a debate that this
the same vein, the knowledge and theories article examines extensively.
of Africa's administrative systems should
be determined by African scholars not out- Chanie11 wonders in his Trajectory of Public
side scholars. This is not to suggest that all Administration in Africa why, after some
outsiders have failed us in our understand- fifty years of independence and with the
ing of our systems. A Public Administration putative efforts of the western world trying
theory and well documented practices need to help, theories of African governance
to be studied by African scholars, not outsid- structures are still unimpressive. A handle
ers. Nohlen7 was possibly correct when he on those reasons is pivotal to any solution
commented that sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) to Africa's problems, he suggests. He advises
has been at the receiving end of a myriad of that to put current public sector reform in
developmental experiments ranging from context, a rear-view mirror is necessary.
modernization concepts to self-help and This rear-view needs to focus on a rather
good governance approaches. Some writ- unfamiliar academic territory–indigenous
ings on Africa have undoubtedly tended to system of governance. While Giovanni,12
be biased. Lucy Mair,8 in her book Primitive heaps the misery of African countries on
Government, for instance, states that it is a the return of political parties that he argues
fact of history that it was the European peo- produced a discontinuity not only in the con-
ples who discovered the others and, in most tinent's political life, but also in the study
cases, established political dominion over of African politics. Ake13 in The feasibil-
them, and not vice versa. The Europeans, ity of democracy in Africa was of the view
in her view, possessed technical superior- that the history of Africa has been one long
ity in a number of fields and the techniques emancipatory struggle against all manner of
of the peoples who came under European oppression that was orchestrated by slave
rule were rudimentary, and so were their traders, overzealous missionaries, French
systems of government. Ake,9 however, hits ideologues, British colonizers, home grown
back at such a description of Africa's pre- dictators and foreign imperialists.
colonial governance, warning that it is bad
enough for the rest of the world to insist on This article advocates for a deeper under-
representing Africa as the ultimate victim standing of indigenous governance, adminis-
of original sin, a sad forsaken place where tration and management systems, practices
nothing good or noble ever happens. Njoh,10 that, when well documented, should inform
in his excellent attempt at historicizing the a theory of African Public Administration.
African governance systems before colonial- The article examines two opposing views
ism, ably demonstrates how the continent in the existing literature, but relies on the
indeed had robust and sophisticated admin- second set of ideas. One view, espoused
istrative systems for managing affairs. He by post-colonial architects suggests that

Benon C Basheka
pre-colonial Africa did not have a govern- tend to scoff at or criticize such knowl-
ance apparatus worth talking about. The edge systems, viewing them as nonsensical,
second, however, vehemently refutes that superstitious, irrational and mythical, pro-
stance by advancing a number of arguments vides us with an opportunity to resurrect
to support their claims. The article advocates the story of Africa's systems and develop a
for the teaching of Public Administration in new theoretical basis for the teaching of our
African universities as an important ingredi- future generation.
ent for adopting local content in tackling the
numerous African problems caused, partly, If governance involves the evolving process
by the destructive foundations that the es, relationships, institutions and structures
continent went throughout at the onset of by which a group of people, community or
colonial domination. The article suggests an society organizes themselves collectively to
urgent need to coin an African Public Admin- achieve things that matter to them,16 and
istration theory whose terms of engagement has both formal and informal structures and
include, among others, documenting and processes,17 pre-colonial Africa had such a
historicizing the African administrative and governance mechanism. Such governance
governance systems and political thoughts. within communities involved strengthened
It further attempts to allay fears among Afri- decision-making and control over their
can scholars about venturing into the muddy organizations, and building on people's
waters of penning the theory and practices skills, personal and collective contributions,
of African public administration and govern- and shared commitment to an organiza-
ance, especially in as far as the pre-colonial tion's chosen governance processes, goals
epoch is concerned. and identity.18
Conceptual Framework Indigenous governance relates to the variety

of skills, teachings, wisdom, ideas, percep-
This section explains what constitutes indig- tions, experiences, capabilities and insights
enous knowledge and what is meant by the of people, applied to maintain or improve
indigenous governance apparatus. Indige- the governance of society. Such indigenous
nous Knowledge (IK) means local knowledge knowledge is seen to exist in a local context
that is rather unique to a given society and anchored to a particular social group in a
denotes deep understanding of that society particular setting and usually at a particu-
and the beliefs and customs of that society. It lar time period.19 Within this context, the
contrasts with the international knowledge African governance apparatus is essentially
system.14 However, as Chambers15 rightly about how African societies were organized
states, IK is often marginalized and given low socially, administratively and politically
priority in mainstream studies. This is true of to manage public affairs before colonial-
public administration as well. The fact that, ism. Such governance arrangements were
as Chambers suggests, many professionals dependent on predetermined societal values,

Benon C Basheka
customs and beliefs, which every member of parallel the very notion of government. It is
a particular society was expected to comply obviously clear that some form of govern-
with. Failure to comply with the agreed gov- ance has been inevitable in the long history
ernance arrangements attracted harsh pun- of mankind. Public administration involves
ishments. While indigenous knowledge is the delivery of mail, collection of trash and
often portrayed as unscientific by western licensing of motor vehicles to the dramatic
scientists and considered backward, con- event of getting a man to land on the moon,
servative, inefficient, inferior and based on the dispatching of Peace Corps volunteers
ignorance or myths, and that it should be to scores of countries and the development
replaced by foreign efficient technologies,20 and control of energy resources.26
such knowledge has the potential to build a
theory of African Public Administration. First, there have to be people, as admin
istration involves people. A stone lodged in
Ghale and Upreti21 insist that, despite its per- the earth on the side of the hill is not admin-
ceived usefulness, indigenous knowledge is istration, nor does a stone that, through
often ignored in favour of modern technical some act of nature rolls down a hill consti-
knowledge from the western world. However, tute administration. People have to be pre-
it is important to respect and understand sent before administration can take place.
people's indigenous knowledge systems and Second, administration is action. Two men
to build on such knowledge as a basis for watching or admiring or leaning on a stone
understanding contemporary challenges.22 do not, in their inactivity, constitute admin-
Public administrators tend to the public's istration. They have to be doing something
business such as building bridges and high- before administration can enter the picture.
ways, collecting garbage, putting out fires, Third, administration is interaction. One
ploughing snow, spraying for mosquitoes man moving a stone, or two men, each of
and providing essential social services for whom is moving a stone independently in a
the less fortunate.23 The African public direction different from the other one, are
administrator also has a set of activities that not examples of administration in action. In
do not necessarily represent the complexity order for their actions to be administration,
portrayed by the western examples of the they must in some way be related. There
activities of a public administrator. must be some coordination, even if such
is in the background, about what the two
Gladden24 reminds us how some form of men are doing. This broad scope of public
administration has existed ever since there administration has forced some scholars to
have been governments. Within Africa, question whether there will be a generally
some form of organization has existed agreed definition of public administration.
since man started living in organized socie- Some have argued that the scope of the sub-
ties. Hughes25 declares that public adminis- ject is so great and debatable that it is easier
tration has a long history, long enough to to explain than to define.

Benon C Basheka
Indigenous Governance around a new theoretical paradigm they

Architecture labeled Comparative Public Administration.
Mixed within the development administra-
This section seeks to provide answers to tion argument, comparative administration-
three connected questions. First, did pre- ists attempted to address a sharp challenge
colonial African societies have a governance that Dahl had put against Public Adminis-
mechanism worth historicizing and teaching tration, insisting that public administration
within Public Administration schools in Afri- would never qualify to be a science unless
can universities? Second, if the answer to the it took a comparative perspective. Global
first question is in the affirmative, what gov- research on development administration
ernance apparatus actually existed in pre- remained dominated by western thoughts
colonial Africa that should inform the sug- and ideas owing to the western origins of
gested discourses? Third, were pre-colonial the sub-discipline; an easy development that
governance and administrative systems per- demonstrated an unhealthy dominance by
fect in the management of public affairs? western ideas that effectively hampered
The dividends derived from answering these scholarship on development administration
questions are central in advocating for an among African intellectuals and academics
African Public Administration theory. whose works were often dwarfed by their
western counterparts, if such works existed.
Indigenous administrative systems have a African scholars demonstrated a total lack
wealth of knowledge scattered across many of rigour and commitment in documenting
disciplines, and it is a challenge to African the unique features of African administra-
Public Administration scholars to document tive systems, which were, by modern stand-
a common administrative theory. How can ards, sophisticated (although they had some
they assemble all this knowledge into a weaknesses).
common body of knowledge that will form
an African Public Administration theory? At its core, Africa's problem has remained
This challenge was posed many years ago that of underdevelopment where people
during the development of the discipline are poor, resources are under-utilized, and
of Public Administration. There are unique the institutions established are ineffective
practices within the African context that, in facilitating the very individual and collec-
when assembled, will generate a rich under- tive action needed to resolve the problems
standing of African Public Administration. of society.27 It is such a state of affairs that
possibly informed the views of Chanie28 who
In 1947, Robert Dahl deflated the science of wonders why so much is still unimposing in
administration, a year after Simon Herbert, Africa, despite some modest help from west-
in 1946, had effectively punctured the pol- ern countries. It is possibly not out of context
itics-administration dichotomy. Many Euro- to insist that the failure of these institutions
pean scholars quickly assembled themselves cannot be divorced from the cultures, beliefs

Benon C Basheka
and customs that long provided a nuclear for Boone38 deplores how most political analysis
the social governance infrastructure within assumes that African states have no organic
the context of African values. An attempt at links to indigenous societies. One conse-
finding answers to the question as to why quence of this analysis is that the issues
Africa remains underdeveloped should have of state formation has not been taken seri-
its central unit of analysis focused on the ously, as many analysts tend to study the
nature of administrative systems that have aggregate growth of the post-colonial state
driven African society over time. apparatus, or only describe similarities in the
structure and processes of modern African
Existing scholarship on Africa's admin governments, while effectively ignoring the
istration systems takes two major orienta- social origins of cross-national differences in
tions. The first group of literature is bent on administrative practice and in the organiza-
denying that Africa had any system of gov- tional configuration of state power. Moreover,
ernance before colonialism.29,30,31 Amaeshi it is uncontestable, as Vyas-Doorgapersad
and Yavuz32 insist that it is very difficult, in and Thombe39 articulately illustrate, that
the context of sub-Saharan African countries, African communities had traditional leaders
to conceptualize and identify indigenous who were political heads with strong family
approaches to management or adminis- orientation and imposed customary laws to
tration. This obviously is a position often maintain order among their people. Ignoring
taken by the advocates of colonial govern- these facts creates an uncalled for knowl-
ance. The second school of thought on Afri- edge deficient among the African academic
ca's indigenous systems demonstrates the community, thereby challenging the duty of
sophisticated nature of pre-colonial African African Public Administration scholars.
administrative systems.33,34,35 Kottak36 ably
demonstrates how it was not uncommon for Contrary to what colonial architects advocate,
pre-colonial societies to establish a form of Fashoyin40 strongly posits that management
governance through tribes, chiefdoms and in Africa existed and was rooted in the cul-
polities while Inyang37 reminds us of the tural beliefs and traditions of its diverse
serious erosion of all efforts at developing people. The cultures had evolved over thou-
indigenous management theories and prac- sands of years and represented successful
tices in Africa by colonialism. The colonial attempts to integrate themselves with their
administration, he states, introduced west- environment. African institutions were
ern management theories and practices, marked by interrelatedness, yet they also
considered as the drivers and the panacea exhibited a wide range of diversity. Facts on
for the continent's socio-politico-economic Africa ought to be told by Africans. However,
development. Western scholarship and lit- Martin41 warns that to suggest that the his-
erature generally devalued and deprecated tory of African political ideas is a neglected
the astonishing management prowess and field of study is a major understatement, as
practices of early African civilizations. Africa is replete with examples of excellent

Benon C Basheka
practices of public administration as they a broader strategy to create social order.

existed before the advent of colonialists. He Njoh45 gives a comprehensive description
recommends that an instructor wishing to of the governance apparatus that existed in
put together a collection of readings on the pre-colonial Africa, and that African scholars
subject needs to delve into an extremely should proudly espouse in their teachings of
broad range of sources and materials widely Public Administration. Pre-colonial African
scattered in many books, articles and pri- societies had sound administrative systems
mary sources dealing with African history, that featured a variety of polities, includ-
anthropology, sociology, philosophy, politics, ing the city-states, empire-states, as well as
biography and literature. conquest states. The continent is known to
have had a great deal of accomplishments
We learn from the works of Osei-Hwedie42 in the areas of political and social organi-
that before colonialism, sub-Saharan African zation, architecture, city building, arts and
societies were organized around friends and crafts, commerce and trade, tax administra-
relations, with authority exercised through a tion, grievance-handling and discipline as
system of chieftaincy, clan elders and heads well as democratic arrangements.46 This pre-
of households. As long as such an arrange- colonial governance apparatus was based on
ment created harmony and a sense of unity communalism, which revolved around the
among the communities where it existed, Ubuntu ideology.
the governance apparatus brought about
social transformation as understood from Ubuntu means humanness or being human.47
the periodic lens of time. Several other prac- Within its philosophy is the community own-
tices existed as well. For example, the medi- ership and respect of society as opposed to
cal history of Africa, though vital, remains a individualistic tendencies characterized most
neglected field. Patterson43 reports how dis- by pre-colonial governance frameworks. The
ease has been a significant factor through- family, clan and tribal orientations were a
out African history, and attempts to control common bond that provided unity. It was
endemic and epidemic afflictions have been common for family members to scatter geo-
an important aspect of change in the twen- graphically for better occupation prospects
tieth century. Unfortunately, historians have and, in the process, develop new territorial
rarely paid more than cursory attention to authorities.48 As Ifechukwu49 posits, the core
issues involving human health; yet they are values of African communities involved the
central to the effectiveness of any govern- extended family, human relations orienta-
ance mechanism. tion, co-prosperity or social mutual concern,
respect for elders and tradition, consensus,
Politics is one of the oldest activities of competition and hero-worship.
humanity and, as soon as people began to
live in organized groups, a need to devise Pre-colonial political governance arr
ways to govern themselves emerged44 as angements guided power and authority

Benon C Basheka
distribution as exercised by the various ele- centralized polities were few and included
ments of government.50 The political sys- the well-known kingdoms such as the Song-
tems were brought together by acceptable hai Empire, Ashanti Kingdom, the City-State
common norms, institutions and cultures of Benin, all in West Africa, the Bakongo
of people, and had a common language in Kingdom in Central Africa and the Buganda
a territorially delineated space or in differ- Kingdom in East Africa. African societies,
ent situations. While many different types throughout the centuries, were organized
of governance systems existed, three politi- on the basis of a social contract.
cal categories, namely, (1) centralized king-
doms and empires; (2) centralized small On the same subject, Jarret54 has done a fine
kingdoms and city-states and (3) decentral- job of describing the governance apparatus
ized or stateless political societies, summa- of pre-colonial African polities that typi-
rize the systems. In each of these political cally comprised three major elements. In
systems, trade and a strong military force their hierarchy, the administrative bodies
were important factors in the development included (1) the council of elders, (2) chief
and maintenance of social order. Ukpabi51 priests and moral elders and (3) chiefs;
elaborates, for example, how kingdoms all capable of executing functions rang-
and empires evolved elaborate and often ing from mundane tasks, such as using
complex military organizations to ensure the talking drum to summon a meeting of
adequate protection of the royal court and the king's aides, to complex undertakings,
the safety of the rulers. They had a group such as planning and executing war. Each
of professional warriors charged with this body was placed in charge of a well-defined
responsibility and whose qualification for set of activities. The council of elders had
office included unquestioned loyalty to the the responsibility of conceiving, planning,
government in power. implementing and managing the commu-
nity's development projects, which were
Public administrators perform legal duties critical undertakings expected by members
within society. Indeed, leaders of the pre- of the society. Projects, such as public infra-
colonial period had a regulatory function structure building and maintenance, build-
which covers the legal definition of public ing and maintaining the chief's palace, and
administration. Njoh 52 documents how building and maintaining weekly markets,
leaders of the time were pre-occupied with fell under the jurisdiction of the council of
discipline and administering punishment elders. The idea of crime as an anti-social
to those who went against the established act certainly existed, and it was the concern
rules of society. These systems ensured har- of those entrusted with authority in society
mony and discipline, an indication of a well- to restore and promote social relationships.
organized society. Mazrui53 also explains Reconciliation and the restoration of social
how the fragmented or highly decentralized harmony were the objects of judicial pro-
systems were the majority, while the highly ceedings, rather than retribution. Hence, the

Benon C Basheka
importance attributed to compensation, and pre-colonial African societies did not boast
even ritual feasting as the outcome of a pro- a written culture does not mean they were
cess of reconciliation, was great. incapable of recording information. This
task was often accomplished through two
The chief priests, who were people endowed main strategies:
with special spiritual powers and or/skills
that were often inherited rather than learnt, 1) The most common involved story telling.
had important governance responsibilities. These stories were then passed on from
As Jarret55 points out, these people func- one generation to another until they
tioned as religious authorities and acted became legendary.
as a bridge between members of the com- 2) Through drawings or sketches. Such
munities and their ancestors. The belief in drawings and sketches have surfaced
ancestral powers was a common practice in caves, and other artifacts have been
in pre-colonial societies and a special body uncovered through archaeological and
of administrators had to be responsible for other discoveries.
such spiritual matters. The chief priests
were also charged with the responsibility of Examples of the Songhai's empire, whose
educating the community on African spir- governance apparatus comprised, among
itual laws, religious doctrines and principles. other units, several ministerial bodies as
In this regard, they provided knowledge on Njoh56 reports, help us to understand the
the importance of living in harmony with the pre-colonial governance apparatus. Promi-
natural environment, including land, rivers, nent in the empire was a ministerial body in
lakes and forests, and why members of the charge of agriculture, headed by an inspec-
community must see themselves as custodi- tor of agriculture; an equivalent of contem-
ans and not owners of the natural resources. porary ministries of agriculture. There was
The chief priests further performed the role also a ministerial body in charge of etiquette,
of modern day health officials or medical headed by a chief of etiquette and protocol.
practitioners, as they were responsible for Another ministry was responsible for the
healing the sick. Calvary under the leadership of the chief of
Calvary. They also had the ministerial body
The moral elders (who were similar to the in charge of minority affairs, which had
officials responsible for ethics and integ- several agencies responsible for the vari-
rity in most contemporary systems) were ous minority groups resident in the empire.
responsible for teaching moral conduct and In the empire, justice was an important issue,
upholding moral standards throughout the as the leadership created positions of chief
community. They were also responsible for of justice or cadi (qadi). The cadi's who were
recording all major events that took place in posted to major cities, such as Djemne and
their communities. In this case, they served Timbuktu, were appointees of the king and
as community historians. The fact that most were responsible for dealing with disputes

Benon C Basheka
between citizens and foreigners or among which demonstrates that the king was at
citizens. The king or loyal justices were in the apex of a power hierarchy and had no
charge of more serious crimes such as trea- absolute powers, as several layers of offi-
son. Individuals found guilty were sentenced cials existed to check the king. The king
based on the severity of the crime. was the head of state, head of government,
religious chief, commander-in-chief of the
In another elaborate attempt at demon armed forces and the supreme judge of all
strating how pre-colonial African societies criminal cases. Below the key were layers
were organized politically, Ndlovu-Gatsheni57 of powerful officials who played an active
gives an account of the governance app role in the governance of the state as well
aratus in the Ndebele polity, which had very as checking on the absolute dictatorship of
elaborate mechanisms with checks and bal- the king.
ances that significantly regulated the power
of the king. The hierarchy of power facilitated The first layer of the administrative offi-
communication between the leaders and the cial in the Ndebele kingdom was the prime
ordinary people, the lesser chiefs and the minister called indunankulu yesizwe and he
senior leaders, up to the king. The govern- acted as the head of government. This com-
ance arrangements are shown in Figure 1, pares effectively to the ancient Greek society
Figure 1: Hierarchy of power in the Ndebele state
Inkosi (King)
Indunankulu Yesizwe (Prime Minister)
Umphakathi (Inner Advisory Council)
Izikhulu (Outer Advisory Council/Council of Prominent Men)
Izinduna Zezigaba (Provincial Chiefs)
Abalisa (Headmen)
Abamnumzana (Homestead Heads)
Source: Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2008) Who Ruled by the Spear? Rethinking the Form of Governance
in the Ndebele State, African Studies Quarterly, 10 (2 & 3):76

Benon C Basheka
arrangement where the prime minister during military assignments. They also
occupied the top hierarchy position and a determined outcomes of difficult judicial
number of gods (ministers) below him were decisions. While the king could differ with
responsible for specialized functions. The the views of his advisers on a number of
Ndebele king did not rule by decree as state issues, he was often forced to endorse the
policies were subjected to serious debate, popular views of his advisers. The leaders of
and meetings were considered important in izigaba, rather than the king, were the prac-
deciding the future of the state. The king's tical representatives of amahlabezulu (the
personal confidants, comprising inner advis- ordinary population). The king had to listen
ers, collectively termed umphakathi, played to their views in order to keep in touch with
a crucial role in determining state policy the popular sentiments of his people. Chiefs
and they effectively made difficult judicial of izigaba were initially appointed by the
decisions. king, especially during the inception of the
state and the formation of specific izigaba
Another set of advisers of the king were a as the state grew. Provincial chiefs, however,
large group of the state's prominent men had to work hard to cultivate the allegiance
collectively termed izikhulu. It was through of the people within the territorial area of
these two councils that the ordinary Ndebele their rule. Upon the death of an appointed
people were able to participate in the gov- chief, the king's power to appoint another
ernment of their country. This has a resem- chief fell away, as the deceased chief was
blance to our contemporary governance to be succeeded by his eldest son from his
apparatus where elected representatives senior wife (indluenkulu). If the senior wife
represent the people's views. Umphakathi failed to produce a son, other sons from
and izikhulu in the Ndebele society operated junior wives were accepted as successors.
as representative councils. Like the commer-
cialized politics of modern African societies Similar societies in pre-colonial Africa
today, before colonialism, the members of exhibited a well-organized governance
these representative councils were mainly mechanism based on common societal
rich people, rather than ordinary persons. beliefs. Tosh,59 while writing from the con-
They were not freely chosen by the people; texts of the Uganda Protectorate, reports
their positions were largely hereditary. how in both centralized and acephalous
societies, the British ruled through a uni-
Ndlovu-Gatsheni58 further reports how the form system of native administration. This
Ndebele king tried to keep as much power arrangement was found prudent to align
in his hands as possible, but the leaders the British system to the indigenous struc-
of izigaba worked tirelessly to gain more tures through what is popularly known as
and more power and increasing influence indirect rule. The indigenous administrative
in state affairs. It was these people who governance structure had on its apex the
practically commanded the armed forces District, which usually corresponded to the

Benon C Basheka
territory of one tribe, or a combination of those who are in charge of managing society
related tribes. With few exceptions, local affairs. Some economic decisions are politi-
people did not occupy executive positions cal mechanisms to control the affairs of the
at District level, as such was the preserve of state. Africa's economy, in the pre-colonial
European officials. period, was diverse and in a large measure
was driven by extensive trade routes that
The internal administration of the District developed between cities and kingdoms.
was carried out by locally recruited chiefs, Some trade routes were overland, while
appointed from above, and distributed over others involved navigating rivers and some
four grades according to the territory they developed around port cities. Large African
ruled: county, sub-county, parish and village. empires became wealthy due to their trade
Each of these constituted an administrative networks.
unit. At each of the administrative levels, the
chief had responsibility for maintaining law Falola60 reports to us how the Yoruba indig-
and order, tax collection, the mobilization enous economy and politics were organized.
of labour for public works and the enforce- In the empire, extensive commercial activi-
ment of administrative orders from his supe- ties linked one Yoruba-speaking town to
riors. In the senior grades of county and another, and the whole of the southwest
sub-county, the chief also exercised judicial with northern Nigeria and some other parts
authority: his court settled the vast major- of Africa. The trade with the Europeans on
ity of civil and petty criminal cases, and the coast was similarly intense and the
he could use a small detachment of armed network of commerce involved both local
police to make arrests. This system appealed exchange, long-distance trade between the
to British officials, because it was endowed Yoruba and others, and exchange with for-
with some traditional legitimacy. The system eigners, Europeans and Arabs. The Yoruba
was derived from the pre-colonial Buganda Empire had an elaborate toll system with
where the basic principle of graded admin- toll gates operational in all Yoruba towns.
istrative posts was a common administrative Such tolls were a major source of revenue,
governance mechanism among the Bakungu together with taxation, levies, judicial fees
hierarchy of nineteenth-century Buganda. and fines and death duties. The Yoruba also
had large-scale production of agricultural
Politics and economics have historically and crafts products such that the mar-
been hostile partners although their outright kets were constantly supplied, despite the
`"divorce" has not yet materialized. The two endemic warfare of the century. It involved
have a symbiotic relationship although such large-scale movements of people and goods,
a relationship is largely ignored in most dis- and called for transport, markets, currency
courses. By its nature, politics shapes the and other institutions. Commercial activi-
economics of any society. However, the eco- ties provided opportunities for individuals
nomics also determine the kind of politics by and the state to exploit and benefit from.

Benon C Basheka
While individuals produced for the market, Kalema of Buganda, in the late nineteenth
sold to make profits and offered their labour century, when he found himself losing
for different services, the state, through the popular support, relied on the Arabs and
political leaders, made use of commerce in their bands of slaves for his safety.64 Ndlovu-
varying ways to sustain itself: traders not Gatsheni65 tells us how the Ndebele system
only offered gifts to rulers, but paid dues of governance was not fully based on con-
in the markets and different types of levies sensual politics. It was characterized by a
and tolls when they engaged in trade that mixture of democratic tendencies, on the
transcended boundaries. All these economic one hand, and aristocratic, autocratic and/or
activities were undoubtedly supported by militaristic tendencies on the other. Tension,
a sophisticated administrative mechanism. competition, jealousies, and violence also
characterized Ndebele systems of govern-
While African political systems had all the ance. Kinship was one major ideology, in
trappings of government, with the consent the Ndebele state, that was a source of both
of the governed and a balance between cen- strength and weakness.
tralized and decentralized power to prevent
the misuse of authority by one person,61 Paradigm Shift: A Theory
there were some weaknesses worth noting of African Public
in our effort to develop an African Public Administration?
Administration theory. While indigenous
systems had a governance apparatus with The preceding section has exemplified how
checks and balances as well as an account- the indigenous governance apparatus oper-
ability mechanism, they had some degree ated during pre-colonial times. The section
of exclusion. Secondly, indigenous societies recognized that, despite weaknesses in pre-
survived on wars, conquests, raids, kidnap- colonial governance apparatus, the balance
pings and the collection of tribute payments, sheet of its unique features makes it worth
which led to the enslavement and sale of the scholarly attention of African Public
millions of men, women and children as Administration scholars. This demands a
Falola and Warnock62 demonstrate. In primi- paradigm shift from a western-based theo-
tive societies, fighting was recognized as a retical stand to one shaped by the indig-
legitimate means of obtaining redress for enous realities, especially as they existed
an injury, though not a means of dominat- before colonialism. Gbadamosi66 reports
ing others.63 how western management concepts and
writings have dominated the thinking of
Certain African rulers used slave soldiers as academics and managers in Africa for a
the means of creating a centralized admin- long time. This approach has been a dire
istration aimed at enhancing the authority disadvantage to administration theory
of the monarchs against the competition development based on African cultural
of their subordinate chiefs. The Kabaka beliefs and values.

Benon C Basheka
Colonialism disoriented the systems of implementation was effected through the

administration with a western-based ide- local chiefs. They redefined indigenous
ology, a historical error that needs to be institutions and customary laws and chiefs
reversed. Kiggundu67 long warned how vari- effectively became officers of the colonial
ous colonial powers destroyed or devalued administration, and were no longer respon-
local institutions and management prac- sible to their own people who had originally
tices, substituting them with their own selected and made them chiefs. Fashoyin71 is
colonial administrative systems out of the of the view that any management education
belief in western cultural, biological and that facilitates the entrenchment of west-
technological superiority over Africans. ern management theories and practices in
Kasfir68 challenges African scholars that so Africa is not desirable. His call was that Afri-
little of value had been written about devel- can scholars needed to transform imported
opment administration in Africa, as much theories and concepts into acceptable cul-
of the writing came from expatriate civil tural norms that could be applied to man-
servants and academic personnel involved agement practices in Africa. The only way
in technical assistance to administrative out was the development of indigenous Afri-
training institutes. Duke,69 in his analysis can management principles and practices
of the impact of colonialism on the devel- that accommodate African cultural, social,
opment of management in Nigeria, affirms political and environmental factors. Africa's
how the administrative system, adopted in Public Administration academia needs new
managing the Nigerian state by the British, leadership.72 The new academic leadership
essentially organized government appa- should be pre-occupied with the reconstruc-
ratus along a centralized and hierarchical tion of African management models and the-
structure. This system emphasized direct ories. Such coordinated efforts will nurture
and strong control, as it required that all an African theory of public administration.
personnel remained unquestionably sub-
ordinate to the top (colonial) authority, A theory, in the context of our debate
personified by the High Commissioner and encompasses a systematic collection of
his executive lieutenants. The local content related principles and management theory
of the administration–the native political as a way of categorizing pertinent manage-
agents, warrant chiefs, clerks, messengers ment knowledge.73 This would imply that
and constables–were merely subordinate African public administration theory should
field executors or foot soldiers of colonial involve a collection of indigenous African
policies and decisions of the top hierarchy. principles, practices and knowledge that
depict how such societies managed public
Osabu-kle, 70 on the same subject, dem affairs. One of the underlying root causes
onstrates how major policies and deci- of the west's inferiorisation of African
sions that governed colonized people were indigenous management practice stems
determined by the colonialists, but their from lack of concerted efforts by African

Benon C Basheka
scholars to document their own indigenous administration and (5) contemporary public
systems to counteract those espoused by administration.
western ideologues. African scholars need
to build a coherent analogy of the elements Concluding Remarks
of African systems that would see the Afri-
can paradigms of administration being cov- If underdevelopment can be seen as a major
ered in public administration training. This cause of Africa's problems, the experience
effort should primarily be informed by the of the last three decades suggests there is
extensive indigenous knowledge as a start- still a very unclear understanding of what to
ing point to the construction of alternative do about it. Liberal democracy, exhortation,
administrative theories. This knowledge ideology, force, expertise, mobilization, cen-
should be adequately disseminated and tral direction and recent structural adjust-
shared among interested scholars of Public ment reforms have all been tried, and have
Administration as well as among policy all failed.74 The question is what next? This
makers and practitioners for a vivid under- paper advises that re-founding the admin-
standing of the uniqueness of the African istrative systems based on African values
culture. is likely to be the answer to the develop-
ment challenges bewildering the continent.
The African paradigms/theories of public While some elements of globalization will
administration could be coined under at undoubtedly have to be adopted in solving
least four sections: (1) the indigenous Afri- some of the contemporary governance and
can administration, (2) colonial African administrative challenges, efforts must be
administration, (3) post-colonial African made not to immensely disadvantage the
public administration and (4) the contem- unique features in Africa's administrative
porary paradigm. The first paradigm would systems.
be examined under three forms of govern-
ance systems that existed–centralized poli- One of the reasons for the failure of most
ties, decentralized and stateless societies. A reforms has been the importation of sys-
description of the fundamental characteris- tems under the one-size-fits-all phenom-
tics that informed governance practices will enon and total neglect of the African con-
form a critical component of the paradigm text factors. We need to learn from the way
building. The purpose is to educate our stu- African societies governed their affairs and
dents and other actors about the uniqueness what lessons can be picked up from such
in the African governance apparatus. That systems, especially the best practices that
paradigm of nomenclature would largely united people to a common purpose, which
follow four strands of the (1) pre-colonial are lacking in contemporary administra-
bureaucratic African administration, (2) colo- tive systems. It becomes the ultimate duty
nial public administration, (3) comparative of African scholars to carefully document
public administration, (4) post-colonial public these facts and pass them on from one

Benon C Basheka
group of students to another. There is a African administration, (2) colonial public

need to develop an African theory or para- administration, (3) comparative public
digm of administration whose paradigm administration, (4) post-colonial public
of nomenclature would largely follow four administration and (5) contemporary public
strands of the (1) pre-colonial bureaucratic administration.
Benon Basheka is Professor and Vice-Chancellor at the Uganda Technology and Management
University (UTAMU). Among various academic leadership roles that he played, Basheka was a
Dean of the School of Business and Management at the same University. He has been a team leader
on different consultancy assignments for the World Ban, DFID, UNDP, USAID and GIZ, among
others.

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Meaning and Significance of Conscience and
Consciousness in Public Leadership in the
Post-1994 South Africa
Kwandiwe Kondlo
University of Johannesburg
Abstract and significance of consciousness. The arti-

cle also draws from isiXhosa, to demonstrate
The article examines what some may regard the richness and depth of this indigenous
as the intangible elements of public lead- language to help us understand the deeper
ership in South Africa. The absolutely meaning of the concept of conscience, which
intangible elements of public leadership in isiXhosa translates as isazela or umvand-
are difficult to pin down, yet their presence edwa. These concepts are meant, in isiXhosa,
is felt when they are there as is the case to tell one something about the rounded-
when they are absent. One could argue that ness, or lack of it, of one's ethical being. This
the simmering tensions arising out of popu- is not about being perfect or about absolute
lar discontent, sometimes finding expression morality, but about self-reflexivity or the
in isolated incidents of public protest and ability for personal reflection to help in self-
sometimes in performances by opposition correction, which defeats the "egoistic self"
parties in parliament, attest to the fact that so as to serve the overarching greatness of
there is something missing in the edifice of community, kinship and societal causes. It
public leadership. That which is missing is is in line with this conception that one is
the presence of the intangible aspects of deemed healthy in mind and spirit, hence
public leadership that this article seeks to the saying in isiXhosa, isazela siyamakha
examine. The article invokes the significance umntu which translated to English means
of the twin notions of conscience and con- `"conscience maketh the person". The ripple
sciousness as intangible imperatives whose effects of "a living conscience" as opposed

absence is creating challenges in public lead- to a "dead conscience" are what emerge
ership in South Africa's young democracy. from the isiXhosa idiom isazela esiphilileyo
The article takes the reader back to some old nengqiqo ezinzileyo. But the article proceeds
but still influential, scholarly perspectives to examine instances where lapses of "con-
from Karl Marx, Carl Jung and Chabani Man- science and consciousness" in leadership per-
ganyi in an effort to examine the meaning formance in South Africa occurred to create

Meaning and Significance of Conscience and Consciousness in Public Leadership...
Kwandiwe Kondlo
a basis for the theorisation of conscience and public leadership actions which make the
consciousness in public leadership. The arti- debate about conscience and consciousness
cle concludes that, as long as public leaders in public leadership important. The con-
fail to prioritise self-transformation and strict cepts of conscience and consciousness are
adherence to a code of leadership values as widely used, but the interpretation of what
an indispensable component of the leader- they mean and the implications they have
ship, the ripple effects will eventually destroy for leadership practice require a certain
public institutions and public life. nuance and depth, which this article seeks
to capture. In order to make a case for the
Introduction theoretical argument advanced in the article,
the section on the track record of lapses of
When examining this issue, it is impor- conscience and consciousness in public lead-
tant that philosophical speculation should ership, below, presents some examples. The
be backed by empirical data and empiri- last two sections provide some analysis and
cal investigation must also be informed by discussion and, lastly, pose some challenges
theory. This is the kind of balance needed for scholarship.
when scholars examine sensitive, socio-
political issues, especially issues involving Mapping the Conceptual
the country's leadership. Of course, this does Field
not discount the importance of pure theoreti-
cal scholarship, especially the significance The choice of this particular topic–"The
of that kind of African scholarship which meaning and significance of conscience and
disturbs the status quo in order to push the consciousness in public leadership in the
frontiers of theoretical analysis and debate. post-1994 South Africa"–is deliberate and
This is the kind of scholarship which, even evolves out of great concern about what is
though "disturbing", helps us imagine other happening in South African society, politics,
possible futures rather than endure the culture and the economy. "There is seri-
future we are likely to have thrust upon us, ous cause for concern about the fragility of
sometimes, by inept public leadership. Vaclav the future".2 The fact that after 20 years of
Havel probably refers to this breed of intel- freedom, South Africa is still deeply divided,
lectual who as he puts it "should constantly poverty is still so endemic, the demographic
disturb; should bear witness to the misery of distribution of wealth and privilege in South
the world; should be provocative by being Africa still favours very strongly the white
independent".1 The balance in scholarship is minority are causes for concern and call for
important when dealing with issues of public `"conscience and consciousness" in public
leadership but is not sacrosanct. leadership. The article focuses on leader-

ship in South Africa's public sector, not that
This article starts by "mapping the concep- the private sector is without challenges or
tual fields", and then examines instances of is perfect, but because the public sector is

Kwandiwe Kondlo
the chain which links all of us; it is a prism conscience and consciousness relate to that
through which the quality of our nation is part of one's self which assists to regulate
seen or even perceived by other nations one's actions7 whereas Paul Freire refers
of the world. The article wishes to start by to this as one's "innermost being" without
engaging how conscience and consciousness which one cannot authentically exist. What
are theorised in the South African discourses these scholars underline is the importance
on public leadership. How do non-academic of self-formation, which involves "methods,
intellectual leaders conceive of conscience techniques and exercises directed at forming
and consciousness and how are these posi- the `self ' within a nexus of relations".8 The
tions useful in our situation in South Africa `"state of the human condition", ladies and
today? gentlemen, especially in our time, gives the

impression of a growing crisis and this con-
Sometime in the late 1970s, Kenneth Pel- tributes in a very fundamental way to leader-
letier wrote in his book, Towards a science ship challenges globally. The worst forms of
of consciousness,3 that "the study of con- rapacious greed and the self-serving quest
sciousness can be conducted under many for power have become very prominent such
of the conventions and methodologies of that human beings are gradually losing that
contemporary science, although limita- which is essential to being human, i.e. their
tions also need to be acknowledged".4 This spirituality and humanness. Hence the schol-
was profound, as it has not been falsified arship on conscience and consciousness has
to date. Despite what may be understood vital elements for the development of solid
to be its ever-moving state, conscience and public leadership.
consciousness could be framed symbolically
to represent a sphere of "human experience" One finds the writings of Chabani Mang-
in relation to which "significant meanings anyi, in his book, Being black in the world 9,
and values are condensed and given a for- particularly illuminating in the area of
ward carrying coherence and intensity".5 In consciousness. As Manganyi puts it, citing
a nutshell, conscience and consciousness what the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
capture and convey the "double aspect of says, consciousness is about "mutual knowl-
the human condition" to both contain and edge"; "knowledge as to which one has tes-
surpass itself.6 Conscience and conscious- timony within oneself", and "the totality of
ness, even though composed of various impressions, thoughts and feelings, which
qualities, represent a dimension of con- make up a person's conscious being". Most
crete human experience, which once appro- importantly, he argues that, "from mutual
priately developed and mobilised, provides knowledge to solidarity is a very short and
coherence around which a balanced view logical step".10 This can be translated to
of life is established. It talks to the abstract the relationship between conscience and
essence of concrete existential qualities consciousness. Carl Jung describes con-
of human beings. According to Foucault, sciousness as a "precondition of being"11

Kwandiwe Kondlo
to illustrate its significance in the general are told cannot be found in politics or among
scheme of human life. politicians. This does not seem to be the case
if one considers the views of political giants
Public intellectual discourse also has impor- of ethical standing such as Vaclav Havel. He
tant pointers or angles that illuminate the argues that "genuine politics–even politics
debate. One concurs with Steve Biko's view worthy of the name–the only politics I am
that consciousness, in particular, is about "an willing to devote myself to–is simply a
attitude of mind"12, but Vaclav Havel argues matter of serving those around us: serving
that, as for conscience itself, it is more about the community and serving those who will
an "orientation of the heart" hence the two come after us. Its deepest roots are moral
terms, once conjoined, give the picture of a because it is a responsibility expressed
complete human being. The inscription on through action, to and for the whole".14 It
the tombstone of Robert Sobukwe's grave is therefore not na1̈ ve or unfair to expect a
is actually very loud and informative on the politics of conscience and consciousness
meaning of conscience and consciousness, from public leaders. The point about "a con-
which is needed in public leadership in South suming love of one's people", inscribed in
Africa. The inscription reads as follows: Sobukwe's tombstone, goes very deep. It is
about knowing fellow men through the lens
True leadership demands complete of solidarity and it is about the construction
subjugation of self, absolute honesty, of the indispensable other. It shows how
integrity and uprightness of character and conscience and consciousness intersect like
fearlessness, and above all, a consuming tributaries of the same river, in the making
love of one's people. Go and demonstrate of ethical beings.
to your people that imprisonment is not a
disgrace at all, and that to be arrested and In isiXhosa, the word conscience is expressed
charged `as a dangerous criminal' is the as isazela or umvandedwa. It is that which
highest honour that the Government of is never seen but is forever within you. It
this country can ever bestow upon you.13 admonishes you about the wrongs done,
but its language is silent but loud within
What the inscription on Robert Sobukwe's you. Umvandedwa literally translates to
grave refers to as "true leadership" is what, in `"what I feel in me alone". Both isazela and
the context of this discussion, is referred to umvandedwa depend on the response, or

as a leadership of conscience and conscious- lack of response, by the individual. In other
ness. It begins with one's personal journey words, you may ignore them and hence
of self-transformation, which requires the people who know the role of isazela, will
subjugation of self and absolute honesty. It say isazela sifile meaning "the conscience
stands by leadership practices that are sin- is dead". In modern terminology, one would
cere and focused, and it ends with a leader- say the two concepts from an indigenous
ship that walks the talk. Honesty is what we language are about self-knowledge, hunches

Kwandiwe Kondlo
and positive intuition, which corrects the public leaders, the ethical example or lack
human being and leads him or her to admit if of it occurs within the same generation of
he or she is wrong. What seems to be a chal- liberation struggle cadres and dampens the
lenge in public leadership in South Africa, glory of national liberation.
today, is the orientation of this instinctive
energy; where the orientation is negative, A Track Record of Lapses of
the relational configurations of society tend Conscience and Consciousness16
to be negative.
In the statistics quoted in City Press ,
What is lacking in the discourse on con- 11 March 2010, (presented by Troye Lund),
sciousness is a discussion or distinction `"almost half of President Zuma's cabinet (42
between false consciousness and true con- percent) own companies; the Auditor Gen-
sciousness. False consciousness is discussed eral has found that one in two members
elaborately by Karl Marx and Engels in The of parliament holds directorship in private
German ideology 15 and they relate false companies and that between 33 percent and
consciousness to the grip of ruling class 50 percent of all members of provincial leg-
ideas and world outlook on the minds of the islatures also moonlight". If these figures are
oppressed and exploited masses. This article indeed correct, then the situation is a cause
argues these concepts on the basis of prac- for concern. Of course, these issues have now
tical realities in today's South Africa. True been overshadowed by the widely publicised
consciousness is not about being politically and debated Nkandla debacle. This is about
on the right side in terms of having been how approximately R240 million of taxpay-
involved in the liberation struggle, as in the ers' money was spent on the upgrades of
case of South Africa. It is about a realistic President Zuma's private home. The report
awareness of sacrifices to be made and the of the investigation, done by the Public Pro-
personal example it takes to deliver on the tector, goes into detail on this matter and
national promise. In Marxist terms, it relates exposes how the entire project was badly
to the readiness to commit class-suicide as managed by government. The Public Protec-
a metaphor of commitment to the service of tor's report has recently been contested by
people rather than self-interest. False con- another report prepared and presented by
sciousness is the opposite of this. One may the Minister of Police. Of course, the report
be politically correct in ideas and the history of the latter is clearly an exercise in defence
of involvement in the struggle, but not com- of the President; it is wobbly and analytically
mitted to taking the pain of self-sacrifice for amateurish. But the most important ques-
the upliftment of poor communities. Leaders tion is how a President, who supposedly has
may have fought on the same side in the a lively conscience and patriotic conscious-
liberation struggle, but this does not mean ness, should have handled the Nkandla
they were driven by the same conscience matter. The issue is debated in the analysis
and consciousness. Hence, when in office as in sections below.

Kwandiwe Kondlo
At the level of government administration, it about their beneficial involvement in pro-

was reported in the Sunday Times, of 8 Octo- jects meant for poor communities.
ber 2012, that "during the 2009/2010 and
2010/2011 financial years, 16 directors- Analysis: Towards a New Synthesis
general and deputy directors-general had
been fired for mismanagement or gross One is acutely aware of the fact that for
financial negligence". A number of these scholars, part of the difficulty is that the
issues are covered in the various reports of country now has a President and regime
the South African Public Service Commis- which is very "allergic" to intellectual cri-
sion. At political leadership level, opposite tique. But scholars should not bow to pres-
to President Zuma, is the public leader- sure from any power block–they should
ship track record of his former ally, Julius not fail to articulate critique where it is due.
Malema, now a firm opponent and leader It is very important that scholars, through
of the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF), research and public dialogue, break the
an authoritarian populist political forma- `"circle of humiliation",
17
which affects all
tion run in quasi-military style and selling black people, and the circle is being rounded
among some youths in South African com- out by recurrent lapses of conscience and
munities. The Sunday Times, 11 October consciousness among public leaders, as
2012, covered the report of the Public Pro- demonstrated above. In fact, it is now time
tector, which exposed how Malema benefit- that intellectuals in this country unite in
ted improperly from "a lucrative roads and their uncompromising quest for truth and
bridges tender" from the Limpopo provin- the quest for truth requires a critical atti-
cial government. tude. So scholarly criticism should never
stop, be it the critique of political opposi-
At local government level, the sphere closest tion or the majority party or the leader-
to the people, the reports are too many and ship of academic institutions. As Jacques
even worse. Just by way of example, The Derrida puts it, scholars need to realise "the
Sunday World, 27 January 2013, carried unconditional freedom to assert" and the
a story indicating that the "Deputy Chief `"right to say publicly all that is required by
whip of the ANC in the city of Johannesburg research, knowledge and thought concern-
is facing allegations of having an inappro- ing the truth".18
priate relationship with Zero Defect Trad-
ing, a contractor that is involved in the During one of my field research trips to the
R170m Alexandra smart metre project". It's Eastern Cape, at the height of the Nkandla
important to highlight cases such as these debate in parliament, where the EFF for
because, even though not as high profile as the first time, burst into the chorus, "pay
the cases involving President Zuma, they back the money", thus interrupting Presi-
underline major issues of concern about dent Zuma's question and answer session
public leadership in South Africa–this is in parliament, I decided to engage members

Kwandiwe Kondlo
of the community of Mlakalaka location If our finest people are shunned, our
just outside King Williams Town to gauge homeland is dying of sorrow and the
their perspectives. What really caught my human heart is shattered even before
attention was the response by one old lady shame explodes, you will ask why we
who questioned the manner Mr Zuma has sing. We sing because we believe in
handled the Nkandla debacle. Her response people and we shall overcome these
was "sayaphi na isazela salendoda. Nokuba defeats; we sing because it is raining in
lemali akayithathanga kodwa makabonise the furrow and we are the militants of
isazela esiphilileyo" 19 literally meaning, life and because we cannot and will not
`"where is the conscience of this man (the allow our song to become ashes.
President)? Even if he did not take the
money at least he must show us he has a Many of our finest people in this country,
living conscience". To me, as a researcher people who can deliver great things for the
who focuses on issues of ethical leader- country were they to be placed in key lead-
ship, this came as a profound statement. ership positions in our public institutions,
President Zuma could have shown more stand on the margins; some have been
leadership in the handling of the Nkandla threatened in various ways and are now
matter by taking the nation into his confi- quiet and are concentrating on "own busi-
dence regarding what he knows and what ness", but, on the other hand, the homeland
he doesn't know; he could have extended is dying of sorrow. The fast growing require-
a gesture of rectitude, even to opponents, ment for a partisan stamp before one can
by agreeing on a symbolic atonement that hold certain positions in public institutions,
could range from a small payment to a positions which are crucial to the develop-
public apology on behalf of government ment of our economy and the sustenance of
for what was done wrongly in the entire our democracy, is a big challenge, and if it
process. History might judge Julius Malema is not seriously reviewed and minimised to
more favourably, because he has appeared target very few and fundamentally strategic
before court to answer to his corruption positions, this country's development path
case and the case was withdrawn. He has is likely to be very painful.
made public pronouncements of apology
for the excesses in his role while he was As Mario indicates in the poem, it is "rain-
leader of the ANC youth wing. ing in the furrow" and we need leaders who
are "militants of life". But I wish to under-
The 1979 poem of Mario Benedetti,20 titled line, especially in the case of political lead-
`"Why we sing" (Por que cantamos–trans- ers and other leaders in government and
lated by D'Arcy Martin and paraphrased state institutions, that from them we expect
below), if carefully analysed and inter- more than merely "militants of life"; we
preted, has important messages for South expect militants of a selfless life. Yes, we do
Africa. The poem reads: have militants of life, but many have come

Kwandiwe Kondlo
across as being too selfish and mean–yet feeds from perceptions of neo-patrimonial-
we forget that, in our case here in South ism, patronage and, in general, corruption
Africa, "the human heart" is becoming shat- in the landscape of our political economy.
tered–shame is very likely to explode. But There is also the knowing-doing gap which
on a more positive note, we cannot "allow still persists in certain public institutions,
our song to become ashes"–this song is hence the challenges of service delivery.
the democratic South Africa–the country But most importantly, we also have presi-
we dreamt of together–a South Africa dential leadership which is not proactive in
of unlimited possibilities for us and our providing an overall guiding eye in public
children. policy. The President's own touch in policy
matters is very important to give confidence
The leadership challenges facing our coun- about visionary leadership–but this is not
try begin at the level of community–these happening or we don't feel it. For instance,
include not only community fragmentation former President Mbeki championed the
but the moral decay and loss of self-love African renaissance project and his hand
one finds among certain individuals in our could be felt; former President Mandela did
communities. At government level, there the same with the nation building project–
is a lack of leadership example in terms yes, institutions and their leaders play an
of self-conduct, work ethic and behaviour. important role but this does not mean you
There is also the lack of overall coherence disappear as president and only appear to
in government policy implementation strat- give reports to the nation.
egies involving communities–in many
circles this is called public participation. What of Academic Intellectuals?
The manner in which people are involved
in projects meant to develop them is too The question which is raised now and then
state-centric rather than people-centred–it in various quarters is where and what
is carefully stage-managed to secure politi- really are the voice and role of intellectu-
cal gain for leaders and really less about als in South Africa, in times like this? Well,
the impact which reduces "the cares and the question can be addressed in various
sorrows" of ordinary citizens. If our institu- ways and it can even be trivialised. But
tions and public leadership were strong on one is of the view that scholars need to be
public participation, and if the paradigm vocal and firm on issues of leadership in
and operationalisation of public participa- our society and the much needed renais-
tion were strong and honest, the country sance among black communities. Public
would not be facing growing rates of public administration discourses need to move
protest and international embarrassment beyond concern with technical procedures
because of violence related to xenophobia. and systems of governance to encompass
There is also a challenge of lack of trust the much bigger project of social emanci-
in public leaders and institutions and this pation, a project which took the back seat

Kwandiwe Kondlo
during transitional negotiations in 1990 Hence, it is important for academics to not

to 1993. From a multi-disciplinary perspec- only teach and then go and sit in the library,
tive, scholars need to shine the spotlight on but to also do fieldwork and interact with
this neglected project. Aspects of this pro- communities and community organisations.
ject include issues of language and public
administration, the relationship between There is a certain kind of leadership South
expert knowledge and public participa- Africa needs, so that the looming crisis of
tion, social cohesion, the family and the democracy doesn't deepen. At a political
construction of the ethical self–one can level, there is a need to restore the cen-
mention just a few examples of a much trality of a lively conscience and true con-
bigger task. I like Odora Hoppers when she sciousness as virtues in political leadership.
says that "leadership, in the way I see it, There is a need to restore the authority
demands both hardware and software com- of knowledge in policy development and
ponents. There are contents we can pack- decision making. Pulling political rank and
age into a curriculum and teach to groups mobilising support networks to push cer-
of students".21 This shows that intellectuals tain policy positions, thus overriding facts
have an important role to play in mould- and research information, is going to drown
ing future generations of leaders, but, of public leadership and injure the whole coun-
course, have to be careful about issues of try. As scholars, we need to caution on this
paradigm transformation, so that we mould and we need to do research that exposes
a generation of leaders who are attuned hasty policy making based on scanty evi-
to and resonate with our communi ties. dence. Public leaders with lively conscience
Leadership does matter and bad public and true consciousness seek for evidence
leadership deforms even constitutional on which to base policy decisions. The bal-
institutions of oversight. Good public lead- ance between conscience and conscious-
ership creates institutions that may be as ness is very important in public leadership.
good as the leadership which created them. But what we have seen so far is that lead-
There is a saying which goes like this: once ers, who have political consciousness and
the rot starts at the top, it affects the entire a track record, may not necessarily have
body. In other words, once you fix the lead- a lively conscience. Conscience, more than
ership at the top, the trickle down effects, everything else, is a spiritual self-awareness
flowing from the power of exemplary lead- and it exposes fraudulent "political con-
ership, will help regenerate the body. At a sciousness", which excites the masses only
practical level, there is also a great need to hang them out to dry. A leadership of
in South Africa to build leadership from conscience and consciousness is an honest
below, so that we can have informed, self- leadership–an honest leadership requires
reliant and assertive communities who can the transformation of the self at a personal
consistently demand both accountability level. The first step towards greatness in
and appropriate dividends of democracy. public leadership is honesty, but as Christian

Kwandiwe Kondlo
Nestell Bovee indicates in his poem, titled Nelson Mandela called "the RDP of the
Many thoughts of many minds, "honesty is Soul"23. This is a paradigm of self-awareness
not only the first step towards greatness, it and honesty. Public leadership with con-
is greatness itself".22 science and consciousness is a model for
true humanity. The challenge for scholars,
Conclusion besides teaching, is to collaborate in doing
research that constantly reviews the state
Conscience and consciousness in public of leadership in our country and proposes
leadership is not simply about political measures for assessment and development.
correctness and being with the right crowd Scholars need to bridge the gap between
politically; it is not about taking radical the work they produce and what is relevant
political positions or being politically active for community self-awareness and develop-
and aligned. It is about an individual's jour- ment. In other words, public administration
ney of self-transformation; it is about what and society needs more attention.
Kwandiwe Kondlo is a Research Professor at the University of Johannesburg. He has been a

Visiting Professor at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University and University of Witwatersrand's
School of Public and Development Management, now School of Governance, among others.
He worked for the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) as the Executive Director of the
Democracy and Governance Programme and the University of Free State as the Director of Africa
Studies. He is the author and editor of many books and journal articles.

1 Havel, V. 1991. Disturbing the peace. theoretical piece have been adapted kwe’s tombstone – they are taken
New York: Vintage Books, p.167. and used to fit the context of this from R.M. Sobukwe’s speech at
2 Irlam, S. 2004. "Unraveling the article. the Completers’ Social in 1948 at
rainbow: The remission of nation 7 Foucault, M. 2000. Essential works Fort Hare.
in post-apartheid literature". In Rita of Michel Foucault 1954-1984. 14 Havel, V. 2012. Havel quotes from
Barnard and Grant Farred (eds). Volume.1, Paul Rabinow (ed). New http://mobile.brainyquotes/
Special Issue of the South Atlantic York: Penguin Books. authors/v/vaclav_havel.html.
Quarterly 103(4): p. 696. 8 Foucault, M. 1994. Ethics – essen 15 Marx, K. & Engels, F. 1985. The
3 Pelletier, K.R. 1978. Towards a tial works of Foucault, 1954-1984. German ideology, Part One. Lon
science of consciousness. New York: London: Penguin Books, p. xxvii. don: Lawrence and Wishart.
Dell Publishing. 9 Manganyi, C. 1973. Being-black- 16 One is acutely aware of the fact
4 Ibid, p. 258. in-the-world. Johannesburg: SPRO- that media can exaggerate issues
5 Pickering, M .1997. History, exper CAS/Ravan. and need not be read gullibly. One
ience and cultural studies. New 10 Manganyi, C. p.18. is fully aware of the responses
York: St Martins Press, p.100. 11 Jung, C.G. 1958. The undiscovered to repudiate some of the issues
6 Kemple, T.M. 2007. Introduction – self. England: Routledge and Kegan covered in the media, but it’s things
allosociality: bridges and doors Paul. which are now in the public psyche
to Simmel’s theory of the Limit’. 12 Biko, S. 1978. I write what I like. Unit and are widely discussed.
Theory, Culture and Society, 24(7- ed Kingdom: Heineman, pp. 48-49. 17 Odera Hoppers uses this term in her
8): 2. The insights generated in this 13 The words are inscribed on Sobu chapter titled "Wounded healers

Kwandiwe Kondlo
and transformative leadership: "Wounded healers and transform 22 Bovee, C.N. 2013. Many thoughts
Towards revolutionary ethics". In ative leadership: Towards revolu of many minds. In Joshua Dubois.
K. Kondlo (ed). Perspectives on tionary ethics". In K. Kondlo (ed). 2013. The President’s devotional:
thought leaders hip for Africa’s Perspectives on thought leadership The daily readings that inspired
renewal. Pretoria: Africa Institute for Africa’s renewal . Pretoria: President Obama. New York: Har
of South Africa. Africa Institute of South Africa, per One.
18 Derrida, J. 2002. Without alibi. Cali- p. 23. 23 Villa-Vicencio, C. 2007. The RDP
fornia: Stanford University Press, 21 Hoppers, C.O. 2013."Wounded healers of the soul: Building a character of
p. 202. and transformative leadership: positive values. In Omano Edigeji
19 Community conversations, Mlak Towards revolutionary ethics ". (ed). Rethinking South Africa’s
alaka village, King Williams Town, In K. Kondlo (ed). Perspectives development path – reflections on the
21 June 2015. on thought leadership for Africa’s ANC’s policy conference discussion
20 The poem is in a chapter by renewal. Pretoria: Africa Institute documents. Special Edition of Policy
Catherine Odora Hoppers, 2013. of South Africa, p.26. Issues and Actors, 20(10).

Leadership and Good Governance in the Public
Service: Lessons From African Philosophy
University of the Witwatersrand
Abstract models that would assist with the delivery of

an enabling environment for the attainment
This article seeks to make a contribution of public value, the life of dignity and the
to the project of narrative development in pursuit of happiness for the communities
the universe of Public Administration. As it in question.
were, this article is in agreement with the
understanding that metaphysics, which is This article seeks to add to the project of
a branch of philosophy that studies reality, narrative construction and development
that is both physical and social reality, does in Public Administration with some of the
in several ways have an influence on the insights drawn from the philosophy tradi-
narrative construction in social and politi- tions in Africa that also draw their materials
cal philosophy. This suggests that studies from, and talk to, the African reality. This is
in natural reality, in more ways than one, with reference to the traditions and episte-
informed the content of studies on social mological frontiers such as ethnophilosophy,
reality, as in social and political philosophies. nationalistic-ideological philosophy, profes-
Every society in the world has its own world- sional philosophy and philosophic sagacity.2
view of both the physical and social realities Some of these traditions are found to be in
that issue from their cultures. Western phi- resonance with the Batho Pele principles that
losophies, as well, come across as products serve as guidelines for leadership and good
of western cultural systems with major influ- governance in the public service, and they
ences on social and political systems. African are also found to have outlived the colonial
philosophies, too, are found to be products overlay. This article argues that there are
of African cultural systems, political philoso- leadership and good governance lessons that
phies and legacies.1 In world communities' can be learnt from these traditions, philoso-
social and political philosophies, we come phies and systems. This is with reference to
across these communities' concepts of lead- those values borne of African worldviews
ership and good governance. This is with that are found to be still relevant to the
reference to the leadership and governance worlds of both leadership and governance

Leadership and Good Governance in the Public Service: Lessons from African Philosophy
in the public service such as respect, a endured despite the onslaught of time and
caring public service, a considerate public the emerging narratives. This article further
service and a public service that is able to notes that the emerging and evolving nar-
do more for society with limited resources. ratives in public leadership and governance
The public service landscape presents lead- are in some instances informed by context,
ership and governance approaches that are as asserted and alluded to in the historical-
in some ways out of kilter with the African hermeneutical investigation of Theophilus
social reality. This article postulates the Okere on African philosophy.4
integration of some of the enduring African
philosophy elements into the Grand National Leadership and Good
Narrative for the delivery of the public serv- Governance
ants and public service of the future.
The concepts of leadership and good gov-
Introduction ernance can best be explained in the con-
text of a philosophical question that was
Leadership and good governance are gen- once asked: "What is the purpose of life?"
erally regarded as critical for effective and Responses to this question find expression
efficient delivery of services, more especially in a number of theories trying to present a
the delivery of public goods, as it is the busi- logical and convincing answer. Responses
ness of the public service.3 Commentators seem to converge and agree on the under-
in the discipline of Public Administration standing that the purpose of life, in the main,
are in agreement on service excellence in is the pursuit of happiness. This further sug-
national governments, national government gests that the concept of leadership is about
departments, provincial governments and making people happy. One of the domains of
local government as attributable to leader- making people happy is when people expe-
ship and good governance. The concepts of rience good governance, especially in the
leadership and good governance are argu- delivery of services by the public service. We
ably as old as human history and also the have recently seen how people make their
history of philosophy. Every society in the feelings known whenever there are deficien-
world, in its history, has always had its con- cies on the good governance infrastructure.
cepts of what constitutes leadership and
good governance as often encapsulated in Various works, theories and philosophies
these societies' social and political philoso- on the concept of leadership are in agree-
phies. Some of these philosophies and theo- ment on the understanding that leadership
ries of leadership and good governance is about making the world a better place
began to lose their reality value with the on- for other people. Human history presents
set of new leadership and good governance great men and women who sacrificed their
narratives. But then again, some of the ele- lives in making the world a better place for
ments of these philosophies and theories others. Their altruism informed some of the

ideologies and political philosophies that and public officials have, in the recent past,
guided the liberation movements on the been raised as points of bother and concern
African continent. Africa shares with the in the public service. Societies in the world
global community some of its finest leaders socialise their people into what is regarded
who left an enduring legacy for humanity, as acceptable behaviours through encultura-
as these leaders taught humanity, all over tion. This further suggests that leadership
the world, the lessons of what it means to development, in general, and in the public
be human. This observation assists with the service, in particular, is possible through
understanding that leadership, in some situ- enculturation processes into the desired
ations, is not only about the positions that state of morality.6
people occupy. This article further asserts
that leadership is also about making the The focus of leadership development, espe-
world a better place for others and making cially in the public service in the recent
a difference in the lives of others at any level past, has been on character development,
of the organisation or of human functioning.5 especially in keeping with the growing dis-
Such commitments are often informed by course on the public servant of the future.
the cultures of the societies in question. Fur- A premium and accent are placed on the
thermore, this article is of the view that the imperative of men and women of character
public service challenges of today require as the public service cadres of the future. It
men and women who are committed to the is expected that much of the raw material
cause of bringing about improvements in in these interventions will be drawn from a
the lives of people through the delivery of society's culture. This further suggests that
public value. This is the kind of commitment culture does form the basis for an episte-
that resonates with African philosophies and mological project for knowledge production,
cultures as in the philosophy of Ubuntu. This transfer and dissemination. This gives cre-
suggests that the public generally would like dence to the claim by Nigerian philosopher
to see a show of Ubuntu in public officials as Theophilus Okere that philosophy is, by its
they discharge their responsibilities in the very nature, a product of culture, and that as
public service. it were, it has to be understood in the context
of the culture from which it issues. This inev-
Leadership is further defined as having to itably is also found to be applicable to the
do with the behaviours that others notice leadership and good governance interven-
and the behaviours in the handling of relations in the public service, as it is expected
tionships with other people. This dimension that they talk to the African reality.7
on the discourse on leadership relates to
another branch of philosophy called ethics. On the frontier of good governance, lead-
Ethics is the philosophical study of human ing commentators in this discipline are in
behaviour. It has to be borne in mind that agreement on the understanding that it is all
the behaviours of some of the politicians about ensuring that we get the right people

to do the right jobs, with good processes African Philosophy

and accountable leadership. The history of
African social and political systems or phi- As stated in the introduction to this article,
losophies tells us that African communities, African philosophy can provide an episte-
in the past, had their own vernacular sys- mological basis for leadership development
tems of governance that ensured that there and good governance in the public service.
was accountability, and that some of these This article intends to steer clear of the pat-
systems are still in practice, presenting les- ronising discourse as to whether an African
sons for today's governance activities and philosophy exists or not. A philosophical
processes in the public service. Today, the take on the concept of philosophy tells us
government of Rwanda continues to apply that philosophy is about thinking or a pur-
the age-old practices of the Umuganda. The suit of wisdom. If philosophy is about think-
Umuganda is a mandatory community ser- ing, then, philosophy is when who thinks
vice that ensures citizen participation and about what? All people on earth think and
accountability on the part of public officials have their own worldviews and respond in
in the delivery of public goods and public their own ways as to how their lot can be
value. This traditional practice, borne of the improved. The African philosophy project,
Rwandese traditional past, is being used as as seen by Odera Oruka, is identified and
a post-colonial public works programme and divided into four trends: ethnophilosophy,
also as a platform of community participa- nationalistic-ideological philosophy, profes-
tion.8 Through this cultural practice of the sional philosophy and philosophic sagacity.
Umuganda, communities are socialised into
the responsibility of contributing to com- Ethnophilosophy
munity development and environmental
responsibility. As it were, the community The philosophers that emerged on the plains
gets to join forces with the government, and of ethnophilosophy in African philosophy,
the public officials also get to account for such as Placide Tempels, Leopold Sedar
the deployment and utilisation of resources. Senghor and John Mbiti, described the
The relevance of these systems is a subject worldviews and thought systems of particu-
of intense debate among academics, revolu- lar communities as philosophy. This article
tionaries, philosophers and leaders in West does not have a problem with this position,
Africa, and further afield on the African con- as most philosophical traditions across the
tinent. The councils of elders, for instance, in world are born of this process. In terms of
some traditional African communities, were this approach, communities all over the
and are still viewed as the centrepiece of world have a way, sometimes through their
African governance whose approaches and cultures, of communally agreeing on what
models present a potential for the strength- constitutes public value to them. They have
ening of the delivery of Africa's democratic a way of agreeing on what they regard as
promises.9 good for society and also what they regard

as morally desirable to them. This also Okere, in his African philosophy and the her-
comes across as the project of other phil- meneutics of culture, avers that philosophy
osophical traditions in other parts of the is developed out of culture, and has to be
world.10 In communities, with strict cultural interpreted and understood in a particular
systems, you often come across very strong community's context. This has been the case
and solid governance systems. A detour into in the evolution of philosophical traditions
Botswana presents us with a country with a in other parts of the world.11 The Black Con-
very strong culture with a globally acknowl- sciousness philosophy in South Africa calls
edged governance system. The observance for the understanding of one's history, cul-
of the rule of law in Botswana draws heav- ture and humanity for the completion of the
ily on the culture of the Batswana people. psychological liberation project. This kind
The South African public service is crying of understanding is also required in the dis-
out for a very solid and strong governance course in public administration. This is the
system. In terms of the theory of the scope understanding that is found to be important
of leadership, culture comes across as one for the leadership project in the public ser-
of the frontiers of leadership development. vice, especially when it comes to the han-
Culture plays a significant role in leader- dling of relationships. Public servants and
ship development, especially in character politicians are expected to show respect and
development. Ubuntu when interacting with members of
the public.
Leadership development, as the anatomy
of leadership theory would have it, entails The other area of African culture is that of
the development of both character and music as in song and dance. It is through
competence. This further suggests that cul- music that the African people can, in terms
tural virtues such as care, respect, humil- of existential nomenclature, mobilise for
ity, sympathy and considerateness can be challenges to the world of negation. They
built into the character development pro- have always affirmed their being, as a way
ject for leadership development in the public of restoring their dignity and articulation
service. This further suggests that African of what constitutes public value, through
philosophy can be of service in the leader- music. Song and dance have always been
ship development initiatives in the public very important rituals for morale during the
service. The members of the public tend to wars of liberation against the colonial pro-
evaluate public servants in the context of the ject. The relevance of this discussion for the
officials' respect for the communities they universe of the public service is that when-
serve. It is therefore important for the public ever the communities are not happy with
servants of the future to have knowledge of the handling of the delivery of public goods,
the worldviews or philosophies of the com- they articulate their displeasure through
munities they serve and what constitutes song and dance during service delivery
public value for the communities they serve. protests. As the epistemological project is

geared at understanding, it is important that of African philosophy also has its share of
these songs and dances are interpreted with leadership practices that are not worthy
a view to understanding the thinking of the of emulating. This is with reference to the
clientele communities and understanding trends of life-presidents, dictatorships and
as an epistemological project for the aca- other undesirable behaviours that lead to a
demic community focusing on the universe compromise of the prospects and promise
of Public Administration. of good governance in the public service.12
Nationalistic-Ideological Philosophy Today, there is a trend to form political par-

ties in response to the dearth of leadership
The nationalistic-ideological philosophy and weaknesses in the governance sys
traces its origins and evolution to the found- tems in the public service. There is a trend
ing fathers of the liberation movements on to forming breakaway political parties, as
the African continent. This is with refer- some people within some of the political
ence to great leaders such as Kwame Nkru- parties believe that the existing ideologies
mah, Julius Nyerere, Oliver Tambo, Nelson have become moribund for today's socio-
Mandela, Steve Biko and others in their economic and political realities. With the
league who presented models of leadership reality of the mutation of political ideolo-
worthy of emulation in the public service. gies, there is a need for the understanding
Their contributions, as reflected in their of the emerging political philosophies, theo-
writings, provide an epistemological base ries and narratives, more especially in the
for further discourse in public leadership universe of Public Administration. This is
and narrative development. Political philoso- an invitation to reflect on the relevance of
phies were developed and political parties some of the ancient political and governance
were formed in response to life-denying or systems for the public service, as some of
life-negating social and political systems. these systems are still in place in the social
The Black Consciousness philosophy, for and political practices of African communi-
instance, calls for an informed understand- ties in their micro spaces. The concepts of
ing of the universe of the black people consultation and consensus are still highly
in South Africa, as they happen to be the prized and respected in traditional African
majority populace that receives services communities.
from the public sector. Even after the onset
of the democratic dispensation in South Professional Philosophy
Africa, there are instances where, when
the majority happen to be black people, The professional philosophy frontier in Afri-
they receive sub-standard services from can philosophy, led by professionally trained
some of the public officials simply because students and teachers of philosophy such as
they are black, as though poor standards Kwasi Wiredu, Paulin Hountondji and Peter
are reserved for black people. This frontier Bodunrin, rejected the ethnophilosophy

approach as too anachronistic for episte- public service. The other universal principle
mology. This approach in African philoso- of ethics is that of justice and fairness. There
phy postulates the adoption of universal definitely is a need for justice and fairness
approaches towards the understanding of in governance systems in the public service.
reality and, of course, for the purpose of this There have been, in the recent past, com-
article, a universal approach towards under- plaints of preferential treatment and bias in
standing of emerging realities in the uni- the public service especially when it comes
verse of Public Administration. This article to the procurement of goods and services,
agrees with this approach as well, especially as there is a persistent belief that only the
in the area of public management ethics. The connected stand to benefit.14
basic principles of ethics, good governance
and leadership are found to be universal and Philosophic Sagacity
present in cultural, social and political sys-
tems across the world.13 The philosophic sagacity approach was pio-
neered by Odera Oruka, as he went about his
The first principle of ethics and leadership project of trying to preserve the philosophi-
is that of the value of life. For leadership cal thoughts of traditional Kenyan sages.
development in the public service, the public The philosophic sagacity approach is predi-
servants of the future have to demonstrate cated on the understanding that in both the
their sensitivity to the value that they attach traditional and modern Africa, there exists
to the lives of the people that they serve. both literate and illiterate men and women
Every public servant across the world is who commonly engage in philosophic reflec-
expected to show respect and appreciation tion on various problems of human life and
of the people they are tasked to serve. There nature in general. Most of these people are,
are lessons that can also be learnt from Afri- today, found to be providing leadership in
can philosophy about the value of the com- the organs of civil society, raising issues,
munity of life. African communities have, in especially on the handling of the delivery of
many instances, taught the world what it services to the public. In leadership parlance,
means to be human, despite challenges with it is said that these are the people who are
the resources that they need to bring about providing leadership from below. For the
improvements in their lives. Traditional Afri- purpose of this article, this is an acknowl-
can communities have an incredible capac- edgement that there exists leadership capac-
ity to take care of their own people, as in ity in the communities to whom services are
people providing great project leadership rendered by the public service. This obser-
when making preparations for ceremonies vation comes across as very important for
or funerals, where we come across interest- the participatory leadership imperative in
ing leadership and governance. The public the course of the delivery of services to
service world can learn a lot from these com- the public. Such people often have a very
munities, with a view to heralding a caring good knowledge of the communities and the

problems that these communities face and good governance paradigms. The professional
have very good ideas as to how the problems philosophy frontier in African philosophy has
in question can be overcome. They can be a case in arguing for an African epistemologi-
a great resource if brought into harness as cal project that is in step with other global
partners in the delivery of services to the trends with their emphasis on universalism.16
public. As it is, participatory leadership is This argument can easily be extended to the
found to be very important in the delivery universe of leadership and good governance
of services to the public.15 in the public service. No longer should we be
having cases of leadership failure justified on
African Philosophy and the the grounds of their being uniquely African.
Public Leadership Narrative African philosophy, whether cultural, episte-
mology, ethical or socio-political, does bear
From the foregoing discourse, it is evident the attributes of universality. Africa can march
that African philosophy is providing an epis- into the future with other fellow travellers in
temological horizon for the construction of the community of scholarship. This further
narratives for public leadership and good suggests that even on the leadership and good
governance. It is evident that the various governance fronts, with commitment, Africa,
frontiers of African philosophy can be of in general, and South Africa, in particular, can
assistance in the theory development pro- measure up to the pedigreed in the global com-
ject for the construction of the public ser- munity of nations.
vice of the future. African culture pervades
the African people's concepts of ontology Conclusion
and cosmology about their universe. Avoid-
ance or exclusion of culture in the theory- In conclusion, this article is of the view that
building process can easily render the theory African philosophy can be of service in the
in question irrelevant. Leadership theories process of developing theories for leadership
that are meant to talk to the African real- and good governance in the public service,
ity have to tap into the resources provided for the creation of the public servant and the
by African cultures. Communities generally public service of the future. From the forego-
prefer to be served by respectful men and ing discussions, it is evident that the African
women of character and who are compe- epistemological project is not completely
tent in their tasks. Character development, anchored in the anachronism of traditionalism,
as it were, also has to be informed by the as demonstrated in the discussion on profes-
impulses of the cultures of the communi- sional philosophy and its embrace of the open
ties in question. Great African leaders have systems paradigm. The South African public
blazed the trail to be followed as a legacy service can learn a great deal from contribu-
also for leadership in the public service. tions of African philosophy, especially the
Their legacy can be woven into the tapestry works that comment on social reality, and in
of the evolving public service leadership and keeping with the position of the professional

philosophy frontier, the South African public African philosophy and the South African
service can also learn from the best prac- public service cannot proceed in isolation
tices in the industries from other parts of from the epistemological agenda in other
the world. Discourse and conversations on parts of the world.
Manamela David Johannes Matshabaphala is a Professor at the University of the Witwaters

rand’s School of Governance, Johannesburg. He was the Regional Chairperson of the SADC Lead
ership Academy – Leadership Regional Network Programme – for capacity building initiatives in
the rural areas of Limpopo and the SADC region. He taught at various universities. The focus
of his scholarship is largely in the following areas: leadership, project management and strategic
management.

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Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two
Continents and a Singular Goal
Leland Ware
University of Delaware
Abstract of worship. In the northern states, many

restaurants, theatres and hotels would not
The civil rights and anti-apartheid move serve black patrons. Segregated neighbour-
ments produced two iconic leaders, Nelson hoods were perpetuated by the real estate
Mandela and Martin Luther King. Both lead- industry. Blacks were confined to occupa-
ers confronted white supremacist regimes tions such as maids, cooks, chauffeurs, por-
with no resources beyond the volunteers ters and labourers.
who participated in organised protests. They
ultimately prevailed against tremendous This article examines the ways in which
odds. Segregation and apartheid shared a segregation and apartheid were fought with
common purpose. They rigidly controlled marches, boycotts and demonstrations and,
each country's black population. Laws and in the case of South Africa, armed resistance.
practices determined where blacks could King and Mandela took courageous stands
reside, where they could work and where against unjust laws. Mandela was banned by
they could attend schools. Under apartheid, the South African government and subse-
every South African was classified into one quently imprisoned for 27 years. King gave
of three racial groups: white, coloured and his life to the struggle when he was assas-
black. Blacks could not own property in 80 sinated in 1968. Despite the many obstacles,
percent of South Africa's land area. Racial both leaders were able to lead the decades-
segregation was enforced in all public long struggle to end segregation and apart-
areas including buildings, services and heid. The Civil Rights Movement in America
transportation. culminated with the federal legislation of the
1960s. South African apartheid lasted for a
In America's southern states, schools, restau- generation longer, ending in 1994 with the
rants, hotels, theatres, public transportation election of Nelson Mandela as president. In
and waiting rooms were segregated, as were both countries, justice eventually prevailed.
elevators, parks, public restrooms, hospi- `"[T]he arc of the moral universe is long, but
tals, drinking fountains, prisons and places it bends toward justice".

Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal
Leland Ware
Introduction elevators, parks, public restrooms, hospitals,

drinking fountains, prisons and places of
The civil rights and anti-apartheid move worship. In the northern states, many restau-
ments produced two iconic leaders, Nelson rants, theatres and hotels would not serve
Mandela and Martin Luther King. Both lead- black patrons. Segregated neighbourhoods
ers confronted white supremacist regimes were perpetuated by the real estate industry.
with virtually no resources beyond the Blacks were confined to occupations such
volunteers who participated in organised as maids, cooks, chauffeurs, porters and
protests. They ultimately prevailed against labourers. As was the case in South Africa,
tremendous odds. From 1910, when the blacks were expected to be deferential and
Union of South Africa was established, until subservient. An obsequious "yes sir" or "no
1994, black South Africans endured a system ma'am" were the ways blacks were required
of racial exclusion and oppression. The con- to address whites in the American South;
straints were tightened in the 1940s and `"yes baas" was the South African equivalent.
`'50s when the South African government
implemented apartheid. In America, from Under apartheid, every South African was
1896 until 1968, blacks experienced simi- classified into one of three racial groups:
lar forms of discrimination under laws and white, coloured and black. Blacks could
practices that enforced racial segregation. not own property in 80 percent of South
Africa's land area. Apartheid was enforced
Segregation and apartheid shared a common in all public areas including buildings, ser-
purpose. They rigidly controlled each coun- vices and transportation. Urban communi-
try's black population. Laws and practices ties were divided into "group areas" in which
determined where blacks could reside, residence was restricted to designated racial
where they could work and where they could groups. South African blacks were prohib-
attend schools. Parks, restaurants, hotels, ited from working in any occupation except
public buildings and transportation were those designated for blacks. Laws enforced
divided by race. In South Africa, the intent racially separated schools. A law created
was to have a large supply of cheap labour ten black "homelands" as independent
residing near the gold and diamond mines. states. The citizenship of millions of black
South African blacks could also serve as South Africans was revoked and they were
maids, cooks, drivers and in other low-level required to carry passbooks to enter white
occupations. Apartheid envisioned a servile areas. The system was all-encompassing.
black population that would be dependent
on whites for all of its needs. This article compares segregation in Amer-
ica to apartheid in South Africa. It examines
In America's southern states, schools, restau- the ways in which segregation and apartheid
rants, hotels, theatres, public transportation were fought with marches, boycotts and
and waiting rooms were segregated, as were demonstrations and, in the case of South

Leland Ware
Africa, armed resistance. Martin Luther King segregation did not violate the Constitution
and Nelson Mandela took courageous stands if the separate facilities provided for blacks
against unjust laws. Mandela was "banned" were equal to those reserved for whites.
by the South African government and was After Plessy, a regime of white supremacy
subsequently imprisoned for 27 years. King was imposed. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth
gave his life to the struggle when he was Amendments3 of the United States Constitu-
assassinated in 1968. Despite formidable tion were essentially nullified in the South.
obstacles, both leaders were able to lead the African Americans were disenfranchised,
struggle to end segregation and apartheid. confined to substandard housing in segre-
The Civil Rights Movement in America culmi- gated neighbourhoods and excluded from
nated with the anti-discrimination legislation all but the lowest paying, least desirable
of the 1960s. South African apartheid lasted occupations. They were always separate,
for a generation longer, ending in 1994 with but never equal.4
the election of Nelson Mandela as president.
`"[T]he arc of the moral universe is long, but Whites and blacks were born in separate
it bends toward justice."1 hospitals, educated in separate schools and
buried in segregated graveyards. Segrega-
Segregation in America tion was codified in state and local laws and
enforced by intimidation and violence. There
Martin Luther King, Jr was born on 15 were, in effect, two criminal justice systems:
January 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1944, one for whites and another for blacks. When
King graduated from Booker T. Washington the colour line was breached, violence was
High School and was admitted to Morehouse unleashed against offenders by the Ku Klux
College at the age of 15. After graduating Klan and local whites, often in concert with
from college, he entered Crozer Theological local law enforcement officials. Lynching
Seminary in Upland, Pennsylvania. King was and other forms of racial violence and intimi-
ordained as a Baptist minister on 25 Feb- dation were routine.5
ruary 1948, when he was 19 years old. In
1951, King entered Boston University. He In the North many theatres, restaurants,
received a PhD in Theology from that institu- places of entertainment and public accom-
tion on 5 June 1955. King married Coretta modations barred black patrons. Segregated
Scott and settled in Montgomery, Alabama, neighbourhoods were enforced by racially
where he became the pastor of the Dexter restrictive covenants. The covenants were
Avenue Baptist Church. clauses in deeds that prevented property
owners and subsequent purchasers from
In the 1950s, segregation was a deeply selling their homes to racial and religious
entrenched American institution. The system minorities. When northern cities began to
was officially sanctioned by the 1896 deci- industrialise at the beginning of the twenti-
sion, Plessy v. Ferguson 2, which held that eth century, thousands of African-American

Leland Ware
families migrated from the rural South to federal government required racially restric-
cities in the Northeast and Midwest. Local tive covenants on loans it insured. This
ordinances were enacted that prohibited barred African Americans from suburban
African Americans from occupying proper- communities in which most of the homes
ties except in black neighbourhoods. were purchased with federally-insured
mortgages.9
The ordinances were challenged and
declared unconstitutional in a 1917 deci- The American Civil Rights
sion, Buchanan v. Warley.6 After Buchanan, Movement
the real estate industry resorted to racially
restrictive covenants. The Supreme Court Martin Luther King's career as a civil rights
implicitly endorsed the covenants in a 1926 leader began in 1955 and ended thirteen
decision, Corrigan v. Buckley.7 The Four- years later with his assassination in 1968.
teenth Amendment applies only to "state During this relatively short period of time,
action", which consists of actions taken by America underwent a profound change.
the state and local governments. The cov- Beginning in the mid-1930s, the National
enants, however, were private agreements. Association for the Advancement of Col-
oured People (NAACP) challenged segrega-
During the post-World War II era of the tion with court cases that culminated with
1940s and '50s, suburban communities Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.10 That
were developed in areas adjacent to cities. case effectively reversed Plessy and held
For most Americans, home ownership was that racial segregation in public schools
made possible for the first time by the intro- violated the Fourteenth Amendment of the
duction of fixed-rate, 30-year mortgages US Constitution.
insured by the Veterans Administration
and Federal Housing Authority. The Home After Brown, the Civil Rights Movement
Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC), a fed- went from the courts to the streets. On
eral agency established during the 1930s 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested
depression, fostered discriminatory prac- after refusing to yield her seat to a white pas-
tices through "redlining".8 senger.11 A few days later, the Montgomery
Improvement Association was organised by
The HOLC rated every neighbourhood in local black leaders. Martin Luther King, who
America "A", "B", "C" or "D", using colour was just 26 years old at the time, was elected
coded maps. The lowest quality rating, "D", president. After a tense year, in which car-
was coloured red. Neighbourhoods rated pools were organised and weekly prayer
`"A" had to be homogenous and occupied meetings held, in November of 1956 the US
by whites. Neighbourhoods in which blacks Supreme Court ruled that segregation on
resided were rated "D". The neighbourhood's public transportation was unconstitutional,
boundaries were marked by a red line. The ensuring victory for the bus boycott.12

Leland Ware
In 1960, lunch counter sit-ins began in audience and the nation with his "I have a
Greensboro, North Carolina, and rapidly dream" speech in which he articulated his
spread across the South. In Atlanta, King was vision of a just and egalitarian society.16
arrested during a sit-in, as he waited to be The speech catapulted him to international
served at a segregated restaurant. He was acclaim. On 3 January 1964, King's image
sentenced to four months in jail, but after appeared on the cover of Time magazine as
intervention by John Kennedy and Robert its "Man of the Year". On 10 December, King
Kennedy, he was released. was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, which
made him, at the age of 35, the youngest
In 1963, King launched the Birmingham cam- person to be awarded the honour.
paign.13 The effort started with a boycott and
switched to nonviolent marches and sit-ins. In the summer of that year, the Civil Rights
Eugene "Bull" Connor, Birmingham's Com- Act of 1964 was enacted.17 The major provi-
missioner of Public Safety, ordered police sions of this landmark legislation are: Title
officers to use high-pressure water hoses, II, which outlawed discrimination in hotels,
police dogs and tear gas to control protesters, motels, restaurants, theatres, and other
many of whom were children. The extreme public accommodations; Title VI, which
brutality inflicted on protestors was featured authorised the withdrawal of federal funds
on nightly newscasts that shocked the nation. from programmes, including public schools,
King was arrested. During his incarceration which practised discrimination; and Title VII,
he wrote the Letter from Birmingham Jail which prohibits discrimination in employ-
in which he argued that individuals have ment and created the Equal Employment
`"a moral responsibility to disobey unjust Opportunity Commission to review and
laws."14 After weeks of tense negotiations, investigate complaints.18
an agreement was reached that provided for
the desegregation of Birmingham's stores, This was a major accomplishment that met
restaurants and schools. several of the legislative goals of the Civil
Rights Movement. The denial of access to
The historic March on Washington was held places of public accommodation stigma-
on 28 August 1963.15 It was the result of tised and demeaned African Americans. The
the collective efforts of several civil rights threat of the loss of federal funding made
groups. The march was the largest civil discrimination in schools, colleges and
rights demonstration in American history. universities too costly to continue. This dra-
It received international attention. Approxi- matically expanded the educational oppor-
mately 250 000 people gathered peacefully tunities available to blacks. Discrimination
on the Mall in Washington, DC. King was in employment relegated African Ameri-
an inspirational speaker. He used the black cans to the lowest paying, least desirable
preachers' "call-and-response style" driven occupations. The law forbade employment
by rhythmic cadences. King captivated the discrimination.

Leland Ware
The 1964 Civil Rights Act did not address were killed and 1 500 injured. The riots
voting rights. The Fifteenth Amendment of reflected the anger and frustration that had
the Constitution guaranteed African Ameri- been building for decades. Northern ghet-
cans the right to vote. However, by the end toes had long been tinderboxes waiting to
of the 19th century, almost all of the south- explode.
ern states had enacted laws that disenfran-
chised African Americans. The Selma, Ala- In 1967, Dr King announced his intent to
bama, voting rights demonstrations were organise a Poor People's Campaign that
publicised in January of 1965, when Martin would focus on unemployment and poverty.
Luther King addressed a mass meeting in As plans were being finalised, King travelled
that city. Members of a civil rights group, the to Memphis, Tennessee, to support striking
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, sanitation workers. In March of 1968, King
had been attempting to register voters in led a demonstration in Memphis that went
Selma for several weeks.19 out of control and turned violent. Disap-
pointed but undeterred, King returned to
During their first march, the protestors were Memphis. On 3 April, he delivered a pow-
stopped by police officers who savagely erful, and what would be his final, speech.
attacked them with billy clubs and tear gas. Appearing to anticipate his death, King said:
After a second march was aborted, King led
a group of demonstrators on a journey from I got into Memphis. And some began to
Selma to Montgomery. They set out on 21 say the threats, or talk about the threats
March with approximately 3 000 demon- that were out… But it really doesn't
strators. Four days later they reached Mont- matter with me now, because I've been
gomery with 25 000 marchers. This effort to the mountaintop. And I don't mind.
spurred Congress to enact the Voting Rights Like anybody, I would like to live a long
Act, which President Lyndon Johnson signed life. Longevity has its place. But I'm not
into law on 6 August 1965.20 The Act pro- concerned about that now. I just want to
hibits states from imposing any requirement do God's will. And He's allowed me to
that would deny the right of any citizen to go up to the mountain. And I've looked
vote on account of race. This was another over. And I've seen the Promised Land.
significant accomplishment of the Civil I may not get there with you. But I want
Rights Movement. you to know tonight, that we, as a people,
will get to the Promised Land!22
In 1967, African Americans' frustrations and
impatience erupted in 159 race riots in cities On 4 April, King was fatally shot by an
across the United States.21 The first occurred assassin while standing on a balcony of the
in Cleveland, Ohio. The most destructive Lorraine Motel in Memphis. Riots erupted
violence took place in Newark, New Jersey, in 130 American cities; 20 000 people
and Detroit, Michigan. In Newark, 26 people were arrested. Washington, Baltimore and

Leland Ware
Chicago were the heaviest hit among the of the Xhosa nation, and counsellor to the
cities that experienced unrest following monarch. When Nelson Mandela's father
King's assassination.23 While many of the died in 1930, the paramount chief, Jongin-
nation's cities were still smouldering from taba Dalindyebo, became his guardian.
the riots, the Fair Housing Act of 1968 was Mandela grew up with his two sisters in
enacted.24 This law forbade discrimination in the village of Qunu. He attended Clarke-
the sale and rental of housing and allowed bury Missionary school and graduated from
blacks to move away from the ghettoes to Healdtown Methodist school. The name
which they had been confined. With the Nelson was given to him by a school teacher
passage of the Fair Housing Act, the Civil when he was seven years old.25
Rights Movement's legislative agenda was
achieved. By the time of his death, King had In 1938, Mandela enrolled at the University
become an international Civil Rights icon. In of Fort Hare, South Africa's first university
1983, a law was enacted that made his birth- for black Africans. At Fort Hare Mandela met
day a federal holiday. "The Stone of Hope" Oliver Tambo, who would become his close
memorial, featuring a statue of King, was friend and law partner. Mandela and Tambo
opened to the public in Washington DC, on were expelled from Fort Hare in 1940 for
22 August 2011. leading a student protest. Mandela subse-
quently moved to Johannesburg to avoid
South African Apartheid being forced into an arranged marriage. He
found work as a night-watchman at a gold
The careers of Martin Luther King and Nelson mine.26
Mandela bear a striking resemblance. Both
men were internationally renowned lead- In Johannesburg, Mandela met Walter
ers in the struggle against black oppression. Sisulu, who became his close friend. He
Mandela organised rallies and protests in began to work as a clerk in a law firm. In
the 1950s. He was sentenced to life impris- 1941, Mandela completed the work for his
onment in 1964. He was imprisoned until bachelor's degree and began to study law
1990. After his release, he was elected the at the University of the Witwatersrand in
first black president of South Africa in 1994. Johannesburg. In 1944, Mandela married
Over the course of these years, South Africa Evelyn Ntoko Mase, Walter Sisulu's cousin.
transitioned from a white ruled oligarchy to The marriage produced four children. Over
an egalitarian democracy. time, however, Mandela's frequent absences
and heavy involvement in protest activities
On 18 July 1918, Rolihlahla Mandela was strained their relationship to breaking point.
born in Mvezo, a small village in the Transkei, The couple divorced in 1958.27
a former British protectorate in the South.
His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was Nelson Mandela was born into a society
a chief of the Thembu people, a subdivision in which black Africans were severely

Leland Ware
oppressed.28 Apartheid in South Africa Over the following decades a series of apart-
was, in some ways, even harsher than seg- heid laws were enacted. Black citizenship
regation in America.29 In 1910, the Union was revoked. Education, residential areas,
of South Africa was established by former medical care and common areas, public
British colonies of the Cape and Natal and transportation, beaches and other ameni-
the Boer republics of Transvaal and Orange ties were segregated.31
Free State. The 1911 Mines and Works Act,
and its 1926 successor reserved skilled The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act
jobs in the mining and railway industries of 1949 forbade interracial marriages.
for white workers. In 1913, the Land Act The Immorality Amendment Act of 1950
was adopted to prevent blacks, except those forbade extramarital sex among people of
living in the Cape Province, from buying different races. The Population Registra-
land outside of designated areas. The law tion Act enacted in 1950 required every
effectively limited black land ownership to South African to be classified into one of
8 percent of South Africa's land area. three racial groups: white, coloured (mixed
race or Asian) and Bantu or native (African/
The Natives Act of 1923 regulated blacks black). In 1950, the Group Areas Act segre-
residing in urban areas. It gave local author- gated blacks and whites. Urban areas were
ities the power to establish separate black divided into "group areas" in which resi-
areas on the outskirts of urban and indus- dence was restricted to designated racial
trial areas. Local authorities were expected groups.
to provide housing for Africans or to
require employers to provide housing for The 1951 Bantu Building Workers Act pre-
their workers. In 1934, South Africa's par- vented black South Africans from perform-
liament enacted the Status of the Union Act, ing skilled work in any occupation except
which ended its colonial ties with England those designated for blacks. In 1952, the
and established South Africa as a sovereign Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of
nation.30 Documents Act required black South Afri-
cans to carry identification that included
In 1948, the formal policy of apartheid was a photograph, place of origin, employment
adopted after the National Party prevailed record, tax payments and any arrest records.
in the elections. The National Party was The 1953 Bantu Education Act established
founded in 1915 and was South Africa's a black Education Department. This law
governing party from 1948 until 1994. enforced racially separated educational
The Party's supporters included most of the facilities. A curriculum was developed that
Dutch-descended Afrikaners and many Eng- was designed to prevent blacks from receiv-
lish-speaking whites. This ultra-right wing ing higher levels of instruction. A 1959 law
party rose to power on a platform of "apart- prohibited black students from attending
heid" which is Afrikaans for "separateness". white universities. The 1953 Reservation

Leland Ware
of Separate Amenities Act imposed racial In December 1952, Mandela and Oliver
segregation in all public areas including Tambo opened South Africa's first black law
buildings, services and transportation. firm in Johannesburg. That same year, the
ANC commenced its "Defiance Campaign".
The 1951 Bantu Authorities Act created The nonviolent tactics employed were simi-
ten black "homelands" as independent lar to those Martin Luther King would use
states. It provided the legal basis for the in the United States. The Defiance Campaign
deportation of blacks into designated was the largest nonviolent protest in South
homeland reserve areas and established Africa's history. It was the first demonstra-
tribal, regional and territorial authorities. tion that included all racial groups under the
The 1970 Bantu Homelands Citizens Act leadership of the ANC and the South African
revoked black South Africans' citizenship Indian Congress. On 26 June 1952, a group
and required them to become citizens of a of volunteers led by Mandela and Sisulu
homeland designated for each individual's openly defied South Africa's apartheid laws
ethnic group, even if they didn't actually in Johannesburg and other cities. A national
live in their designated homeland. The pur- action committee was formed by Sisulu and
pose of the law was to ensure that white Ismail "Maulvi" Cachalia. Mandela was the
South Africans constituted the majority of leader of the effort.
the South African electorate.
During the many protest demonstrations,
The ANC Youth League and participants sang freedom songs and gave
the Defiance Campaign the ANC's thumbs-up sign as a symbol of
unity. They shouted Mayibuye i Afrika (come
Nelson Mandela was an engaging speaker back, Africa) and were greeted with cheers
and a charismatic leader. He was tall and from onlookers. A total of 52 Africans and
imposing, but he was always humble and Indians, including Walter Sisulu, Nelson
modest. He gave credit to others and readily Mandela and Ismail Cachalia, marched into
acknowledged their contributions. In 1944, Boksburg, a location near Johannesburg,
Mandela, Oliver Tambo and Walter Sisulu without permits. All of the demonstrators
founded the Youth League of the African were arrested, except Mandela and Cachalia
National Congress (ANC). The ANC had who attended as observers, having planned
been established in 1912 to bring Africans to avoid arrest.
together to defend their rights and freedoms.
Leaders of the youth league felt the ANC's In Port Elizabeth, 30 people entered a rail-
cautious approach moved too slowly. They way station through the "Europeans Only"
decided to take a more active approach. In entrance and were arrested. Others were
1948, Mandela became national secretary arrested for entering the European sections
of the ANC's Youth League. In 1950, he was of post offices, sitting on benches reserved
elected president of the Youth League. for whites or violating other apartheid

Leland Ware
regulations. The campaign spread from Port approximately 3 000 delegates at the Con-
Elizabeth to smaller towns in the Eastern gress of the People in Kliptown, near Johan-
Cape Province and from Johannesburg to nesburg, on 26 June 1955.
Cape Town, to Bloemfontein and Durban.
The Charter was the product of more than a
The government reacted by arresting the year of meetings and discussions that were
leaders of the protests. A number of them convened with groups across South Africa. It
were charged with violating the Suppres- envisioned an egalitarian society that would
sion of Communism Act for promoting replace the apartheid regime. In a reformed
communism. The trial began in November South Africa, the wealth of the country would
and, on 2 December 1952, all of the 20 per- be shared and adequate housing, education
sons charged were found guilty of "statu- and healthcare would be provided for all
tory communism" and sentenced to nine South Africans. The Freedom Charter states
months imprisonment. The sentences were that "South Africa belongs to all who live
suspended for two years. in it" and that "all shall be equal before the
law". It promised to continue the struggle
Mandela was banned under the Suppres- against apartheid until it was replaced by a
sion of Communism Act. Banning in South democratic order.32
Africa was an administrative action in which
individuals could be subjected to severe On 6 December 1956, Mandela was arrested
restrictions on their travel, associations and and charged with treason, along with 156
speech. A person deemed to be a commu- other political leaders. The arrests included
nist, a terrorist or a threat to the security most of the executives of the ANC, as well
and public order of the state could be con- as representatives of the Congress of Demo-
fined to the individual's home or immediate crats, South African Indian Congress, Col-
surroundings. oured People's Congress and South African
Congress of Trade Unions. The persons
At a 1955 meeting of the Congress of the arrested were charged with "high treason
People, the Freedom Charter was adopted. and a countrywide conspiracy to use vio-
The government's ban on Mandela pre- lence to overthrow the present government
vented him from attending. The initiative and replace it with a communist state".
for the Freedom Charter was developed While the charges were pending, Mandela
by a multi-racial coalition of organisations, met and married a social worker, Winnie
including the ANC, the Congress of Demo- Nomzamo Madikizela, in 1958. Their mar-
crats, the Indian National Congress and riage produced two daughters.
the South African Coloured People's Con-
gress. The Freedom Charter was intended to On 29 March 1961, Mandela and his co-
facilitate a united, anti-apartheid movement defendants were acquitted after a four-year
with a common vision. It was adopted by trial. However, in 1960, the Sharpeville

Leland Ware
demonstrations were organised to protest as "The Black Pimpernel" based on his ability
laws that required black South Africans to to avoid the police, using several disguises,
carry passbooks with them whenever they including a favourite that involved posing
travelled out of their home areas. The ANC as a chauffeur.34
planned an anti-pass campaign that would
have commenced on 31 March 1960. The Mandela travelled to Addis Abba, Ethiopia,
Pan Africanist Congress, a younger and to attend a conference of African national-
more militant group that broke away from ist leaders. From there, he went to Algeria
the ANC, organised a campaign that was to receive guerrilla training. Afterwards, he
scheduled to start 10 days before the ANC's went to London to meet with Oliver Tambo,
demonstration. who was heading the ANC in exile. During
this period, Mandela established the ANC's
On 21 March, a demonstration involving military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (abbrevi-
5 000 to 7 000 people convened in Sharpe ated as "MK" and translated as "Spear of the
ville. The protesters went to the local police Nation") and became its first leader. Mandela
station where they demanded to be arrested viewed nonviolent protest as a tactic to be
for not carrying passes. Police reinforce- used only as long as it was effective. The
ments arrived during the incident. In the circumstances had changed. Violence had
afternoon, scuffles broke out and some of to be met with violence. Mandela became a
the demonstrators began throwing rocks freedom fighter.
at the police. As the crowd moved forward,
the police began to fire live rounds into the MK engaged in acts of sabotage including
crowd. A total of 69 people were killed, 180 bombing military installations, power plants,
were injured. The "Sharpeville Massacre", as telephone lines and transportation links
the incident became known, sparked pro- at night, when civilians were not present.
tests and riots among black South Africans Mandela said they chose sabotage, because
throughout the country. On 30 March, the it was the least harmful action and it did not
South African government declared a state involve loss of life. MK set off 57 bombings
of emergency. Thousands of blacks were on 16 December, 1961. Additional attacks
arrested. The African National Congress and were launched on 31 December. MK did not
the Pan Africanist Congress were banned.33 suspend its armed struggle until Mandela
was unconditionally released from prison
Freedom Fighter and the ANC was unbanned.
After the ANC was outlawed, Mandela On 5 August 1962, Mandela was arrested
decided to go underground to carry on the after returning to South Africa. After a trial,
organisation's activities clandestinely. For 17 Mandela was convicted of leaving the coun-
months, he was a fugitive. During this period, try illegally and incitement to strike. He was
the South African press referred to Mandela sentenced to five years in prison. On 11 July

Leland Ware
1963, while Mandela was in prison, the police It is an ideal which I hope to live for and
raided the ANC's secret headquarters at a to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal
farmhouse in Rivonia, a suburb of Johannes- for which I am prepared to die.
burg. They found documents that outlined
`"Operation Mayibuye", which was a plan On 12 June 1964, Mandela, Sisulu and six
for a possible commencement of guerilla other ANC leaders were convicted, sen-
operations stating how they might provoke tenced to life imprisonment and taken to
a mass armed uprising against the South Robben Island prison.35
African government. Operation Mayibuye
was drafted by members of the National The Soweto Uprising and the "Free
High Command. Mandela was imprisoned Mandela" Campaign
at the time and did not participate in draft-
ing the document. He later described Opera- On 16 June 1976, thousands of school
tion Mayibuye as a "draft document" that he students marched through the streets of
considered "entirely unrealistic in its goals Soweto, an area in the city of Johannes-
and plans". burg, to oppose a law requiring the use of
Afrikaans as the language of instruction in
Mandela and other ANC leaders were black schools. The South African govern-
charged with recruiting persons for train- ment decided to enforce a law requiring
ing in the use of explosives and in guerrilla secondary education to be conducted in
warfare for the purpose of violent revolution Afrikaans, rather than in English. This was
and committing acts of sabotage; conspiring bitterly resented by teachers and students.
to commit those acts and to aid foreign mili- A protest march was organised in the Soweto
tary units when they invaded the Republic; township on 16 June 1976. Over 20 000
acting in these ways to further the objects students turned out for the march. There
of communism and soliciting and receiving was a heavy police presence.
money from sympathisers outside South
Africa. The bloodshed began when police set off tear
gas and fired guns into the crowds. Students
At the conclusion of the trial, Mandela said: of all ages were attacked without warning.
Many young, defenceless children were
During my lifetime I have dedicated killed including 13-year-old Hector Pieter-
myself to this struggle of the African son. The students used sticks, rocks, bricks
people. I have fought against white and schoolbags to attack the police. Heavily
domination, and I have fought against outnumbered, and unable to protect them-
black domination. I have cherished the selves from the students, the police fled to
ideal of a democratic and free society regroup. When the police retreated, students
in which all persons live together in began destroying government property. The
harmony and with equal opportunities. students set up barricades to make sure that

Leland Ware
the police could not return. The riots spread banks and other British companies to sell
to other South African townships. their South African subsidiaries and led a
national boycott of South African imports.38
The government reacted with force. Anti-
riot units and armed vehicles were sent to In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Anti-
Soweto and other townships. Government Apartheid Movement spread to America.39
officials restricted the activities of anti- Supporters urged institutional investors
apartheid groups. Meetings were stopped to withdraw their investments from South
and activists were harassed. After Soweto, African-based companies. Institutional inves-
however, an uprising or march would take tors, such as public pension funds, were the
place almost every day, often completely most susceptible to these types of lobbying
spontaneously. Young blacks expressed efforts. The anti-apartheid disinvestment
their anger by marching, rioting and setting campaign moved to Michigan State Univer-
fire to government property. In the end, over sity and Stanford University in 1977. The
360 blacks were killed in the Soweto riots movement spread to campuses across the
of 1976. The government's heavy-handed nation. Students organised and demanded
tactics ignited a fire that would burn until that their universities stop investing in com-
the end of the apartheid regime.36 panies that traded with or had operations in
South Africa.
In the late 1960s, the ANC launched an
international anti-apartheid campaign. On 21 November 1984, Randall Robinson,
Nelson Mandela became the personifica- the founder of TransAfrica, 40 District of
tion of this effort. His photograph, with the Columbia Congressman, Walter Fauntroy,
caption "Free Mandela", appeared on flyers and Professor and Civil Rights activist, Mary
and literature that were widely distributed.37 Frances Berry, were arrested at a sit-in at
In the United Kingdom, the Anti-Apartheid the South African embassy. This high profile
Movement was established in 1959. The event elevated the Anti-apartheid Movement
organisation led one of Britain's most suc- to the national stage and ignited the Anti-
cessful social campaigns. The organisation apartheid Movement in the United States.
started as the "Boycott Movement". In 1960, Within a few days, sit-ins and other demon-
it was re-named the Anti-Apartheid Move- strations against the South Africa govern-
ment (AAM). The organisation sought an end ment were held in cities across America.41 By
to apartheid in South Africa. It demanded 1985, more than 3 000 people were arrested
sanctions and the economic isolation of during anti-apartheid demonstrations.
South Africa. For more than three decades,
hundreds of thousands of people in Britain The Congressional Black Caucus developed
joined AAM campaigns. During that time, a legislative strategy that led to the enact
the Movement campaigned for the release of ment of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid
people detained without trial. It encouraged Act of 1986.42 This law imposed sanctions

Leland Ware
against South Africa and stated a number of On 20 December 1991, negotiations comm
preconditions for lifting the sanctions. The enced to prepare an interim constitution
legislation banned all US trade and invest- based on political equality for all South Afri-
ment in South Africa. Direct flights to South cans.45 There were tense intervals during
Africa were banned. The act also required the negotiations. In the late 1980s and early
various federal departments and agencies 1990s, ANC supporters and the Inkatha Free-
to withhold funds and other assistance to dom Party were involved in several bloody
the South African government. The Bill was clashes. The Inkatha Party was founded in
passed in August of 1986. President Ronald 1975 by Mangosuthu Gatsha Buthelezi, a
Reagan vetoed the legislation on 26 Septem- Zulu chief and minister of the KwaZulu home-
ber. Congress overrode Reagan's veto on land. Under Buthelezi's leadership, Inkatha
2 October.43 indicated that it was willing to accept power-
sharing arrangements that would fall short
The international sanctions imposed signifi- of majority rule in a post-apartheid South
cant pressure on South Africa's economy. Africa. In 1991, the South African govern-
The government finally recognised that ment admitted that it had secretly subsidised
some actions were needed to address the Inkatha's conflicts with the ANC.46
situation. On 31 January 1985, South Afri-
ca's President P.W. Botha offered to pardon On 15 October 1993, Mandela and De Klerk
Mandela if the ANC renounced violence. were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for
Mandela declined saying South Africa's gov- working to end apartheid and putting South
ernment needed to dismantle apartheid and Africa on a path to democracy. On 27 April
grant full political rights to blacks. In July 1994, the apartheid regime formally ended
of 1989, President Botha invited Mandela when the ANC won a majority of the vote
to his official Cape Town residence for a and elected Mandela as president.
45-minute talk. Mandela's comments on his
conversation with Botha were broadcast on A Truth and Reconciliation Commission was
government radio and television stations.44 established after the elimination of apart-
heid. Witnesses who were victims of human
On 15 October 1989, Walter Sisulu and four rights violations presented testimony about
other ANC prisoners were freed by F.W. de their experiences.47 Police officers and other
Klerk, who had replaced Botha as president in perpetrators of violence testified about their
August. On 2 February 1990, De Klerk lifted crimes and could request amnesty from civil
the bans on the ANC and 60 other organi- and criminal prosecution. The Commission
sations that were outlawed. He promised to was viewed by many as an important aspect
free all political prisoners, end restrictions on of the transition to democracy in South Africa.
374 individuals and to impose a moratorium In 1996, Nelson divorced Winnie Mandela. In
on executions. On 11 February 1990, Nelson 1998, on his 80th birthday, he married Graça
Mandela was released. He was 71 years old. Machel. In May of 1999, Mandela stepped

Leland Ware
down as President after choosing not to run eight years. They are now seen as the driving
for re-election. On 5 December 2013, Nelson force behind the country's economic growth.
Mandela died in his home at the age of 95, While the African government still has major
surrounded by his family. challenges to overcome in its efforts to
improve the lives of the nation's impover-
Conclusion ished families, millions of black South Afri-
cans have advanced into the middle class
In the decades that followed the enactment since apartheid ended in 1994. Recently
of the American Civil Rights laws of the released studies by the University of Cape
1960s, the black middle-class has grown Town's Unilever Institute of Strategic Mar-
exponentially. Levels of educational attain- keting found that the black middle-class
ment are higher. Employment opportuni- population had grown to 4.2 million.49 This
ties are greater. Family incomes are higher. increased from 1.7 million in 2004.
The election of Barack Obama as President,
in 2008, represented an unprecedented There are still many challenges. The poor
advance in race relations in America. "How- est 10 percent of South Africans receive
ever, an examination of the current status of less than 1 percent of the national income.
African "American" families reveals a mixed The richest 10 percent get 57 percent. In
picture". For those in a position to take South Africa, 67 percent of black children
advantage of the opportunities created by live below the poverty line compared to
the Civil Rights revolution, the gains since 2 percent of white children. The overall
the 1960s have been remarkable. For the poverty rate is 23 percent.50 However, the
28.1 percent of the African-American popu- African National Congress has made sig-
lation residing in the nation's impoverished nificant strides since the end of apartheid.
communities, the obstacles to advancement The economy has expanded for nearly two
can be as formidable today as they were a decades. Literacy and access to electricity
generation ago.48 We have not, as a people, have advanced considerably. An affordable
made it to the Promised Land, but some of housing programme and welfare payments
us are close. to low income groups have elevated nearly
all South Africans out of abject poverty. The
The number of families in South Africa's nation is rapidly moving forward. Americans
growing, black middle class has surpassed and South Africans owe a debt of gratitude
that of their white counterparts over the past to Nelson Mandela and Martin Luther King.
Leland Ware is Interim Director of the School of Public Policy & Administration; Louis L. Redding
Chair and Professor for the Study of Law & Public Policy at the University of Delaware in the
United States of America. He has been a Visiting Professor at Ruhr University, Bochum-Germany
and Boston College of Law School. He is the author and editor of many books and journal articles.

Leland Ware

1 Martin Luther King. 1965. Our God to justice: The life and works of University Press; Nancy L. Clark
is marching on! Montgomery, Fred Gray. Montgomery: New and William H. Worger. 2011. South
Alabama. 25 March 1965 (During South Books. Africa: The rise and fall of apartheid
the march from Selma to Mont 13 Pillar of fire, supra. (2011). New York: Longman; Mark
gomery) http://mlk-kpp01.stanford. 14 Letter From Birmingham Jail, Mathabane. 1998.– Kaffir boy: An
edu/index.php/kingpapers/article/ April 16, 1963 http://mlk kpp01. autobiography–The true story of
our_god_is_marching_on/ stanford.edu/index.php/resources/ a black youth’s coming of age in
2 163 U.S. 537 (1896). article/annotated_letter_from_ apartheid South Africa. London:
3 The Thirteenth Amendment birmingham/ Macmillan.
abolished slavery. The Fourteenth 15 Pillar of fire, supra. 29 For a comprehensive compilation
Amendment requires equal pro 16 Martin Luther King’s Speech: of South Africa’s apartheid laws
tection of the laws regardless of ‘I Have a Dream’ – The full text see, Apartheid Legislation 1850s-
race. The Fifteenth Amendment is available at http://abcnews. 1970s, http://www.sahistory.org.za/
gave blacks the right to vote. go.com/Politics/martin-luther- politics-and-society/apartheidlegis
4 Gunnar Myrdal. 1996. An American kings-speech-dream-full- lation-1850s-1970s.
dilemma: The Negro problem and text/story?id=14358231#. 30 Thompson, A history of South
modern democracy. New York: UYBZ58qG5Mg. Africa, supra, 154-187.
Harper Brothers. 17 P.L. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted 31 Id. 187-220.
5 Leon Litwack. 1998. Trouble in July 2, 1964. 32 http://www.anc.org.za/show.
mind: Black Southerners in the Age 18 Robert D. Loevy. 1997. The Civil php?id=72
of Jim Crow. New York: Alfred A. Rights Act of 1964: The passage 33 The Sharpeville massacre, March
Knopf. of the law that ended racial segreg 21, 1960, http://www.sahistory.org.
6 245 U.S. 60 (1917). ation. New York: Suny Press. za/topic/sharpeville-massacre-21-
7 271 U.S. 323 (1926). 19 John Lewis. 1998. Walking with the march-1960.
8 Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. wind: A memoir of the movement. 34 Long walk to freedom, supra, 263-
Denton. 1993. American apartheid: New York: Simon & Schuster; 308. The Scarlet Pimpernel was a
Segregation and the making of the Taylor Branch. 2006. At Canaan’s popular novel featuring an English
underclass. Cambridge: Harvard edge, supra, 45-108. aristocrat who rescued individuals
University Press. 20 42 U.S.C. § 1973aa. from the guillotine during the French
9 Kenneth T. Jackson. 1985. Crabgrass 21 Susan Olzak, Suzanne Shanahan Revolution using clever disguises.
Frontier: The suburbanization of and Elizabeth H. McEneaney. 1996. After each rescue, he taunted his
the United States. Oxford: Oxford Poverty, segregation, and race riots: enemies by leaving a calling card
University Press. 1960 to 1993. American Socio displaying a small flower; a scarlet
10 347 U.S. 483 (1954). logical Review, 61(4). pimpernel. Baroness Emmuska
11 Taylor Branch. 1998. Parting the 22 "I’ve been to the mountaintop" Orczy, The Scarlet Pimpernel
Waters: America in the King Years, Memphis, Tennessee, April 3, 1968, (1905).
1954-63. United Staes of America: Martin Luther King, Jr. http://www. 35 Kenneth S. Broun. 2012. Saving
Simon & Schuster; Taylor Branch. speeches-usa.com/Transcripts/023_ Nelson Mandela: The Rivonia trial
1998. Pillar of fire: America in the king.html. and the fate of South Africa. Oxford:
King Years, 1963-65. United States 23 Clay Risen. 2009. A Nation on fire: Oxford University Press.
of America: Simon & Schuster; America in the wake of the King 36 Sifiso Ndlovu. 2007. The Soweto
Taylor Branch. 2006. At Canaan’s assassination. New Jersey: Wiley, Uprising. In Sifiso Ndlovu (ed.) The
edge: America in the King Years, John & Sons. road to democracy in South Africa.
1965-68. United States of America: 24 42 U.S.C. § 3601 et seq. Vol. 2 (1970-1980); Lucille Davie,
Simon & Schuster; David Garrow. 25 Nelson Mandela. 1995. Long walk The day Hector Pieterson died,
1986. Bearing the cross: Martin to freedom: The autobiography of http://www.southafrica.info/about/
Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Nelson Mandela. Boston: Little history/hector-pieterson.htm#.U
Christian Leadership Conference. Brown and Company. xXXToWwUlQ#ixzz2v07uK3UX.
New York: William Morrow & 26 Id. 1-60. 37 http://www.pinterest.com/gosforth
Company. 27 Id. 61-92. art/hero-nelson-mandela/.
12 Browder v. Gayle, 352 U.S. 903 28 Leonard Thompson. 2001. A history 38 Action for South Africa, http://www.
(1956); Fred Gray. 1995. Bus ride of South Africa. Connecticut: Yale actsa.org/page-1438-AAM.html.

Leland Ware
39 William Minter and Sylvia Hill. 2008. 1984, http://www.csmonitor.com/ 45 Ib. 241-264.
Anti-apartheid solidarity in United 1984/1204/120417.html; Mark 46 Inkatha Freedom Party South Afri
States – South Africa relations: A. Stein, Anti-Apartheid Protests can History Online, http://www.
From the margins to the mainstream. Spread Across the US. Los Angeles sahistory.org.za/topic/inkatha-
In Sifiso Ndlovu (ed.) The road to Times, April 25, 1985 http://articles. freedom-party-ifp.
democracy in South Africa, Vol. latimes.com/1985-04-25/news/mn- 47 http://www.justice.gov.za/Trc/.
3, International Solidarity, Part II: 12143_1_protests-spread. 48 Leland Ware and Theodore Davis.
pp.795-819 (2007), www.sadocc.at/ 42 http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ 2012. Ordinary people in an extra
forschung/sadet_booklet_web.pdf. bdquery/z?d099:H.R.4868: ordinary time: The black middle-
40 A foreign policy organization that 43 Andrew Glass. 1986. House over- class in the age of Obama, 55 How.
was one of the leaders in the rides Reagan apartheid veto. 29 L.J. 533.
American efforts to win Mandela’s September 1986 http://www. 49 http://www.sagoodnews.co.za/
release, http://transafrica.org/. politico.com/news/stories/0910 economy/south_africas_black_
41 Lucia Mouat, Anti-apartheid protests /42839.html#ixzz2v0SwEbUj. middle_class_on_the_rise.html.
spread to cities across US. Christian 44 Thompson, A history of South 50 The World Bank, http://data.world
Science Monitor , December 4, Africa, supra, 187-220. bank.org/country/south-africa.

The Transformation of Violence to Peace:
Old Dominion University
Abstract constructs and even empirical studies of

what leadership is and ought to be and, as
This article sketches the leadership skills and such, it is a challenge to write about it with
lifetime commitments to peacemaking of any degree of originality. It is even difficult
three individuals: Mohandas Gandhi, Martin to avoid repeating clichés of leadership
Luther King and Nelson Mandela. The choice such as charisma, leadership traits, leader-
of the personalities is based on the fact that ship personality, servant leadership, and so
they not only made a difference in the lives on. An additional challenge in writing about
of communities and nations, but they also leadership is that it is often described and
made contributions in the advancement of understood as observed behaviours, influ-
a field of academic study: conflict resolution enced, and maybe even determined, by cul-
and peacemaking. Based on the literature tural and personal experiences, which is
review we conducted, these three leaders limiting its transcultural and transorganisa-
appear to share Drucker's characterisation tional values and lessons. While acknowledg-
of effective leaders. A sketch for each is pro- ing these challenges, using Peter Drucker's1
vided, which starts with a critical incident in work on leadership as a guide, in this short
the life of each that symbolises his leader- article we will attempt to sketch the leader-
ship style. This is followed by a brief descrip- ship skills and lifetime commitments to peace-
tion of the transformative attributes they making of three individuals, Mohandas
share, and concludes with a table depicting Gandhi, Martin Luther King and Nelson Man-
the meaning of the accomplishment of each. dela. These men not only made a difference
in the lives of communities and nations, they
Introduction also made contributions in the advancement
of a field of academic study, conflict resolu-
The study of human history, in general, and tion and peacemaking.
the political-economy of nation states, in
particular, is the study of leadership. Lead- Contextual and "limitless diversity" not
ership literature is replete with theoretical withstanding, Drucker asserts that the

The Transformation of Violence to Peace: Sketches of Leadership Skills That Matter
effective leaders he observed shared seven transformative attributes the three leaders
characteristics. In this context, characteristic shared, and concludes with a table depicting
is defined as abilities and skills that one is the many accomplishments of each leader.
able to develop. According to Drucker, effec-
tive leaders ask, "What needs to be done?" Critical Incidents Shaping
rather than "what do I want?" And then they the Lives of Three Leaders
ask, "What can and should I do to make a
difference?" Other characteristics of effec- Mohandas Gandhi
tive leaders that Drucker observed include
keen interest in understanding the organisa- When Mohandas Gandhi was a child, he
tion's mission, extreme tolerance of diver- learned from his mother and from the Jain
sity in people and not looking "for carbon traditions of the region to be compassionate
copies of themselves", trusting strength in to any being able to perceive or feel things.
their associates, passing the "mirror test" and He also learned of the importance of mutual
finally, being "doers" rather than "preachers". tolerance between individuals with differ-
Based on the literature review we conducted, ent beliefs or religions. And, as the story
the three leaders, Mohandas Gandhi, Martin below depicts, Gandhi learned from his
Luther King, Jr and Nelson Mandela, appear father the powerful effects of non-violence.
to share Drucker's characteristics of effective
leaders. They further share other narratives, … When I was fifteen … I stole a bit of
including childhood experiences and trans- gold out of my meat-eating brother's
formative attributes that helped transform armlet. This brother had run into a debt
them personally and helped to shape future of about twenty-five rupees. He had on
events in which they were involved. his arm an armlet of solid gold. It was
not difficult to clip a bit out of it. Well,
As we wrote at the outset, and as is already it was done, and the debt cleared. But
widely known, the three men, Gandhi, King this became more than I could bear. I
and Mandela, whom we have chosen to high- resolved never to steal again. I also made
light below, are the embodiments of non- up my mind to confess it to my father . . .
violent peacemaking in conflict situations. I wrote it on a slip of paper and handed
Gandhi saw non-violence as a path to achiev- it to him myself. In this note not only
ing human dignity, King saw non-violence as did I confess my guilt, but also I asked
a path toward recognition of an oppressed adequate punishment for it, and closed
minority group, and Mandela saw non- with a request to him not to punish
violence as a path toward freedom for an himself for my offence … [When he]
oppressed majority. Each sketch will begin read it through … pearl-drops trickled
with a critical incident in the life of each down his cheeks, wetting the paper. For
man that symbolises his leadership style. a moment he closed his eyes in thought
This is followed by a brief description of the and then tore up the note… Those

pearl-drops of love cleansed my heart, letter, he informed the Viceroy that should
and washed my sin away … This was, for his letter not resonate, Gandhi would march
me, an object-lesson of Ahimsa.2 with others in protest of the law. The Vice-
roy responded that he would not lift the
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, was born salt tax, so Gandhi and his fellow activists
on 2 October 1869 in Porbander, Gujarat. began the 240-mile journey from Sabar-
He was sent to school as a child, and upon mati to the coast of Dandi. After 23 days
graduation decided to move to London to of marching, and picking up other activ-
pursue a degree in law. After obtaining ists on the way, Gandhi and his group of
his degree, Gandhi was offered a position non-violent protesters made it to the coast.
in South Africa. Upon his arrival in South Here, Gandhi made a speech and proceeded
Africa, Gandhi became extremely aware to pick up salt in violation of the British
of the racism toward his people when he law. Others too began to pick up salt and
was thrown out of a first-class railway car the movement began. In the months follow-
even though his ticket was for the first-class ing, Gandhi was jailed for breaking the law,
compartment. many other protests ensued, and policemen
killed many non-violent protesters when
Once realising the political divisibility they refused to fight back. Subsequently,
between South Africans and Indians, Ghandi the world embraced the non-violent move-
coined the term satyagraha, the theory ment and eventually India was able to gain
and practice of non-violent resistance. He independence from Britain.
believed that the only way to seek truth
(satya) was through non-violence (ahimsa) Over the course of leading the non-violent
and celibacy, striving toward God (brah- movement, Gandhi was given the nick-
macharya). Gandhi's goal in South Africa names "Mahatma" meaning "high souled" in
was to encourage both sides to recognise Sanskrit and "Bapu", a term of endearment
their common humanity so that everyone in India for fathers. Unfortunately there
could be truly free, or indivisible. was also great resistance to the movement.
Not only was Gandhi jailed many times, but
One example of Gandhi embodying his he was also almost lynched once by South
beliefs is the famous Salt March of 1930.3 African whites wanting him to stop his
During this time, the British were imposing mission in India. Additionally, there were
a salt tax on India. This tax made it illegal five assassination attempts on Gandhi's
for workers to collect their own salt, and life, and the last proved successful. Sur-
the cost of purchasing salt was unafford- rounded by friends and family on the lawn
able for most. Because salt is essential in outside a prayer meeting, Gandhi was shot
daily diet, everyone in India was affected at point blank range. And, as he fell to the
by this tax. In an attempt to appeal to the ground from the fatal wound, he blessed
Viceroy, Gandhi wrote him a letter. In that his assassin.

As Gandhi's life came full circle, it was evi- change Michael's name to Martin Luther,
dent that he embodied the actions of his after the great reformer of the sixteenth
father and the lesson of Ahimsa he had century. Martin's father was a minister who
learned the day his father chose compas- devoted his life to planting the seeds for a
sion over punishment for his son's wrong- national civil rights movement. Martin was
doing. In the words of Gandhi, "The weak well educated and very interested in school.
can never forgive. Forgiveness is the attrib- He was even able to skip his senior year
ute of the strong." of high school to begin college one year
early. After becoming a Baptist minister, he
Dr Martin Luther King, Jr received a bachelor's degree in sociology
and a doctorate in theology. Martin Luther
We begin the life sketch of Dr King with King, Jr was deeply moved by Gandhi and
a moment in time that stayed with him the philosophy of non-violence, and com-
throughout his life. As King wrote in his pared race problems in the United States with
book Stride toward freedom: The Montgom- the Indian caste system.
ery story:
Helping the seeds, that his father planted, to
I remember a trip to a downtown shoe grow, Martin became the leader of the Ameri-
store with Father when I was still small. can civil rights movement. While struggling
We had sat down in the first empty seats for the recognition of the black minority
at the front of the store. A young white group, Martin was jailed, stabbed and even
clerk came up and murmured politely: had his house bombed. But despite the oppo-
"I'll be happy to wait on you if you'll just sition, he was able to embody his belief in the
move to those seats in the rear. "My father spirit of non-violence. And that belief spread
answered, "There's nothing wrong with to the rest of the nation, causing many to
these seats. We're quite comfortable here." sympathise with the cause. Many are famil-
"Sorry," said the clerk, "but you'll have iar with Dr King's "I have a dream" speech,
to move." "We'll either buy shoes sitting but how many are familiar with how it was
here," my father retorted, "or we won't organised? In the summer of 1963, 250 000
buy shoes at all." Whereupon he took me people showed up on the Mall in Washington,
by the hand and walked out of the store. DC, to hear the talk. There were no invitations,
This was the first time I had ever seen my and no technology existed to apprise people
father so angry. I still remember walking of the details. However, 250 000 people
down the street beside him as he muttered, attended to hear about Dr King's dream–a
I don't care how long I have to live with dream to which they could relate. Anyone
this system, I will never accept it."4 who believed in the movement understood
that it was about the role of each individual
Michael King was born in Atlanta, Georgia, person in the movement. It was not about Dr
on 15 January 1929. Later, his father would King, it was not about black vs white. In fact,

25 percent of the attendees were white. It Nelson Mandela

was about humanity and the right for each
and every person to live freely in an equal For our purpose here, the life sketch of
society. Nelson Mandela best begins with a story,
told by South African photographer, Steve
A number of events took place before and Bloom, son of Harry Bloom, a political activ-
after Dr King's speech, but perhaps one of the ist, that gives insight into Mandela's way of
most memorable happened in the months just thinking as a lawyer, freedom fighter, leader
before the speech was given. In April of 1963, in peace and reconciliation of a country that
Dr King marched into a police wagon, was was racially and ethnically divided.
arrested, and sent to the Birmingham, Ala-
bama jail for demonstrating without a permit. During the 1950s, my parents, who were
During his eleven-day stay at the jail, Dr King anti-apartheid activists, knew Nelson
wrote a long letter in response to those who Mandela. I remember the story he told
criticised the campaign to desegregate Bir- them about the occasion he saw a white
mingham. Dr King addressed many things woman standing next to her broken car
in this letter, but perhaps the most notable in Johannesburg. He approached her
here is the accusation from white clergy and offered to help. After fiddling with
members that he was being impatient. The the engine he fixed the car. Thankful for
whites seemed to think that if Dr King and his help, she offered to pay him sixpence.
his followers would be patient, wait and pray "Oh no, that's not necessary," he said,
that eventually God would grant the desegre- "I am only too happy to help." "But why
gation they yearned to see. However, Dr King else would you, a black man, have done
believed that, in this case, having patience that if you did not want money?" she asked
meant that segregation would continue. This quizzically. "Because you were stranded at
belief in peacefully advocating for equal the side of the road," he replied.5
rights and the refusal to submit to patience
and waiting were no doubt ingrained in Dr Rolihlahla Madiba Dalibhunga Mandela was
King at a very young age by his father. born on 18 July 1918 in Mvezo, the Transkei,
South Africa. Later in life, his English school-
This non-violent fight that Dr King was lead- teacher would give him the name Nelson. As
ing took many twists and turns, ending with a child, Nelson learned from his parents and
a successful assassination attempt the day his people the African traditions of kinship,
after he spoke these words: "… I've seen the hospitality, collective decision-making, rec-
Promised Land. I may not get there with you. onciliation, honour and Ubuntu (human kind-
But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a ness). His father was royalty, so Nelson was
people, will get to the Promised Land… Mine destined to attend school. Although he was
eyes have seen the glory of the coming of expelled from college for joining a student
the Lord." protest, Nelson would eventually go back

and obtain an LLB through the University of that the days of peace and non-violence
South Africa. This two-year diploma in law, for his group were over. He then formed a
plus a bachelor's degree, allowed Mandela guerilla group and travelled outside of the
to practice law. country illegally for basic and strategic mili-
tary training. After successfully evading the
Mandela had great loyalty to the African police for 17 months, he was caught and put
National Congress (ANC), a Congress that on trial for treason. He would barely make
thought highly of non-violent means to it through this trial before being put on trial
achieve national independence from the again and sentenced to life imprisonment.
bondage of apartheid. However, Mandela
did not always share their ideas–he wanted While in prison, he remained active, treated
more militant ANC policies. Until 1950, Man- all prisoners as equals and advocated for
dela was strongly opposed to means such prisoner rights. Mandela valued his will to
as strikes and other general acts of non- live, and was able to unite prisoners for the
violence, but that year, he became aware same cause. Twenty-seven years after his
that the best way to combat apartheid was sentence, Mandela was released from prison
through unity. Thus, Mandela broadened back to his life. And what an incredible life
his stance to include that of non-violence. he had left to live. Because he had stayed
He then began to read about Marxism and so connected while he was serving his sen-
colonialism, and even reconciled with the tence, Mandela still had a place at the politi-
ANC's decision to embrace working with cal table. And, this time, he would begin to
other anti-apartheid organisations, without see real change in his country. In addition
regard to skin colour or political preference. to becoming ANC president and negotiat-
From this transformation in 1950, Mandela ing with government on ending apartheid,
addressed thousands of new volunteers Mandela was the first black man to become
dedicated to non-violent civil disobedience president of South Africa. Even further, he,
and advocated for strict adherence to avoid- along with the help of other great political
ing retaliation if provoked. He realised there figures, was able to establish the Truth and
were others fighting for the bigger picture– Reconciliation Commission, a model for the
he saw a place where oppressed people transformation of conflict to peace.
could band together to overcome policies
of racial discrimination in favour of policies Throughout his life, which ended peacefully
giving fundamental human rights to every- in his home in 2013, Mandela did what he
one–regardless of race, colour, gender or thought was right for himself and for his
language. And yet, in 1961, when the apart- people. He saw a bigger picture and was
heid government had amped up its brute always able to act based on the African
forces, Mandela was convinced that the traditions he learned as a child. Mandela
only path to freedom was to fight fire with was the perfect balance between patience
fire, and he made a public announcement and impatience. He knew that the most

powerful weapon was education. And from Transferable Lessons

this knowledge not only did he become the
epitome of forgiveness (which is an indi- "Transformation feels as if some basic
vidual act), but also the embodiment of rec- architecture is being remodelled rather
onciliation (which required working with than just new furniture being put in the
the architects of apartheid). house or moved from room to room.
There is some deep structural change…
Shared Transformative that alters the backbone of existence."–
Attributes of the three Dan Siegel
Leaders
On a personal level, transformation is when
As children, all three of these leaders were who one becomes is different from who one
surrounded by some element of wealth that is. In other words, as Wright and Wright
afforded them an education. Gandhi and assert: "transformation is a metamorpho-
Mandela learned from the people of their sis from one state to another".6 The three
countries the values of compassion and rec- leaders in peacemaking, that we describe
onciliation. Dr King learned from his father here, were transformed and, in the pro-
these same values. All three leaders expe- cess, transformed events around them.
rienced with their own eyes, from a young While their respective self-transformation
age, the mistreatment of their people and may vary, for example, Mandela's transi-
could not sit in wait and watch the injustices tion from violent to non-violent means
continue. Each man felt a calling to become to achieve liberation from the bondage
involved in changing his respective world. of apartheid, they appear to share three
As such, one thing all three of these men attributes of transformation: yearning,
shared in their adult lives is the vision of a engagement and growth.
common humanity and freedom. And while,
at least at the beginning, Mandela's advo- In the deepest sense, yearning is a desire
cacy of non-violence was more of a tactic of an absolute requirement of the heart,
than a way of life, as it was for Gandhi and mind and soul for achieving higher ordered
Dr King, all three men were able to appeal to human goals. As John Eldredge observed,
fundamental human needs in peaceful ways. nothing of human greatness is ever accom-
In short, these men were the embodiment of plished without a desire. "Not a symphony
the change they were trying to affect. They has been written, a mountain climbed,
were, in fact, being the change they wished an injustice fought, or a love sustained
to see in the world, as Gandhi is often cred- apart from desire. Desire fuels our search
ited to have said. The highlights of each for the life we prize."7 The deep yearning
man's respective accomplishments, as well these leaders shared had, in the first place,
as the leadership similarities of each, are propelled them to do something about the
summarised in Table 1. injustices that were perpetrated in the

Table 1: The accomplishments and similarities of each leader

Mohandas Gandhi Martin Luther King, Jr. Nelson Mandela
Father was Prime Minister of His father, a minister, devoted his life to Father was royalty/politically connected:
Porbander state righting wrongs: (basically planted Fought for rights in a deposition and was
seeds for national civil rights movement) stripped of land and wealth by white settlers
Organized a protest against elevator
segregation at county courthouse
Ran a drive to register African-American voters
Marched to Atlanta city hall to show AA
political strength
Learned from his devout mother Learned the following African traditions as a child:
and Jain traditions of the region: Kinship
Compassion to sentient beings Hospitality
Vegetarianism Ubuntu
Fasting for self-purification Collective decision-making
Mutual tolerance between Reconciliation
individuals of different creeds Honour
Educated (lawyer) Educated - very interested in school Educated
Became Baptist minister Expelled from college for joining a student protest
Recieved bachelor’s in sociology Took a break from studies but eventually
Doctorate in theology from Boston obtained an LLB through University
University of South Africa
Two-year diploma in law plus his BA
allowed Mandela to practice law
Went to South Africa and Moved by Gandhi - read all he could about Began by adopting Gandhi’s non-violence
experienced first-hand the philosophy of non-violence, later visited methods
derogatory behaviour of whites India to speak with Gandhi’s followers Used violent methods after believing
toward Indians living there Compared race problems in US with Indian non-violence yielded no results
Adopted satyagraha (devotion caste system Went back to non-violent methods after
to the truth) or non-violent release from prison
protest to defy laws rather than
resistance through violent means
Founded Natal Indian Congress Led nation’s civil rights movement: Co-founder of Congress Youth League
‘Great march’ for Indian rights in Worked with NAACP Organized many peaceful protests,
South Africa Elected president of Montgomery including ‘stay-at-home’ protests
Protested peacefully against Improvement Association - organized boycott Gave free legal counsel in opposition
racism, sexism and caste system of city buses after Rosa Parks incident of apartheid
Organized Indian Ambulance MIA boycott - before it ended MLK’s house Gave ‘speech from the dock’ during Rivonia Trial
Corps during Boer War for was bombed and MLK was convicted of ‘No easy walk to freedom’ address
British soldiers boycott related charges, BUT US Supreme South Africa’s first black president
Established Phoenix Settlement Court declared bus laws unconstitutional. Co-convener of Truth and Reconciliation
Founded, edited and published MLK was one of the first passengers on the Commission
Indian Opinion journal integrated bus
Established Satyagraha Ashram Elected chairman of the Southern Christian
Salt march Leadership Conference
‘Quit India’ movement Appeared on cover of Time magazine
Delivered ‘give us the ballot’ speech
Launched voter registration drive across
entire South
Wrote a book on bus boycott and idea of
non-violent protest
Inspired string of ‘sit-ins’ at white only diners
Gave ‘I have a dream’ speech
Gave ‘I’ve been to the mountaintop’ speech
Jailed many times Jailed several times Jailed many times
Human dignity Struggling for recognition of minority group Struggling for an oppressed majority
Nearly lynched by whites who heard Faced opposition from likes of Malcom X
of his advocacy of the Indian cause who questioned value of non-violent
in his native land protest when whites were bombing,
beating and killing protesters
Was stabbed at book signing - then
issued statement forgiving his attacker
and reaffirming belief in
‘the spirit of non-violence’
Awarded Nobel Peace Prize Awarded Nobel Peace Prize
Assassinated Assassinated Died (naturally?) in his home
Blessed his assassin as he was dying
Source: Author

societies of which they were a part; and These three leaders lived what they
sustained them in remaining engaged. By believed and led a life that was inten-
engaging, however, we do not mean simply tional, engaged and dedicated, character-
paying attention to or carefully listening istics that Drucker observed in effective
and concentrating on a task, things which leaders. 9 What disti nguishes the three
are human attributes that are important leaders, whose exemplary life work in
but not necessarily transformative. The peacemaking we sketch here, from other
type of engagement these leaders exhib- leaders is that not only were they not
ited, in the course of their struggle against afraid of what would happen to them
injustice, seems one that seeks novelty as they pursued the goal of liberty and
and experiences that are new and differ- justice, but they also lived, in the words
ent, where mistakes are taken as building of Plato, "the life light". As Plato (427-
blocks to engage better next time and hurts 347 BC) put it: "we can easily forgive a
are reframed to serve as a foundation for child who is afraid of the dark. The real
envisioning new approaches to resolving tragedy of life is when men are afraid of
problems. In 1957, Dr Martin Luther King the light". The three leaders lived a life
was invited to speak to the Young Men's of transparency, commitment to a cause
and Young Women's Christian Association bigger than themselves and indeed the
(YWCA) at the University of California at life of light that inspires current thinking
Berkley. Below is an example taken from about peacemaking.
his speech that shows an engaged growth
mindset. Conclusion
He who works against community is One could safely argue that many of the
working against the whole of creation. lessons offered today by way of peace-
Therefore, if I respond to hate with making strategies, and alternative dis-
reciprocal hate I do nothing but intensify pute resolution methods, are espoused
the cleavage in broken community. I can theories. In practical application, how-
only close the gap in broken community ever, these strategies and methods are
by meeting hate with love. If I meet hate exemplified in the lives and actions of the
with hate, I become depersonalized, three men whose exemplary life experi-
because creation is so designed that ences are outlined here. By the lives they
my personality can only be fulfilled in led and by the leadership they offered,
the context of community. Booker T. Gandhi, King and Mandela proved to all of
Washington was right: "Let no man pull us that Arthur Schopenhauer was indeed
you so low as to make you hate him." correct when he asserted: "All truth
When hate pulls you that low he brings passes through three stages. First, it is
you to the point of defying creation, and ridiculed. Second, it is violently opposed.
thereby becoming depersonalized.8 Third, it is accepted as being self-evident."

The question before us now involves our Table 1, the three leaders discussed in
willingness to learn and to teach our this article taught us to choose a non-
posterity that lasting peace can only be violent method and to remain firmly con-
achieved by non-violent means. In seeing nected to our compassionate nature even
peace, as sketched above and detailed in under the most trying of circumstances.
Berhanu Mengistu is Professor of Public Administration at the Old Dominion University's College
of Business and Public Administration in the United States of America. His areas of expertise are
conflict resolution, public management, urban studies and ethics. Mengistu published extensively.
Stephanie J Menefee is a PhD candidate at the Old Dominion University.

1 Hesselbein, F., Goldsmith, M. and info/webchron/india/saltMarch. life God offers. Nashville: Thomas
Beckhard, R. 1996. The Drucker html. Nelson, inc. p. 11.
foundation: The leader of the 4 King Jr, M.L. 1958. Stride toward 8 Washington, J.M. and King, Jr, M.L.
future. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass freedom: the Montgomery story. 1986. A testament of hope: The
Publishers. Boston: Beacon Press. p. 5. essential writings and speeches of
2 Gandhi, M.K. 1957. An autobi 5 Paramaguru, K. 2013 (December Martin Luther King, Jr. New York:
ography: The story of my experi 6). Five great stories about Nelson Harper Collins Publishers. p. 20.
ments with truth. Boston: Beacon Mandela’s humility, kindness and See also Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.
Press. pp. 27-28. See also Mahatma courage. Time Magazine Online, 2003. The life and legacy of Martin
Gandi. 2014. The biography channel pp.1-2. See also Limb, P. 2008. Luther King, Jr. Retrieved February
website. Retrieved 08:21, Feb 17. Nelson Mandela: a biography . 13, 2013, from Glencoe Online.
3 Benner, A. 2003 (September 12). Westport: Greenwood Publishing 9 Hesselbein, F., Goldsmith, M. and
The Gandhi Salt March. Retrieved Group. Beckhard, R. 1996. The Drucker
February, 13, 2013, from The Web 6 Wright & Wright, 2013. p.19. foundation: The leader of the
Chronology Project: India and 7 Eldredge, J. 2000. Desire: The future. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
South Africa: http://www.thenagain. journey we must take to find the Publishers.

World Affairs and South Africa:
Country Rankings
Jonathan Story
INSEAD – The Business School of the World
Abstract those who considered that their countries

were being penalised, that the rankings
In 2012, a panel was set up, chaired by Trevor did not capture the important nuances that
Manuel, South Africa's former Finance Min- often make the difference in business deci-
ister, to examine the validity of the World sions, or who disagreed with the report's
Bank's annual Doing Business report. The underlying assumptions. In other words,
Bank's annual Doing Business report judges the panel was addressing the fundamental
185 countries on 10 criteria and compiles an question of what constitutes best practice in
index on the ease of doing business, assign- national economic policy, what are the rel-
ing each country a rank. Governments, it evant criteria to judge, whether it was appro-
was observed, tend to attach great weight to priate to rank diverse countries according
the ranking whether their country features to a single set of criteria, and whether the
in the lead platoon, brings up the rear, edges report provided a sound basis on which to
upwards or slips down. The report recorded establish public or corporate policies. This
a host of detailed complaints, such as a focus article will argue that there can be no single
on the country's largest city, or the small set of answers to these questions, and for
sample sizes employed. As the report stated, two very good reasons.
`"It is important to remember that the (Doing
Business) report is intended to be a pure First, the globalised world economy is com-
knowledge project. As such, its role is to posed of separate civilisations, nations and
inform policy, not to prescribe it or outline states, with their own histories and peculi-
a normative position, which the rankings to arities, living in an unprecedented degree
some extent do.1 "Emotions", Trevor Manuel of intimacy one with another, but nonethe-
observed, "were charged at both poles of the less notably distinct, and facing their own
debate."2 At one end, were those who did peculiar mix of challenges. What is good for
well in the rankings or who were in broad one, in short, may not be good for another.
agreement about the report's underlying Second, the world is inherently pluralist,
assumptions and, at the other end, were so that there are as many answers to the

World Affairs and South Africa: Country Rankings
Jonathan Story
questions as there are participants in the Global System and the

debate. Nonetheless, coexistence among the Debate on Modernisation
peoples of the global community assumes
that there must be some broadly conceived There can be little doubt, after the experi-
criteria of right or wrong, of better or worse. ence of the last century, that the world is
We cannot live in a postmodern world where dynamic. When Queen Victoria celebrated
anything goes: we cannot live without some her Diamond Jubilee in the 60th year of her
agreement on rules, criteria and ethics. reign in 1897, there were few intimations of
what was to come: the South African War;
Introduction Japan's defeat of Russia in 1904; the two
Balkan wars, followed by the outbreak of
In what follows, we will start with a brief dis- war in Europe in 1914; the Russian Revo-
cussion of the dynamics of world affairs, first lution of 1917; the acceleration of new
prior to, then after the great transformation technologies spurred by war expenditures;
of world affairs in the years 1989 to 1992. the experience of state management of war
In so doing, we draw up a matrix whereby time economies; the development of com-
country risk methods may be assessed. The munications; Hitler's access to power, and
focus is on "risk", because the perspective is Japan's war on China, followed by world war,
not just of governments, but, in particular, the apparent triumph of the Soviet Union
of business investors, assessing whether or in 1945, the nuclear bombing of Japan and
not to locate scarce corporate resources in then the global cold war. None of this had
one territory or another. We then discuss been anticipated, and our ability to pierce
whether the world is converging or diverg- the veil of the future proved no better in
ing, a central debate if we are to try to assess the 1960s and onwards. Possibly, the one
how individual countries or regions may be nuanced lesson from the first half of the 20th
understood in the context of a world politi- century was that if there was progress, it
cal economy. We will then apply the argu- came at a terrible price.
ment to South Africa from the vantage point
of 1994 and of 2014. Given the nature of We have been no better at predicting the
the ongoing process of world affairs, we will future in the second half of the past century,
argue that it is more important to accept not to speak of the opening decades of the
the inevitable subjectivity of country rank- 21st century. We can observe a graveyard
ings, and gauge them as proxies to a fallible of shattered expectations as the promise of
global market opinion, important enough one Eldorado after another has turned to
to process into our policies, but far from stone. From the 1960s on, foreign investors
decreeing statements of absolute truth. The flooded into Africa, Iran and Latin America.
realities of world affairs are far too nuanced But in the 1970s, Africa spun into unsustain-
to be squeezed into pre-established catego- able debt; Khomeini seized power in 1979,
ries and rankings. and in 1982 Argentina, Brazil and Mexico

Jonathan Story
suspended payments on the interest of their government to market democracy as various

loans from western commercial banks. After forms of despotism collapsed, populations
the yen's rise in 1985, Michael Porter urged became better informed, market scope wid-
the world to imitate Japan's mercantilism, ened and institutional competition took its
at the time that Japan entered its decades toll. The third component was the recreation
of stagnation;3 investors poured into East of the world market under the aegis of the
Asian markets until the sudden withdrawal western powers, and by the United States
of confidence in June 1997, with serious in particular, to reach a level of integration
knock-on effects in 1998 in Russia and unknown since the first decade of the 20th
South Africa. Meanwhile, Mexico's crash in century, and lubricated by the explosive
1994 reverberated through Latin America; growth of global financial markets. The
in 2001, the terror attacks were launched fourth element was the growth of the indus-
on New York and Washington, and Enron, trial or service corporation, initially based
the dotcom boom and Argentina's economy in a home country, and with subsidiaries or
all imploded; China's entry to the WTO in market outlets in host countries, towards
2002 was accompanied by gloom in China becoming a transnational group with subsid-
about the likely impact; then in 2008, after iaries and markets located around the globe,
unprecedented Chinese growth, the US suf- and with a widely dispersed shareholder
fered the mother of all crashes. On each community, and a non-national recruitment
occasion, foresight was minimal. policy.
There are some very good reasons for this. This rapidly evolving context prompted
The world is turbulent and unpredictable at least four significant debates for coun-
per se. During the key years of 1989-1992, try risk analysis in the years prior to the
Germany's move to unity dismantled the great transformation of 1989-92. The first
cold war structure built around the two involved theories of modernisation and
Germanies, the two Europes, their two alli- development, prompted by the process
ances and the two great powers,4 launching of de-colonisation, combined with bitter
the world on the process which came to be ideological disputes between the two lead
called "globalisation".5 party-states of the USSR and China over
support for revolution in the "Third World".
Globalisation may be said to hold four key The classic statement of this perspective
components, which interact in highly com- was Walt Rustow's The stages of economic
plex ways. The first of these components is growth: A non-communist manifesto, pub-
the primacy of the USA, and the transforma- lished in 1960. Rustow proposed a model of
tion of the state system as the number of economic growth whereby economic mod-
states multiplied, from 51 in 1945 to 195 ernisation occurs in five stages of varying
now. The second component has been the length: traditional society, preconditions for
relentless retreat of any alternative forms of take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and high

Jonathan Story
mass consumption. It followed that the more Rustow identified a process in four phases:
"well-to-do" a nation became, the more dem-
` there had to be a pre-existing sense of
ocratic it was likely to be.6 For Rustow, the nationhood; a prolonged and inconclusive
process could be advanced by the granting political struggle, prompted often by a new
of western aid, state-promoted growth poli- social force of political leaders or modern
cies, the rejection of communist methods of business groups; a decision point, where the
class warfare and the suppression of market contesting élites agree to compromise; and
mechanisms. The Asian developmental state a habituation phase, where the new rules
stood as testimony to Rustow's insights.7 of the game would be introduced and then
implemented.14 His article laid the concep-
The second significant debate for country tual foundations for later work on the decline
risk analysis dealt with questions of politi- and collapse of authoritarian regimes in
cal transformation. In the course of the southern Europe, then in Latin America
1960s, events in Africa and Latin America and beyond. The common theme running
showed that political developments were through this literature was that splits within
far from uni-linear. Rapid economic growth the regime, throughout the whole process,
was not a stabilising factor, but a sure-fire would be the detonator of regime change,
prescription for political instability.8 Too not "external shocks".15 Consolidation of the
rapid social and economic changes could new regime would only occur once political
erode traditional solidarities, widen wealth parties had alternated in power and, most
gaps, multiply sources of dissatisfaction and importantly, that the recently agreed set-
promote political decay.9 As De Tocqueville tlement becomes "the only game in town".16
had observed about the French revolution,
men tended to rebel10 as expectations rose Finally, it was observed that political tran-
but could not be met. Ruling élites would sitions in one country were never just a
fracture, in their competitive appeals to domestic affair;17 they are complex, not just
differing constituencies within the regime because as the momentum towards regime
and beyond its boundaries.11 Their people, change builds, the stakes of politics are
however, could accept the iron chains of dic- raised, but because regime changes in one
tatorship as the price to be paid for stabil- state occur in a world of states, interdepend-
ity and economic improvement for a large ent among themselves, all in specific geo-
majority.12 There was not one but many graphic neighbourhoods, and all effected
paths to modernity.13 by the workings of the power balance, by
the cyclicality of the global economy, or by
The third significant debate for country risk the individual perspective of leaders more
was the burgeoning literature in the 1970s or less involved in the intimate details of
and 1980s dealing with regime change. The the transitional process itself. This was the
question asked was: how does a democracy arena in which corporations had become
come into being in the first place? Dankwart co-players with stakes in the new diplomacy

Jonathan Story
between states and corporations, which spread of market democracy, fostered an

overlay and differed from the bi- or multi- ever more open world market, and was the
lateral diplomacy of states.18 prime source of multinational corporate for-
eign direct investment. Because the post-
A Matrix to Locate Country 1945 global economy gave a leading role
Risk to national governments into the 1970s,
country risk was largely in the hands of rich
Country risk analysis refers to both foreign world governments and the international
direct and financial investments on world institutions, particularly the World Bank.
markets. The aspects of country risk interre- Prior to the first oil price shock (1973-74),
late: financial loans will tend to be recorded most developing countries received for-
through the short-term capital account eign funds largely in the form of long-term,
of the country, and involve investment in mostly concessional and project-related,
the currency and/or in paper on the local loans from multilateral and bilateral official
capital market. The risk for both lender and sources. However, in the 1960s, as countries
borrower is that investors may withdraw went for growth, their debt service began to
speedily from the market on the receipt of climb.20 In 1965, the World Bank produced
adverse news. A more secure form of invest- a seminal three-volume work on country
ment from the viewpoint of the host country risk.21 The report charted debt in devel-
is a foreign direct investment involving a oping countries between 1955 and 1962,
transfer of technology and skills, while gen- and derived a model whereby as growth
erating jobs and revenue. Once embedded in proceeded, external borrowing would rise
the host country, withdrawal is more prob- and then fall as the trade accounts turned to
lematic. Both forms of country risk analysis surplus. The debt would continue to rise, but
ask similar, though distinct, questions. Both be serviced by even faster growth of exports.
attempt to come up with a judgment about This process was particularly sensitive to
the risk of lending or investing in a country the rate of a country's growth, especially its
in the light of an assessment of the politi- exports, its savings rates, the quality of its
cal and economic factors informing a target investments and the terms of repayment.
country's prospects. Both face the reality
that international business involves taking This conceptual cycle of development and
a bet on the target country's politics and per- growth was applied in a cross-country
formance.19 Given this definition, how has analysis in 1971.22 Two metrics were rec-
country risk analysis covered the multiple ommended: the rate of return on investment
forces at work in the world? has to be higher than the interest cost of
the external loans used to finance it; the
There can be little doubt, looking across growth of the borrowing economy had to
the matrix, that the US shaped the devel- exceed the interest rate on new external
opment of the state system, promoted the debt. Clearly, these formulas would favour

Jonathan Story
export-oriented countries, and penalise conditions and prospects. Its benefit was to
countries with import substitution regimes. draw attention to the details of a country's
evolution, but its drawback was the diffi-
The major turning point in country risk culty in establishing comparability across
analysis came with the 1982 crisis, follow- countries, and the method's failure to yield
ing the second oil shock of 1979-80. The a number for market participants eager to
major shareholders of the World Bank did make decisions among a range of options.
not vote for adequate capital increases for
the organisation to cover the needs of devel- Structured qualitative method: The aim here
oping countries, which had to rely on private was to establish a uniform format across
capital flows. There was thus a redeployment countries, augmented by selected economic
of tasks: the World Bank and the IMF took data, and including observations of a politi-
to providing advice on rigorous adjustment cal, cultural or social nature. A widely used
processes, particularly with regard to Africa example of this was the political risk index
and Latin America; financial institutions and provided by Business Environment Risk
agencies acquired their own country risk Intelligence (BERI) SA.25 The method's ben-
capabilities; and corporations developed efit was that it covered all the horizontal
their in-house political assessment function. dimensions of our country risk matrix, and
As has been observed, banks had little house in the shape of a reproducible format.
knowledge about politics; most managers
had ethnocentric views; and perceptions on Checklist method: This involves scoring the
the political environment varied greatly.23 country on a scale with regard to a set of
That was before the analysts sought to look economic, financial, legal or political criteria.
through the dark glass towards an uncertain An example here is the CRS Group's Inter-
future. national Country Risk Guide (ICRG). Each
item is weighted, and scaled from lowest to
Given the multiple problems of assess- highest score–an inevitably subjective eval-
ing country risk, no consensus could be uation. All items are summed on a matrix,
reached on methodology. Instead, corpor whose one side represents, say, the politi-
ations, banks and ratings agencies plumbed cal/legal dimension and the other side, the
for more qualitative or more quantitative economic/financial dimension. The method
analysis, and most usually for a varied com- also allows for the creation of a country pro-
bination of both. A survey conducted by the file, comparable to other territories, over
US Eximbank in 1976 categorised various time.
methods of country risk appraisal: 24
Other quantitative methods: These methods
Qualitative method: A typical qualitative use econometric and statistical studies of
report would include a general discussion country risk analysis. They compare a large
of a country's economic, political and social set of countries, and conclude with a list

Jonathan Story
of variables, which their authors consider would pour technologies into the poorer
most explanatory.26 The problem with these regions of the world where labour was
techniques was multiple: their focus was abundant, cheap and talented. Global finan-
narrow, their models were no better than cial markets, no longer under political lock
their assumptions, non-statistical informa- and key, would provide capital, ending the
tion was not incorporated, and the method historic savings shortages of developing
focused purely on economic data. countries. For those who wanted to tap
into international capital, the price would
Overall, the conclusion that emerges from be an end to national capital controls. With
this overview is how inconclusive the battle global growth rising, productivity levels,
of methods remained. This should not come living standards and longevity would soar.
as a surprise. There are deep problems Better educated populations would help to
relating to the subject of country analysis. spread constitutional democracy, promote
Whatever the method, bias is inescapable; greater security between states with similar
the material, whether qualitative or quan- values and regimes, and eventually equalise
titative, can only be from the past; there is incomes at an unprecedented high level of
an insoluble problem of causality; the future well-being. As global civil society developed,
remains a dark glass. Nonetheless, country a public law would emerge to override state
risk prior to 1990 yielded a useful debate sovereignties as the world progressed to a
about comparability of information in a higher civilisation.
format, while the index method produced
a country profile and some numbers, albeit Convergence was the underlying theme of
subjective. Not all effort was in vain. country risk rankings offered on the web.
The launching of the world wide web trans-
Globalisation: Convergence formed country risk analysis, in providing
or Divergence? universal and rapid access to a growing
number of sites.27 The availability of a
With the collapse of the cold war structure huge amount of information, though, has
in the years 1989-92, the question widely been accompanied by a multiplication in
asked was: Where was the world heading? the underlying frameworks, assumptions
One view, to become very influential in and theories. This may be easily illustrated:
country risk analysis, was of a world con- the competitiveness of websites from IMD
verging on western political norms, on west- and the World Economic Forum have been
ern economic policy, and on a market-driven greatly influenced by Michael Porter's writ-
process of world integration. A cascade of ings on the competitiveness of nations.28 The
new technologies–in particular the priva- UNDP's Human Development Index has been
tisation by the US Department of Defense of inspired by Amartya Sen's re-definition of
the world wide web–would accelerate the labour from being a factor of production to
pace of innovation. Western corporations being a bundle of potential, measurable not

Jonathan Story
in terms of prices in commodity exchange, live is one of inherited inequalities among

but in terms of life expectancy, educational states or classes, and very diverse motiva-
attainment and per capita income. The Her- tions among peoples of differing religions
itage Foundation's economic freedom index or cultures. States have different adaptive
is predicated on classical liberal market capabilities, forged in discrete, historical
theory and measured in terms of trade circumstances,31 yielding not one but a
freedom, business freedom, investment free- diversity of capitalisms.32 Efforts to pack
dom and property rights. The Berthelsmann them onto a single tramline heading to a
transformation index states clearly that it One World united in market democracy is
derives from the theory of Germany's social bound to cause accidents, and is as unreli-
market economy.29 The World Bank govern- able as was the communist utopia to create
ance indicators are based on the observa- a worldwide communism.33 Indeed, the
tion that, as Douglass North30 and others cause of divergence is now taken up by
have argued, institutions matter, and that radicals who see global capitalism as seek-
good governance, the rule of law and a qual- ing to impose uniformity on a diverse world.
ity bureaucracy are key in accounting for Better to assume that the world's diversity
where investors go. is its wealth, and that the system of global
governance under construction is a negoti-
For their partisans, the benefits of the rank- ated construct that reflects the institutional
ings are self-evident: listing countries com- arrangements–national, regional or global–
peting for business in a semi-integrated from which they emerged.34 Overall, future
global market encourages benchmarking, divergence is rooted in a world of history
motivates learning, may promote reforms, and variety rather than one which demands
and allows countries to brand themselves linearity, integration and convergence.
to attract investors. Because the data pro-
vided on the indices is either publicly avail- The websites have no problem in dealing
able or based on opinion surveys, there is with diversity. The rankings, their composite
no possibility for governments to negoti- indicators and scales facilitate differentia-
ate before, during and after the judgment tion and a comparative standard.35 But that
has fallen, as has been the habit of govern- is precisely their problem: the accusation
ments for instance, in negotiations with the against the rankings is that they are ethno-
IMF on structural adjustment programmes. centric; they tend to promote "neoliberal"
Countries and governments face the court agendas; they assume a one-size-fits-all tem-
of global opinion in the form of the indices: plate for a diverse world;36 they are riddled
no insider negotiations are possible. with methodological problems such as the
fact that the final number in the ranking is
There is, though, an alternative narrative an average of distinct observation points;
about where the world is heading. Accord- the data they produce appears objective
ingly, the historical world in which we but their composite indicators derive from

Jonathan Story
a hodgepodge of sources; the weightings South Africa

of the factors are arbitrary; and, not least,
they conceal their subjectivity behind a On 10 May 1994, millions watched as
veil of semi-scientific gloss. Having con- Nelson Mandela, South Africa's first post-
nived in misleading their clients prior to apartheid president, invited his compatriots
the 2008 crash, the big three ratings agen- to "enter a covenant" and build "a rainbow
cies–Moodys, S&P and Fitch–were chal- nation at peace with itself and with the
lenged when S&P downgraded Greece in world". Invoking the ANC's Freedom Char-
April 2010.37 Inversely, their deficiencies ter, the only viable state form for the coun-
indicated that they were arguably open to try, Mandela stated, was constitutional
gaming: Georgia, in 2005, was ranked by democracy, predicated on one person, one
Transparency International's corruption vote. How did the rankings record the new
perceptions index as occupying number 122 South Africa? I have used the various rank-
in the global corruption stakes and, by 2012, ings available at that time, and developed
ranked number 51–a Pauline conversion a profile in my Globalisation–Making
towards virtue. Smarter Decisions software.
Whether the rankings serve to benchmark The first task in assessing a country's po-
or to be gamed, they are no more than tential is to ask where it has come from. In
rough guides to investors. What is neces- the case of South Africa, the history was
sary in a global market is for investors to complex. Indeed in the mid-1990s, I held
acquire local knowledge.38 In particular, in an INSEAD Advanced Management Pro-
a diverse world, corporations, it is suggested, gramme session on South Africa, attended
have to consider themselves as political by participants from all possible back-
players and not just as economic agents. grounds. The discussion dwelt for over
Just as managers have to know the history an hour on the country's history, from
that makes their corporations as they are, which it was apparent that there was no
they also have to learn about the territo- consensus. Did the trouble all begin when
ries they enter.39 That means that managers Jan van Riebeeck reached Table Bay on
have to develop political capital, join coali- 6 April 1652? When the British seized the
tions of interests, master the art of political Cape from the Dutch to prevent it falling
spin and "hit the pressure-points of local into French hands? With the unification
decision-makers".40 They have to develop of the Nguni peoples under their formi-
a non-market strategy, not least because dable leader, Shaka Zulu? With the defeat
they compete for airspace on global media in 1838 of the army of his successor, Din-
with non-governmental organisations, while gane, by a small Boer force at the battle
governments use regulation to extract cor- of the Great Fish River–a sure sign, the
porate resources. The globalised world is a Boers concluded, of God's divine benevo-
goldfish bowl with few places left to hide. lence? As Rian Malan phrased it, the Boers

Jonathan Story
concluded that the lesson to take from the great crocodile), and then under F.W. de
victory was "you have to put the black man Klerk, the regime moved reluctantly to
down, plant your foot on his neck, and keep reforms, while ruthlessly clamping down
him there forever, lest he spring up and slit on internal opposition. With German unity
your white throat".41 A later lesson from in the winter of 1989/1990, and the implo-
the South African war of 1898 to 1902 sion of Soviet power, De Klerk sought to
was to split the Boer people between those, end his country's status as an international
like General Smuts who made peace with pariah, released Mandela from prison in
the British Empire and others who never February 1990, and thereby launched the
did. As diehard Calvinists, many Boers sup- country on the transition to becoming a
ported National Socialist Germany during multiracial democracy.
the world war of 1939 to 1945, without
perhaps appreciating that Hitler was radi- From the perspective of 1994, the extraor-
cally hostile to Christian creeds. dinary feature of South Africa's profile is
that the rankings told a fairly optimistic
Following the elections of May 1948, story of the new South Africa's politics,
Daniel Malan became Prime Minister in the noticeably more optimistic than the more
first Nationalist government. As Rian Malan negative economic assessment. This was
points out, it may have been possible to surprising in view of the two key questions
make apartheid work had the proposals of that were asked about South Africa at the
the 1954 Tomlinson report been followed time: why did the formidable Boer tribe
to redistribute vast tracts of land from abandon apartheid? And why did South
white to black farmers. But this was never Africa not dissolve into a spiral of ethnic
on the cards. The screws were tightened violence?
on the ANC and, in 1960, Hendrik Verwo-
erd had South Africa declared a republic. There are many reasons for the implosion
Blacks were driven off their land into sep- of apartheid, ranging from the policy's
arate areas, with the economy recording inherent economic failings, to western
high growth rates into the 1970s. But high sanctions, and the ever-heightening cost
oil prices, the collapse of the Portuguese of maintaining South Africa on an effective
empire in nearby Angola and Mozambique, permanent war footing. But one is worth
US pressure on Rhodesia to end white mentioning, because it had such an impor-
minority rule and, above all, the spread of tant impact on the transition. Simply, the
Black Consciousness among the younger Boer tribe came to doubt its own ideology.
generation, combined with the strengthen- It was not just that US sitcoms peddled the
ing of the trade unions in the mines, set a ideas of tolerance, fairness, and sexual and
beleaguered apartheid South Africa on a racial justice into Boer homes. Even more
near permanent war footing. In the 1980s, importantly, trainees who went to study
under Piet Botha, "die groot krokodil" (the in the seminaries of the Dutch Reformed

Jonathan Story
Church in the Netherlands imbibed the his people back home, "we have to change."
prevalent liberal critique of inherited Cal- Pragmatism was a key factor contributing to
vinist verities, and returned to spread the the surprisingly peaceful transition.
new gospel in South Africa. The Dutch
Reformed Church subsequently withdrew The Constitution incorporated many of the
its blessing of apartheid, so that by the time Freedom Charter's provisions, clearly insti-
De Klerk came to high office, Boer convic- tuted a parliamentary system that enabled
tion about the rightness of apartheid was a the first post-apartheid government to reach
thing of the past. Boer diehards were either out and include many of the ANC's previ-
won over by Nelson Mandela's charm,42 or ous rivals, and benefitted by very high voter
extreme parties failed to win minimal popu- participation in the first elections of April
lar support. 1994, which, under the circumstances, were
well-run.43 All of this was recorded in the
Another reason was that the ANC offered rankings, as was the absence of any major
the only possible exit from apartheid for a challenge to the new incumbents, along with
multiracial South Africa: one man, one vote. the inherited and still independent-minded
Group rights, advocated by the regime in judiciary. In addition, the rankings recorded
the 1980s, and by the Zulu leader, Buthelezi, the transformed international position of
were no more than modified forms of ethnic the new South Africa: embassies were reo-
consociational democracy, which had dem- pened around the world; South Africa fast
onstrated, for instance in Lebanon, that they became a full participant in regional and
only lasted as long as the demographic for- global international organisations; South
mulae on which they had been originally Africa was once again an important player
based. In particular, the various minorities in the Anglophone world; the country had a
of South Africa recognised that the 1955 sound technological base; and was ranked
Freedom Charter formed the only basis for a high in terms of freedoms by the US-based
modus vivendi in the new South Africa. The Freedom House.
broad appeal of the Charter became all the
more attractive, when, as the late Anthony Not surprisingly, the economic and social
Sampson records in his authorised biogra- indicators were less positive. It was no mys-
phy of Mandela, the great man visited the tery that the new government faced major
World Economic Forum at Davos in February challenges. These included the vital task of
1992, where he was dissuaded from nation- achieving racial reconciliation, while dealing
alising key industries, as had been the con- with the festering memories of cruelties per-
sensus view among economists in the 1950s. petrated on all sides; promoting job creation
When the leaders from Vietnam and China in a fast growing demography; addressing
told him that this was not a good idea in an the major issue of poverty and inequality,
interdependent world economy, Mandela which permeated every aspect of the coun-
changed his mind. "Chaps," Mandela told try from educational and life chances, to

Jonathan Story
housing; and the urgent need to create a the overall profile of economic policy and
widening domestic market without which it performance that records a higher rank-
would prove difficult to attract inward direct ing than the political system. South Africa's
investment, which had exited under the international standing is better than it has
western sanctions policy imposed during ever been and, as in 1994, there is no vis-
the last years of the old regime. These fea- ible challenge to the regime. Indicators of
tures were captured in South Africa's high crime and civil strife have improved relative
score on the Gini index, measuring income to 20 years earlier, but remain a significant
inequality; a ranking of 23 out of 54 on negative factor, as does corruption. The out-
Transparency International's new corrup- standing feature of South Africa, captured
tion perceptions index; indicators of high by the rankings, has been the deterioration
crime and violence; a large and inefficient in the Gini index, recording a widening of
public sector; a poor record on inflation; a the income gap, with all that that entails in
volatile foreign exchange rate; and a record terms of unfulfilled expectations and the
of capital flight. permanent threat of radical politics.
The economy, though, held a number of ace It is economic policy that has yielded the
cards: if inequality could be reduced, and/ most impressive results. Post-1994 govern-
or income levels raised significantly, South ments demonstrated their commitment to
Africa could look to a widening domestic open markets, privatisation and a favour-
market; the same could be said for human able investment climate. The Motor Industry
capital potential; the financial system was Development Plan (MIDP) was put together
world class, and the country held a range of in consultation with the automotive indus-
high potential corporations; South Africa's try. Lower tariffs enabled South Africa to
transport infrastructure was arguably the develop as a manufacturing export plat-
best in Africa; the country had a modern form to the left-hand drive markets, nota-
and competitive agricultural sector along- bly Japan. Manufacturing's share of total
side subsistence farming in the homelands, exports rose from 35 percent in 1994 to
occupying low productivity labour; a high more than 50 percent now. Trade liberali-
cost protected market for industrial goods, sation policies prompted farms, mines and
and a minerals sector accounting for 40 to manufacturers to improve productivity, ini-
50 percent of exports on trade account. tially at the expense of local job creation.
Facing stiffer competition, South Africa's
How has South Africa fared, judging corporations focused on core competences,
from the standpoint of 2014? What is evi- unravelled cross-shareholdings, cut staff
dent from the profile is that the rankings and went for shareholder value. South Afri-
record improved overall performance for can breweries expanded abroad, while the
South Africa both in terms of politics and major mining houses launched exploration
economics. But, unlike in 1994, it is now drives throughout the continent.

Jonathan Story
What is particularly noticeable is the improve- What may one conclude? First, it is clear that
ment in macro-economic performance. The in 2014 the new South Africa is still a work in
government's flexible exchange rate, infla- progress. There have been three presidents,
tion and fiscal stances have been rewarded Mandela, Mbeki and Zuma, very different
in terms of an upgrading of South Africa's personalities, all with records that have been
status by the three major ratings firms. challenged at home by a free press. The ANC
Despite a volatile foreign exchange rate, remains the dominant party-movement. The
South Africa had, and continues to enjoy, a opposition parties exist, but neither they nor
solid reputation for sound public finances. the ANC have successfully broken through
In the first decades of this millennium, the racial divisions of South African politics.
growth rates rose significantly. In 1994, What holds the fort in South Africa is the
80 percent of the budget was directed to country's rich natural endowments; a repu-
15 percent of the population. By 2007, table central bank and finance ministry; a
the tax base had risen from 1.6 million, in worldclass financial centre in Johannesburg;
1996, to 5 million. In that time, 1.7 million some powerful corporations; good universi-
jobs were created; 2.6 million homes were ties; a considerable and increasingly inclu-
built; the number of homes with electricity sive infrastructure; an independent-minded
doubled to nearly 9 million; 87 percent of judiciary; a rapidly expanding black middle
people had access to running water. Over class, and a political and legal environment
14 million people were benefitting from conducive to more equality in opportunity.
welfare benefits, the largest welfare pro-
gramme in sub-Saharan Africa. Second, there has been clear progress along
many of the lines that the ANC originally
However, the downsides in 2014 also re- dreamt of achieving. As averages go, South
main conspicuous. The most important Africa is a middle-income country, and a
underlying trend in the two decades or member of BRICS (the high potential emerg-
so since the foundation of the new South ing markets of Brazil, Russia, India, China
Africa, as mentioned, has been the growth in and South Africa). Far from the isolation of
inequality. One trade union report, of 2008, apartheid, South Africa is deeply inserted in
cites racial income disparities on class lines, the global diplomatic network; is a target for
where whites are reported as enjoying an inward investment; a beneficiary of the boom
average income 450 percent higher than in raw material prices, with China now its
blacks, while the Gini index, which records prime trade partner; and is positively ranked
income distribution, actually reports a steep in the World Bank's ease of doing business
rise in income disparities since the handover index. It is also a significant part of the
of power. This has gone along with high con- world's Anglosphere. What is most notice-
tinuing rates of un- and under-employment; able, in 2014, is that an improved economic
an explosion in crime; and reported high performance is underpinned by the constitu-
levels of corruption. tional state: in 1994, the constitutional state

Jonathan Story
was overwhelmingly the main positive fea- New Dialectics and Country
ture of the country, while the main drag on Risk
the country's development was apartheid's
economic legacy. Given this sketch of the South African case,
where does this leave us in the debate about
Third, popular expectations have inevita- the reality of the world's diversity, and
bly been disappointed. For the years 2000 the necessity of us finding some common
to 2012, growth averaged 3.6 percent criteria against which to judge policy
per annum, against sub-Saharan Africa's and performance? The argument here is
6.3 percent. Inequalities have risen, limit- that the world is converging and diverg-
ing thereby the potential of the domestic ing simultaneously, not one or the other.
market, and registered in a lack of skills Markets, communications or travel drive
and wide gaps in health and education. integration; differentiation is preserved and
Government programmes are held back by accentuated in terms of legacies or collec-
weak local government capabilities. Black tive memories. The new world system to
businesses have prospered, but the com- have emerged since 1990, in the course
manding heights of the economy remain in of the 1990s, is characterised by comple-
white hands: under 10 percent of corporate mentary opposites: a diversity of states in
assets in South Africa are in black owner- a non-homogeneous world, penetrated and
ship. There is also a sense that, while a new shaped by global markets operating power-
class of super rich has been created through fully to create a more homogeneous world
the black empowerment programme, cor- civilisation, alongside aspirations to create
ruption has become a cancer that could a system of global governance out of the
destroy all that has been achieved. A token world's existing institutional framework
of this gap between expectations and wealth as the counterpart to a world of relentless
disparity is the rumbling debate about pos- competition between states, corporations
sible radicalisation of South African politics, or currencies. The impact of the world's
leading to a Zimbabwe-type land grab, and driving forces on this system generates the
the accompanying fear of a collapse in what ongoing process of transformation, which
remains a prosperous agricultural sector. is captured by the juxtaposition of present
prospects for an increasingly wealthy and
The conclusion must remain that the new inclusive world, as global civil society devel-
South Africa has achieved much, but its ops towards a higher civilisation, and a
achievements remain fragile. The one world of history where the forces of globali-
reason why moderate optimism is justified sation operate as a stimulant to divergence,
is that there is no serious challenge to the to conflicts and to a ruthless competition
constitutional state by extra-constitutional between peoples, states and corporations. It
forces. South Africa's messy constitutional is this double movement between the forces,
democracy is the only game in town. driving towards the prospect of a radiant

Jonathan Story
future and the world's very divergent capa- Conclusion

bilities to adapt, that lie at the heart of the
new dialectics in global affairs. Cold war The conclusion for our discussion of the
dialectics was structured by the global con- international rankings industry is straight-
figuration of the international system; the forward: there is a place for all the meth-
post-cold war dialectics is a global process ods and insights developed. But the one
working at the level of cultures, markets approach, which is inappropriate, is that
and politics. the rankings be taken as akin to the laws
of physics–the disease of modern econom-
In the case of South Africa, we may say that ics, and of econometricians who take their
the country is converging on a set of criteria discipline too seriously. Country rankings
that are always up for discussion, given the cannot be scientific in the way that the phys-
ebb and flow of debate about appropriate ical sciences are. They are one tool, in the
policy in the global conversation. However, toolkit of the analyst, just as is the method
South Africa remains sui generis, compara- of the historian or the results of the opinion
ble in many ways to many countries: to the pollster. The historian seeks to record to the
UK, for instance, in terms of law, politics or best of his ability what happened in the past,
finance; to The Netherlands, in terms of the while accepting the open challenge from his
Dutch Reformed Church and Roman Law; to peers. He may be well armed in argument;
Brazil in terms of its natural wealth and its but he does not speak ex cathedra on doc-
race/class disparities; to India, in terms of trine. He does not claim to speak truth. Like-
the legacy bequeathed by Nehru and Man- wise, the pollster records current opinion. In
dela, two very different leaders, but con- the context of country rankings, the rank-
vinced of the rightness of their cause that ings and indices are there as proxies to form
group politics was not the answer to the a country profile of considered opinion as
necessary modernisation of their countries. to where a country stands. No more, no less.
South Africa, in short, is different, like all For South Africa, the suggested conclusion
other states and peoples, with their own from a reading of the rankings may be: well
histories and trajectories, which are not done; keep going; remember Nelson Man-
predestined to take one path or another, dela's statement that South Africa stands at
but from which there can be no escape. the beginning of its future.
Jonathan Story is Emeritus Professor of International Political Economy at INSEAD. He worked

in Brussels and Washington. He has held the Marusi Chair of Global Business at Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, and is currently Distinguished Visiting Professor at the Graduate School of
Business, Fordham University, New York.

Jonathan Story

1 Independent Panel Review of Doing a destabilizing force. Journal of 18 Stopford, J. & Strange, S. 1991. Rival
Business Report, 2013. http://www. Economic History XXIII, December states, rival firms: Competition for
dbrpanel.org/sites/dbrpanel/files/ 1963. world market shares, Cambridge:
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2 Reuters. 2013. "Panel urges World Haven: Yale University Press 1986. The pure theory of international
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2013. Press. 20 de Vries, B.A. 1996. The World Bank
3 Porter, M. 1990. The competitive 11 Linz, J. & Stepan, A. 1996. Prob as an international player in economic
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4 Hassner, P. 1971/2. "The new Eur South America and Post-Comm Durham : Duke University Press, pp.
ope: from cold war to hot peace". unist Europe. Baltimore, London: 225-243
International Journal, 27(1): 1-17. The Johns Hopkins University Press 21 Avramovic, D. 1968. Economic
5 The best book on this is David Held, 12 Brinton, C. 1965. The anatomy growth and external debt. Baltimore:
et al. 1999. Global Transformations of revolution. New York: Vintage Johns Hopkins Press.
Cambridge: Polity Press. The auth Books. 22 de Vries, B.A. 1971. The debt bearing
ors define globalisation as "located 13 Moore, B., Jr. 1972. Social origins capacity of developing countries : A
on a continuum with the local, of dictatorship and democracy: comparative analysis. Rome : Banca
national and regional". At one end Lord and peasant in the making of Nazionale de Lavoro.
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or national basis; at the other end democracy: Toward a dynamic California: University of California
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and networks that crystallise on the 337-363. 24 Cited in Hiranya K. Nath, Country
wider scale of regional and global 15 O'Donnell, G. & Schmitter, P. 1986. risk analysis: A survey of the quan
interactions. Globalisation can Transitions from authoritarian titative methods SHSU Economics
be taken to refer to those spatial- rule: Tentative conclusions about & Intl. Business Working Paper No.
temporal processes of change uncertain democracies. Baltimore: SHSU_ECO_WP08-04 October 2008.
that underpin a transformation The Johns Hopkins University Press. 25 For the components of the index,
in the organisation of human See Shain, Y & Linz, J. 1995. Harvey, C.R. 1996, "Political risk,
affairs by linking together and Between states: Interim govern economic risk and financial risk"
expanding human activity across ments and democratic transitions. Country Risk Analysis home page
regions and continents. Without New York: Cambridge University <http://www.duke.edu/~charvey/
reference to such expansive spatial Press. Country_risk/couindex.htm>
connections, there can be no clear 16 Schedler, A. 1998. "What is demo 26 See two studies at a 20-year
or coherent formulation of this cratic consolidation", Democracy, interval: C.R. Frank, W.R. Cline.
term … A satisfactory definition 9(2): 9 & 107. 1971, Measurement of debt ser
of globalisation must capture 17 Pridham, G. 1991. Encouraging dem- vicing capacity: An application of
each of these elements: extensity ocracy. The international context discriminant analysis. Journal of
(stretching), intensity, velocity and of regime transition in southern International Economics, 1: 327-
impact." Europe. Leicester: Leicester Uni 344; Oral, M., Kettani, O., Cosset, J.
6 Lipset, S.M. 1960. Political man. versity Press. See also Story, J. & & Daouas, M. 1992. An estimation
London: Doubleday & Company. Gillespie, R. 1995. Democratic and model for country risk rating.
7 See Wade, R. 1990. Governing Spain in the international context. International Journal of Forecasting,
the market: Economic theory and In Gillespie, R., Rodrigo, F. & 8: 583-593.
the role of the government in East Story, J. (eds.) Democratic Spain. 27 Conklin, D. 2002. Analysing and
Asian industrialisation, Princeton: Reshaping external relations in a managing country risks. The org
Princeton University Press. changing world. London & New anization Ivey Business Journal, Jan
8 Olson, M., Jr. 1963. Growth as York: Routledge. uary/February 2002.

Jonathan Story
28 For an early critique of the WEF 33 Goldsmith, J. 1994. The trap. Lon 39 For a politically sensitive view on
Global Competitiveness Report, don, MacMillan; Gray, J. 1998. multinational corporate develop
see Lall, S. 2001. Competitiveness False dawn: The delusions of ment, see Bartlett, C.A., Ghoshal,
indices and developing countries: global capitalism. London: Granta; S. 1989. Managing across borders:
An economic evaluation of the Soros, G. 1998. The crisis of global The transnational solution. Boston:
global competitiveness report. capitalism . New York: Public Harvard Business School Press
World Development, 29(9) : 1501- Affairs Press. 40 Henisz, W.J., Zelner, B.A. 2010. The
1525. 34 Whitely, R. 1997. International hidden risks in emerging markets.
29 The Berthelsman's Transformation ization and varieties of capitalism: Harvard Business Review, April
Index states on its opening page: "It The limited effects of cross-national 2010.
measures successes and setbacks on coordination of economic activities 41 An indispensible insight to the
the path toward democracy based on the nature of business systems". run up to the end of apartheid is
on the rule of law and a market Review of International Political the account by Rian Malan, My
economy flanked by sociopolitical Economy, 5(3): 445-481. traitor's heart: Blood and bad
safeguards. 35 Bremmer, I. 2005. Managing risk in dreams: A South African explores
30 North, C.D. 1990. Institutions, instit- an unstable world. Harvard Busin the madness in his country, in his
utional change and economic per ess Review: 51-60. tribe and himself, Vintage Books,
formance. Cambridge University 36 See Independent Panel of Review 1991.
Press. of the Doing Business Report, June 42 See Carlin, J. 2013. Knowing
31 Weiss, L. 1998. The myth of the pow- 2013. Mandela. London : Atlantic Books.
erless state. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell 37 Business Day, 2010. Barroso attacks 43 See Amy Mawson, Organizing
University Press. rating agencies, May 6, 2010. the first post-apartheid election:
32 Crouch, C. & Streeck, W. 1997. 38 Prhalad, C.K. & Dos, Y.L. 1987. South Africa, 1994. February 2010.
Political economy of modern cap The multinational mission: bal http://www.princeton.edu/success
italism. Mapping convergence and ancing local demands and global fulsocieties/content/data/policy_
diversity. Thousand Oaks: Sage vision. United States of America: note/PN_id114/Policy_Note_
Publications. Free Press. p.30. ID114.pdf

Class Dynamics and State Transformation
in South Africa
Joel Netshitenzhe
Abstract optimal role in leading the efforts to improve

people's quality of life.
An attempt is made in this article to dissect
the state of the South African state post- Concept of the State and
1994 as well as class dynamics that attach to Class Dynamics Within the
the challenge of the liberation movement's Colonial State
ascendancy into formal organs of politi-
cal power. In this regard, ideas presented Why is the state central to social organisa-
in various fora are integrated.1 Few issues tion, at least during particular periods in
have been selected 21st to illustrate the strat the evolution of human society? It has been
egic challenges that South Africa faces as argued quite cogently that the very exist-
it strives to build a state that can speed up ence of the state arises out of the need to
social transformation. For purposes of this manage social conflict. Friedrich Engels in
treatise, it is not necessary to trace the evo- his seminal work, The origin of the family,
lution of the state as such – the Athenian private property and the state, makes this
and Spartan versions, the pre-colonial mani- assertion in the following manner:
festations of social organisation as in the
Mapungubwe and other African civilisations The state is … by no means a power forced
and the mfecane wars of nation-formation, on society from without; just as little is it
or the rise of the colonial state in the geog- ``the reality of the ethical idea', `the image
raphy today called South Africa. Nor is an and reality of reason', as Hegel maintains.
attempt made to interrogate the Weberian, Rather, it is a product of society at a certain
micro-foundational and Marxist theories of stage of development; it is the admission
the state and their utility. Drawing from this that this society has become entangled in
tapestry, some generalisations are made on an insoluble contradiction with itself, that
the state of our state today and its inter- it has split into irreconcilable antagonisms
play with class dynamics, and the actions which it is powerless to dispel. But in
required to ensure that the state plays an order that these antagonisms, these classes

Class Dynamics and State Transformation in South Africa
Joel Netshitenzhe
with conflicting economic interests, might The evolution of the state in a unified South
not consume themselves and society in Africa bore all the hallmarks of a colonial
fruitless struggle, it became necessary to imposition, promoting and protecting the
have a power, seemingly standing above material interests of the colonial settlers.
society, that would alleviate the conflict The formation of the Union of South Africa in
and keep it within the bounds of `order'; 1910 represented racial solidarity founded
and this power, arisen out of society but on dispossession, exclusion and repression
placing itself above it, and alienating itself of the black people. However, within this
more and more from it, is the state.2 racial solidarity, and indeed reflecting what
Engels in the Letter to Bloch refers to as "an
But should we infer one-directional causality infinite series of parallelograms of forces",
between the level of development of eco- various secondary contradictions played
nomic organisation and industry, on the one themselves out. While issues of language
hand, and instruments of social organisation, and culture were an important veneer, the
on the other? As many would argue, forms essence of these tensions was about how
of social organisation can evolve and assume to narrow the divide between numbers
autonomous identities. Indeed, Engels him- and real power, between the statuses of a
self makes this qualification in his Letter to ruling political elite and a ruling class. With
Bloch: the introduction of racially circumscribed
`"democracy", the Afrikaners, as the major-
According to the materialist conception ity within the white community, ensured
of history, the ultimately determining through corrective or affirmative action not
element in history is the production and only that their political dominance trans-
reproduction of real life. Other than this lated into general socio-economic benefits,
neither Marx nor I have ever asserted. they also sought to translate their position as
Hence if somebody twists this into say the political ruling elite into becoming a full
ing that the economic element is the only part of the ruling class across South Africa,
determining one, he transforms that that is, owners of the means of production
proposition into a meaningless, abstract, beyond agriculture.
senseless phrase. The economic situation
is the basis, but the various elements of As this happened, and as is in the nature of
the superstructure – … political, juristic, the capitalist system, massive stratification
philosophical theories, religious views also took place within the Afrikaner com-
and their further development into munity, putting a strain on the nationalist
systems of dogmas – also exercise project of mutual solidarity. Thus, the sup-
their influence upon the course of the posed communal nationalist cause had to
historical struggles and in many cases be re-invented and rationalised afresh. In
preponderate in determining their an article, entitled Die Calvinistiese beskou-
form.3 ing van die arbeid 4 in the Journal, Koers, of

Joel Netshitenzhe
October 1946, the point is made by the ideo- ●● firstly, the conduct of a political elite
logues of Afrikaner Nationalism about the that is not as such the ruling class, using
white lower classes that: political office to capture part of the
commanding heights of the economy,
No one's task is too humble, because in and for a section of this elite to ascend
the national economy we are all members to higher socio-economic status
of one body, in which there is indeed a ●● secondly, how such progress can also
head and a heart, but also the lesser be facilitated by the extant ruling class
members without which the body would courting the political masters by ceding
be crippled. There is nothing wrong with some of its economic power
the types of work we do … it is all needed ●● thirdly, how advancement of a sup
to serve the church, the volk and the state. posedly communal nationalism, within
a capitalist socio-economic formation,
One of the unique features that attach to this may benefit all its adherents somewhat,
experience is that this political ruling elite but in fact also results in a small
had the possibility to use job reservation, minority rising to the very top, and
land dispossession and other forms of racial thus generating disquiet within the
discrimination and the super-exploitation nationalist broad front.
of black people, to accord the white lower
classes privileged status. This somewhat In other words, if this truncated account of
ameliorated the intra-communal tensions the experience of Afrikaner nationalism does
and delayed their acute manifestations, invoke familiar images about the present, it is
which later took the form of the intense because there are instructive parallels. At the
broedertwis of the 1970s and beyond. centre of this is the question of the capture
Where is all this quasi-historical meander- of political power by a coalition of forces in
ing leading to? a "nationalist movement", its attempt within
an unchanged (capitalist) socio-economic
Tragedy or Farce or formation to use political power to re-order
Neither? the distribution of income and wealth, and
the stratification and tensions that ensue, as
In his observation on Hegel's remark "some- the elite within this political elite climb faster
where that all great world-historic facts and and higher in the economic stakes than the
personages appear, so to speak, twice", Karl rest.
Marx5 says Hegel "forgot to add: the first
time as tragedy, the second time as farce". It can be argued that in the past 19 years,
And so, to become more explicit: contained within an unchanged socio-economic forma-
in this experience of the Afrikaner nationalist tion, the South African black political elite
movement are three illuminating dynamics has been striving to use political power to re-
about: order the distribution of income and wealth.

Joel Netshitenzhe
The new elite, much like the Afrikaner elite As a consequence, they have to rely on
did throughout the apartheid period, has massive debt and the windfall of patron-
been straining to use such power to ensure age. Having dipped their toes into that life-
that the elite within the nationalist move- style, but with no such historical assets as
ment rises to become part of the ruling are available to the white middle and upper
class, the owners of the means of produc- strata, some then try to acquire the resources
tion. The established white ruling class has, by hook or by crook. Ascendancy to these
in turn, been courting this elite in various higher rungs of the social ladder happens
ways, thanks to post-apartheid transforma- through a variety of channels, including:
tion instruments such as black economic
empowerment and affirmative action. As in ●● management positions in the civil
the past, it is a begrudging compliance, but service and state-owned enterprises
they are doing it all the same. Stratification ●● ``streetwise' unemployed people who
and inequality have intensified within the get into political leadership positions at
black community; and the disquiet of the local level and by the stroke of a pen
masses is manifesting on a grander scale become councillor or parliamentarian
than in the broedertwis, as reflected in the and migrate to the middle strata (of
August 2012 Marikana tragedy and the ensu- course, other streetwise peers then
ing mineworkers' and farmworkers' revolts. want to displace them in phuma singene
The challenge with these social dynamics is mobilisation)
that the changing class structure within the ●● the university student leadership where,
black community, the bourgeoning of black besides perks attached to SRC positions,
middle and upper strata, is largely driven by some student leaders now demand a
the political project itself and consequently seat in university tender committees to
raises concerns of patronage and parasitic get kick-backs
tendencies. ●● trade union leadership, which exercises
authority over pension funds amounting
Another challenge is that these mainly first- to billions of rands, or even at shop-floor
generation middle and upper strata quite level where shop stewards can influence
legitimately aspire to and pursue the arti- catering and other service tenders.
ficially high standard of living of the white
community. This endeavour is legitimate While there is a new crop of young black pro-
because it forms part of the project of social fessionals and entrepreneurs who are rising
change and non-racial equality. Yet, unlike on the social ladder only due to their skills
their white counterparts, these emergent and acumen and who do not require affirma-
middle strata do not have historically accu- tive action, they are still the exception that
mulated assets, and they have large nuclear proves the rule. In the main, the position of
and extended families to support. the emergent middle and upper strata is ten-
uous and insecure. The consequence of this

Joel Netshitenzhe
is that, unlike the middle strata in "mature" be dealing with dynamics within one socio-
class societies, the raison d'être of these economic formation, aren't there nuances?
emergent strata is not so much pride in the Is this an inevitable course of a nationalist
professions, or engagement in discourse on cause within a capitalist socio-economic
the nation's vision, or the shaping of posi- formation? Without going into detail on
tive value systems for society, but rather, it the theorisation of the National Democratic
is survival and climbing up the steep social Revolution (NDR), which aims to create a
ladder; or inversely the strongest impulse National Democratic Society (NDS), it is
that drives their conduct is the fear of falling. critical to highlight the nuances, some of
which may reflect qualitative contrasts. The
The "sins of incumbency" derive in large African National Congress, and indeed the
measure from this. Within parties, intra- liberation movement at large, argue that the
party patronage and corruption take root. purpose of struggle was to resolve the basic
The political centre is unable to correct contradictions spawned by apartheid colo-
the local mediators to mass constituencies nialism: national oppression, class super-
and the foot soldiers on whom it relies to exploitation and gender discrimination. It is
garner votes. In pursuit of numbers, a price a nationalism of the oppressed that trumps
is attached to a conference delegate's vote. narrow confines to embrace non-racial
And, to paraphrase a lecturer at a Gauteng equality.
ANC political education workshop, a toxic
leadership then begets toxic members, The NDR, it is argued, should result in the
some of whom actually demand financial building of "… a society based on the best
and other incentives to vote in particular in human civilisation in terms of political
ways. Within society, there develops among and human freedoms, socio-economic rights,
rabble-rousers, a nationalism of conveni- value systems and identity." 6 The economic
ent victimhood, where radical slogans are system of a NDS would essentially be capi-
used to hide incompetence and greed. The talist, "shorn of … racial and gender exclu-
logic in this instance is: because you were sions … and freed from barriers to entry
oppressed or because you delivered at con- and competition" and it will have:
ference, you can mess up, steal and plun-
der, and shout racism or factional targeting a mixed economy, with state, coopera
when challenged. The entire apartheid pro- tive and other forms of social ownership,
ject manifested similar narratives, albeit and private capital. The balance bet
with particular undertones. ween social and private ownership of
investment resources will be determined
But it would be correct to pose the ques- on the balance of evidence in relation
tion: is such a comparison of the behaviour to national development needs and the
of the Afrikaner and post-1994 political concrete tasks of the NDR at any point
elites not too simplistic? Even if we may in time.7

Joel Netshitenzhe
It is further emphasised, in the same docu- (and the new political elite) can address all
ment, that "[i]f there were to be any single these issues, as compared to the historical
measure of the civilising mission of the NDR, period referred to above, is also constrained
it would be how it treats the most vulner- by the reality that the current political elite
able in our society". The results of Census cannot resort to, but should in fact eliminate,
2011, and other data do underline the pro- the super-exploitation of the masses in the
gress that has been made in improving the `"internal colony". Such super-exploitation
quality of life of the overwhelming major- previously made it possible for the white
ity of South Africans over the 19 years of political elite to buttress the living standards
democracy. One can quote instances such of the white lower classes in the "internal
as the slight narrowing of the racial income metropolis". Besides, the inherited impover-
gap, the extension of basic services to the ishment of the black majority, compared to
majority of the population and a social wage the "poor white problem" of yesteryear, is
unequalled in many parts of the world, the much more massive in terms of intensity and
reduction of absolute poverty and the open- extensiveness. And so, we come back to the
ing of access to opportunity undreamt of question, is the evolution of class dynamics
under apartheid colonialism. in post-apartheid South Africa a tragedy, a
farce or neither?
Yet, the aggregates on the racial income gap
conceal the income inequality within the In Search of a New
black community, among others. There is Development Trajectory
also a need to drill deeper into the ebbs and
flows of inequality trends within and among In the maelstrom of a political elite striv-
races even beyond income, which the grand ing to rise to the status of a ruling class, in
narrative of Census 2011 may not fully intimate embrace or shadow-boxing with the
clarify. Extension of access to basic services established white economic elite, and in the
does not necessarily translate into quality midst of mass disquiet and tragedies such as
of such services. Unemployment remains a Marikana, we can be forgiven for the tempta-
terrible blot on the humanity of our society. tion to invoke, quite extensively, Karl Marx's
While the state has played an important role observations after the 1871 defeat of the
as an instrument of redistribution, its effec- Paris Commune:8
tiveness in this regard is hampered by poor
capacity, patronage and corruption. During the subsequent regimes [after the
1789 French Revolution – author], the
These are truths all South Africans are aware government, placed under parliamentary
of, and there is consensus that the political control … became not only a hotbed of
economy, as currently configured, is unsus- huge national debts and crushing taxes;
tainable. To use the metaphor of colonialism with its irresistible allurements of place,
of a special type: the pace at which the state pelf, and patronage, it became not only

Joel Netshitenzhe
the bone of contention between the effective instrument of rapid growth and
rival factions and adventurers of the development, or consign itself to monumen-
ruling classes, but its political character tal irrelevance as the democratic revolution
changed simultaneously with the strays from its course. For, without this, the
economic changes of society … After state will be rejected as a mere dispensary of
every revolution marking a progressive elite patronage, mocked as an instrument of
phase in the class struggle, the purely pork-barrel regional or ethnic "delivery", and
repressive character of the state power attacked as a defender of super-exploitation.
stands out in bolder and bolder relief By avoiding this, we shall escape the fate that
`… The bourgeois republicans, who, in befell the pre-colonial Mapungubwe "civili-
the name of the February Revolution, sation", which failed to negotiate the vicis-
took the state power, used it for the June situdes of environmental change, allowed
[1848] massacres, in order to convince social stratification to rend society apart,
the working class that `social' republic suffered marginalisation as new neighbour-
means the republic entrusting their social ing "civilisations" emerged and trade routes
subjection, and in order to convince changed, and failed to contain the excesses
the royalist bulk of the bourgeois and of a debased leadership.
landlord class that they might safely leave
the cares and emoluments of government South African leaders of transformation
to the bourgeois `republicans'... Under believe that there is a way out of the pedes-
its sway, bourgeois society, freed from trian economic growth and development
political cares, attained a development in which we are currently trapped. This is
unexpected even by itself. … [F]inancial reflected, in part, in the expression of intent
swindling celebrated cosmopolitan to build a developmental state, in the manner
orgies; the misery of the masses was set of the so-called Asian tigers, which have
off by a shameless display of gorgeous, historically sustained high rates of growth
meretricious and debased luxury. The and social inclusion over decades, and thus
state power, apparently soaring high lifted hundreds of millions of people out of
above society and the very hotbed of all poverty. Such a state, it is argued, should
its corruptions. have the strategic orientation for develop-
ment, premised on the political will of the
These observations by Marx, perhaps not leadership to stake their all on a develop-
entirely applicable to the state of our state mental project. It should have the legitimacy
today, do send a chilling reminder of what to mobilise society behind a vision and pro-
should not be; for the arrival of the worst grammes to attain set objectives. Such a
in our body politic may not announce state should be optimally organised to meet
itself by knocking on the front door. It is its objectives; and it should have the techni-
an injunction that the national democratic cal capacity within the bureaucracy to bring
state should urgently organise itself into an its intentions to life.

Joel Netshitenzhe
We should, however, acknowledge that the Parliament and the "ruling party" of the
trend in most of these Asian developmental National Development Plan (NDP), and
states was to rely on the trickle-down eco- the commitment that where there may be
nomics of high growth rates. Further, in the conflict between current policies and pro-
earlier phases of the evolution of most of grammes and the NDP, the latter will take
these polities, authoritarianism held sway. precedence. This is reinforced by the fact
In contradistinction to this, South Africans that all political parties and most of society
assert that ours should be a democratic also support Vision 2030 as elaborated in
developmental state, and that social policy the NDP. Secondly, the setting up of formal
should continue to feature prominently monitoring and evaluation capacity and the
as part of speeding up the drive for social performance agreements within the execu-
inclusion or "developmental citizenship", tive that attach to this have the potential to
values espoused in the country's Constitu- increase accountability and, thus, the imple-
tion which are inspired, among others, by mentation of what has been decided upon. If
the African Claims of 1943 and the Freedom there was any urgent challenge to address in
Charter of 1955. The fact that the South Afri- this regard, it would be ensuring that these
can leadership is striving a priori to build latest initiatives are effectively operational-
a developmental state is itself a positive ised and become truly embedded across all
reflection on the commitment to deal with spheres of government.
the social challenges we face. In the words
of Professor Linda Weiss, for South Africa Will and Capacity
to have set itself
The question has been raised quite legiti-
` … the unusual and challenging goal of mately whether, beyond declarations, there
becoming a developmental state … is a is the will and the capacity to implement the
unique and noble enterprise: unique in National Development Plan. This question
so far as no state has ever self-consciously should be approached differently: so popular
set out to become a Developmental State; and so legitimate should the NDP be that,
and noble in so far as such a project in the election hustings in 2014, the basic
draws inspiration from the experience question posed to all parties should be how
of certain countries that achieved shared their manifestos accord with Vision 2030,
growth – growth with equity. Predatory and what, concretely, they are going to do
states have appeared in abundance; in the five years of their mandate to ensure
developmental states are a much rarer that it is implemented. And the performance
breed.9 of government should be monitored against
that yardstick. In other words, all of soci-
In terms of effort, two striking instances of ety should be the guardians of, and active
progress deserve mention. Firstly, it is the participants in, ensuring that the NDP is
adoption by Cabinet and endorsement by implemented. What are the critical actions

Joel Netshitenzhe
that success in implementing a development to facilitate high economic growth and social
plan requires, and how are the South Afri- inclusion, encompassing the totality of things
can state and society at large faring in this required progressively to attain a decent
regard? To cite a few of these: The first one is standard of living for all. This demands
about a social compact. Professor Thandika activism across all sectors, and prepared-
Mkandawire, a leading development scholar, ness on the part of the broad leadership to
elaborates this notion thus: weigh trade-offs and to make choices for
the common good. It requires the will and
Social compacts refer to the institutionalisa- the acumen to eschew narrow self-interest;
tion of consultation and cooperation on eco- and leadership capacity to accept and com-
nomic policy involving representation from municate decisions that may not entirely be
the state, capital, labour and other organisa- popular with one's own constituency.
tions of civil society. Social compacts have
been used to address distributive and growth It is, therefore, critical to avoid the danger of
objectives of society at the micro-level; to devaluing the notion of a social compact by
improve labour management at the firm confining it merely to immediate responses
level and, as in the current usage of "social to a wave of strikes or even short-term
pacts" in Europe, to manage the distribu- measures to minimise the impact of the
tional issues of macroeconomics policies … current global economic crisis. This is one
The proactive initiatives emerge when soci- of the weaknesses of the outcome of the
eties aim at a future objective that requires 2012 High Level Dialogue on the Economy,
high levels of cooperation and trust `… and besides the fact that it did not at all refer
is evoked when nations seek to embark on to Vision 2030 and the NDP. The second
ambitious projects that require coordina- issue is about coherence in policy devel-
tion and co-operation in both the political opment and coordination. Researchers on
and economic spheres. Nation-building and developmental states caution that we should
economic development are good examples not expect an artificial homogeneity within
of such efforts … Social compacts play an as large an organisation as the state. In the
important role in such situations to assure words of Linda Weiss:
citizens that their current sacrifices will be
duly and fairly rewarded in the future.10 The state is not a unitary structure like an
orange where all the segments fit neat
As such, in our situation, a social compact ly together. As a complex of political
will have to be pro-active and all-embracing, institutions, states are actually quite messy
covering such issues as investment, employ- configurations … As power structures,
ment and income policy, interest rates, infla- we say that they are polymorphous. So
tion and cost of living, competition policy, the state may well be free-market in one
spatial issues and so on. It will require com- sphere (like finance), yet developmental
mitment on the part of all sectors of society in another (e.g. industry and technology),

Joel Netshitenzhe
a promoter of free trade in some sectors by a professional bureaucracy that is insu-

(financial services), yet mercantilist in lated from undue political interference and
others (agriculture or textiles).11 patronage. The state as a whole should have
the will to break logjams in the interactions
But all scholars of developmentalism do cor- among various sectors of society – to pre-
rectly argue that, precisely because states vent narrow sector interests paralysing the
are "messy configurations", one of the most capacity of society to move forward. In a soci-
critical and necessary attributes of a devel- ety such as ours, with wide social fissures,
opmental state is a central institution, a deadlocks among social partners should
pilot agency, with the strategic capacities, be expected. While the National Economic
leverages and authority to drive economic Development and Labour Council (NEDLAC)
policy and ensure its implementation. One was set up primarily to resolve critical issues
of the weaknesses in the South African state among these partners, it has become fos-
currently is the multiplicity of centres from silised in its approach; each constituency
which economic policy is driven – Eco- pursues frozen mandates; representation
nomic Development, Trade and Industry, has been juniorised and the interactions are
National Treasury, Public Enterprises and technocratic.
so on – with each actually believing that it
is the ultimate authority. As such, we run For example, earlier paralysis around inter-
the danger of re-living the words of Alexei ventions to deal with youth marginalisation,
Tolstoi12 in his epic work, Ordeal : and the proposed youth wage subsidy in
particular, reflects this malaise. In other
The hurricane of events roared and words, the state can become too indecisive
the sea of humanity swayed. Everyone to act autonomously of interest groups. At
considered himself commander, and the same time, informal forums of interac-
flourishing his pistol directed that the tion such as the Working Groups of govern-
helm be turned now to port and now ment and a variety of other social partners
to starboard. All this was illusion ... The have been jettisoned, worsening levels of
illusions were born of brief glimpses of mistrust across society. The last issue is
the mirage. about the state's sources of legality and
legitimacy. On the face of it, issues of legal-
The third issue is the balancing act by the ity and legitimacy should not arise in the
state in providing societal leadership: what context of our state, given the generations
Peter Evans13 refers to as "embedded auton- of rights that the Constitution proffers, the
omy". On the one hand, the state should be separation of powers and the institutions
so networked across society as to be able to to protect and enforce these rights. But in
exercise ideational leadership or what Anto- the context of tragedies like Marikana and
nio Gramsci refers to as "hegemony". On the the 2012 mine and farm workers' revolts,
other hand, the state should be buttressed as well as many instances of confrontation

Joel Netshitenzhe
between the police and demonstrators, we mine-owners seemingly having washed

may need to drill deeper to assess whether, their hands – the lack of hope is the spark
unsighted, there aren't worms eating into that sets the tinder alight.
the very edifice of the state colossus.
We need to examine whether our theoreti-
And so, beyond the constitutional and cal distinction between government and
formal legalities, we need to examine the the state, as well as between the state and
sturdiness of the system of rule of law in societal leaders, does matter in terms of
relation to the most ordinary of citizens all the legitimacy of the state and the broader
the way to the highest echelons of society. socio-economic formation. As such, unethi-
When strikers and demonstrators carry cal conduct by leaders in government, busi-
weapons and, in fact, murder others with ness, the trade union movement and the
impunity; and when an impression is cre- rest of civil society, impressions of lack of
ated that court orders are not honoured, respect for public resources, and the osten-
we need to ponder whether the "threat of tation of the elite delegitimise not only the
threat", combined with civilised and intel- party political and societal leadership, but
ligent conduct, that should underpin state also the state as such.
hegemony is not in fact hollow – ready to
unravel in insidious but profoundly destruc- We need to do all this appreciating that
tive ways. ours is essentially a capitalist system, with
a state that seeks, through developmental
We need to examine how the intent and programmes, to bridge deep and wide fis-
capacity to provide services by all spheres sures inherited from the system of internal
of government impact on the legitimacy of colonialism. As the ruling elite, quite natu-
the state. Needless to say, because of the rally, seeks to raise itself and those in its
levels of poverty and inequality in our soci- courtyard to the position of the ruling class,
ety, an unavoidable feature of our nation, for failure to more effectively socialise the ben-
a long time to come, will be the inflamma- efits of economic growth has the potential
ble tinder ever ready to catch fire. In some to unleash a conflagration a million times
cases, it may not be actual "delivery" that more destructive than the broedertwis of
douses the fires of expectation, but the evi- yesteryear.
dence of general progress and the hope that
tomorrow will be better than today, as well The reconfiguration of this capitalist
as visible and effective measures to deal system should entail more than just the
with corruption and patronage. racial dimension at elite level, the so-
called black economic empowerment to
Where, as in the Marikana informal set- which "economic transformation" is usu-
tlement, the social wage is virtually non- ally reduced. The time has come, in addition
existent – with both the state and the to all the other programmes of economic

Joel Netshitenzhe
transformation, for the political ruling elite Conclusion

and the ruling class, together to contribute
to forging stakeholder capitalism in which This then is the central message: the state of the
the working class is a real beneficiary. South African state and its legitimacy cannot
be divorced from the state and legitimacy of
The aim in raising this matter is not to delve the socio-economic system that it manages,
into various aspects of economic transfor- and the conduct of the elite beneficiaries of
mation, ranging from the structure of the this system. Is the extant and aspirant ruling
economy, efficiency and cost of infrastruc- class capable of behaving as more than just "a
ture, skills training, the multifaceted role of class in itself " but also as "a class for itself "?
the state and so on. It is merely to emphasise Is it capable of identifying and pursuing
that, at the core of the ownership component broader societal interests, and co-operating in
of economic empowerment programmes forging a social compact for its own long-term
going forward, in mining, manufacturing, benefit? As Professor Thandika Mkandawire
services and other industries, there should and other accomplished African scholars
be meaningful employee share-ownership have suggested, this perhaps is one of the
schemes (ESOPs) and community participa- crucial questions of the political economy of
tion, which should be emphasised above all our times that researchers on our continent
other ownership elements of BBBEE. This need to interrogate. Addressing this, and
should be part of our contemplation on the other issues, will be critical in defining the
place and role of labour: die beskouing van trajectory of the South African state and soci-
die arbeid of the current age. ety at large in going forward.
Joel Netshitenzhe is the Executive Director of Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection
(MISTRA) – a Think-Tank rated as one of the top ten globally, according to the 2013 Report of Global
Go-To Think Tanks. Netshitenzhe was the Head of Communication in President Nelson Mandela’s
Office. He later became the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Government Communication and
Information System (GCIS) and Head of Policy Co-ordination and Advisory Services (PCAS)
in The Presidency. He is a member of the National Executive Committee (NEC) of the African
National Congress (ANC) – a governing party in South Africa.

1 Earlier versions of this article were "Competing identities of a national Centenary, 2013.
presented by the author as the 2012 liberation movement versus 2 See Friedrich Engels. 1902
Harold Wolpe Memorial Lecture electoral party politics: Challenges (originally published in 1884)
under the title, "The State of the of incumbency"; and some of the The origin of the family, private
State"; as well as the May 2012 ideas were integrated into a chapter property and the state. Hottinngen-
Bua Thursdays event of the Young in the book, The future we chose: Zurich. pp. 157-158.
Communist League under the title, Emerging perspectives on the ANC 3 Engels, F. Letter to J. Bloch in

Joel Netshitenzhe
Königsberg, http://www.marxists. 7 Ibid. Africa , Mapungubwe Institute

org/... 1890/letters ... 8 Marx, K. 1871. The Civil War in Inaugural Annual Lecture, Johan
4 Quoted from Dan O’Meara. 1983. France, the Third Address, May nesburg: MISTRA.
Volkskapitalisme: Class, capital 1871, The Paris Commune. 11 See reflections by Linda Weiss
and ideology in the development of 9 Weiss, L. 2010. Transformative titled Transformative capacity and
Afrikaner nationalism, 1934-1948: capacity and developmental states: developmental states: Lessons for
Koers. Lessons for South Africa. New South Africa.
5 Marx, K. The Eighteenth Brumaire South Wales, Australia: University 12 Quoted from A.C. Denga, p. 105,
of Louis Bonaparte, http://www. of Sydney. see Ordeal by Alexei Tolstoi, 1986.
marxists.org/archive/marx/works. 10 Mkandawire, T. 2012. Building 13 Evans, P. 1995. Embedded auton-
6 African National Congress. 2007. the African State in the age of omy: States and industrial trans
Strategy and Tactics Document, globalisation – the role of social formation. New Jersey: Princeton
December 2007. compacts and Lessons for South University Press.

State Attributes: South Africa as a
Declaratory Developmental State Through
Diktat?
Chris Landsberg
University of Johannesburg
Abstract South Africa into a developmental state,

(led by the African National Congress).
South Africa a developmental state? South This intention has since been reflected in
Africa has since the dawn of democracy in speeches and communiqués by top govern-
1994, and the assumption of power of the ment officials. Government hoped to tran-
African National-led government, struggled scend the sterile capitalism-vs-socialism
to come up with a unique and workable debate with the introduction of this new
state-led development model that would development path. It would learn lessons
help it to confront the legacies of apartheid. from the experiences of the East-Asian
By 2004, one decade into the post-apartheid Tigers of the 1960s and 1970s, as opposed
era, it began to play with the idea of trans- to the obsession with Western development
forming the Republic into a developmental experiences and models.
state, and this debate drew much fascination
and interest. Having learnt some tough les- It was in his 2004 State of the Nation Address
sons from its GEAR experience, and public that President Thabo Mbeki declared these
reactions to this contentious trajectory, the government intentions. Determined to over-
Mbeki government approached its second come apartheid's devastating legacies, and
term with confidence, and wasted little time convinced that to pursue a developmental
in introducing one of the most important path as a means of realising this strategic
debates in post-apartheid South Africa, the goal, Mbeki declared that government had
idea that South Africa wished to become a crafted a new "comprehensive programme
developmental state. Henceforth, the Repub- to grow the economy". Having depicted
lic would embark on a new developmental South Africa as a country of "two economies"
path, one that would seek to openly challenge and "two races", with one of these racialised
the Washington consensus, and to bring the economies being largely poor and black, and
state firmly back in. It would start the long the other predominantly white and pros-
and painstaking process of transforming perous, Mbeki vowed that his government

State Attributes: South Africa as a Declaratory Developmental State Through Diktat?
Chris Landsberg
would pursue "interventions in both the first support and leadership. People within states
and second economies". The Jacob Zuma have images of their own power potential.
government has now appropriated the idea
of South Africa as a "capable developmen- When we talk about state attributes, we are
tal state" and has hinged all its bets on the referring to state characteristics that shape
much-vaunted National Development Plan national foreign policy behaviour, such
(NDP). The question that remains is when as its size, wealth and the extent to which
the South African government can move its leaders are accountable to its citizens.
beyond stated policy and rhetoric and focus Kegley identifies four state characteristics
on the hard-nosed business of process and that shape foreign policy. Note that there is
institution-building as it seeks to become some overlap between these attributes and
this capable developmental state. South the sources of state power discussed above.
Africa may soon learn that a developmental You could integrate the two sets of deter-
state is not one that comes about through minants of foreign policy. Kegley highlights
declarations, fiats and diktats. Instead, it is four state attributes: geopolitics (cf. with
the result of a long, drawn out process that Mingst's natural sources, specifically geog-
comes about through following meticulous raphy); military capabilities, which limit a
benchmarks and criteria that need constant state's availability of prudent foreign policy
cementing and re-cementing. choices; economic conditions (compare with
Mingst's tangible sources): the level of eco-
Introduction nomic and industrial development a state
enjoys affects the foreign policy goals it pur-
States are key players in world affairs, sues; and type of government (cf. Mingst's
because states enjoy power and they have intangible sources). A final important attrib-
the ability to influence others and to con- ute affecting a state's international behav-
trol outcomes, so as to produce results iour is its political system.2
that would not have otherwise occurred.
States have power vis-à-vis each other, and In this article, we will focus on South Africa
towards those under their control. Mingst's and zero in on two of Kegley's attributes:
discussion of the nature of state power pro- (1) the type of government and state that
vides a useful point of departure for our South Africa wishes to bring about, and (2)
examination of the determinants of foreign the prevailing socio-economic conditions in
policy.1 There are three basic sources or South Africa and how these militate against
ingredients of state power: natural sources, its desires to become the state its political
tangible sources, and intangible sources. governing elite wish it to become. South
Natural sources refer to geography, natural Africa a developmental state! Really? The
resources and population, while tangible Republic's leaders have taken the unusual
sources refer to industrial development. The step of declaring itself a developmental state,
intangible sources are national image, public that type of state that Chalmers Johnson,

Chris Landsberg
one of the doyens of the idea, epitomised for an appropriate development model that
as a state that is able to "plan rationally".3 It would help it to address apartheid's devas-
is a state, he said, in which "the politicians tating socio-economic legacies. It started
reign and the bureaucrats rule".4 In doing first with the crafting of a Reconstruction
its "rational" planning, such a state is able to and Development Programme (RDP), with
set "substantive social and economic goals",5 its aims of job creation, economic growth,
and more importantly, put in place the state housing development and addressing the
apparatuses that would enable it to realise health crisis, including HIV/Aids.8 The prob-
such goals. In line with Johnson's point here, lem government had to confront was that
Thandika Mkandawira argued that a devel- the RDP was not a real development strat-
opmental state is one that is able to set devel- egy; it was at best a visionary document with
opmental goals and is willing to create and a wish-list of aims. By 1996, the RDP was
sustain a policy climate and an institutional supplemented with the controversial and
structure that promotes development.6 much-debated Growth, Employment and
Redistribution (GEAR) policy, a thorough-
Writing at the turn of the millennium going neo-classical strategy that sought to
in 1999, analyst Woo-Cummings wrote overcome "the challenges of the second
about the developmental state: it is "neither economy".9 GEAR's aims were to eradicate
socialist…nor free market…but something poverty, reduce unemployment and create
different: the plan-rational capitalist Devel- jobs, fight crime and build the capacity of
opmental State…[which links intervention state.10
with rapid economic growth]".7 It is probably
the post-capitalist-post-socialist ideological The next seven years following the intro-
underpinnings of this state form, one that duction of GEAR–including the first four
would be able to intervene in the economy years of the Thabo Mbeki government
and drive the market, that attracted South (1999-2004)–saw a South African polity
Africa's post-settlement government to start, tense and polarised, with debates around
just one decade into the new order, with this the appropriateness of GEAR as an appro-
design as a means of getting it out of the priate development model for the Republic.
mire caused by centuries of white minority Civil society organisations labelled GEAR
domination and decades of apartheid. The a neo-liberal scheme pursued by govern-
idea grew in traction after Thabo Mbeki's ment. Left-leaning civil society actors, nota-
first term as head of state, and the start of bly the labour federation (the Congress of
his second term in 2004. Indeed, the deci- South African Trade Unions (COSATU)), and
sion in 2004 by the Thabo Mbeki govern- other social movements were pitted against
ment to place the idea of a developmental government and industry around GEAR
state firmly on the policy agenda did not debates. As 2004 and the second term of
fall from the sky. South Africa had, since Mbeki approached, something was going
the dawn of democracy in 1994, searched to give, and many observers waited with

Chris Landsberg
anticipation to see what direction govern- a broad modernisation framework of steps

ment would take. to raise the levels of growth to much higher
levels.14 It focused on15 building infrastruc-
Enter the Developmental ture to grow the capacity of the economy;
State Debate boosting sectors of the economy with spe-
cial potential for faster growth; developing
Concerned by the apparent failure of GEAR the requisite skills; addressing inequalities
to realise its goals, the government was that marginalised the poor in the second
looking for models and solutions that would economy; continuing with the policies that
give economic growth and job creation a had created a good climate for growth; and
proverbial "big push". Mbeki's Minister of making government more effective and
Finance at the time, Trevor Manuel, entered more efficient.
the debate when he declared government's
strategic intentions to "accelerate the pace It is clear, from the above, that Mbeki and
of growth and job creation and extend the his government were concerned about the
scope of development and empowerment."11 need to bring about in South Africa a strong,
Manuel was emphatic: the post-2004 gov- technocratic state committed to fast indus-
ernment would pursue a "changed trajec- trial growth. These are typical concerns in
tory", that of "a more agile state and more a developmental state. A key focus of ASGI-
vigilant state institutions."12 SA was to deal with, and remove, a set of
binding constraints that inhibited faster
Mbeki made sure that the developmental growth–a theme in line with Mbeki's mod-
state discourse would enjoy the buy-in and ernisation project.16 These constraints were
blessing of the ruling African National Con- currency volatility and macro-economic
gress (ANC) and, by the end of 2004, this stability; cost and efficiency of the national
movement was able to assert that "the state logistics system; skills shortages; high
everywhere, including in our country and the levels of inequality; barriers to competing
rest of Africa, should discharge its respon- in the sector; the regulatory environment
sibilities to the people, fully understanding for small and medium sized enterprises; and
that development without an effective state deficiencies in the capacities of government
is impossible".13 The state was brought back and parastatals. It should be remembered
in and out frontally in the debate. that by 2004 the Mbeki government firmly
placed onto the policy agenda the question
By 2005, the Mbeki government opted of a developmental state, that is to say a fast
to back up its developmental state vision growing state with a meritocratic civil ser-
with a strategy that would give practi- vice that would prioritise education, skills
cal expression to the aspiration. Govern- development and healthcare, and engage
ment adopted the Accelerated and Shared society around a common development pro-
Growth Initiative for South Africa (ASGI-SA), gramme and agenda.17

Chris Landsberg
By the time of the ANC's Polokwane Con- to "build(ing) a developmental state."20 Just
gress of December 2007, the developmen- like the Mbeki government's developmen-
tal state debate was well-institutionalised tal agenda, the new Zuma administration
within the country. The African National is placing the emphasis on improving state
Congress 2007 Strategy and Tactics docu- capacity for growth and development. Fur-
ment was quite up-front about its ambitions: ther priorities for the new administration
it declared its intentions "to build a devel- include improving the delivery and quality
opmental state shaped by the history and of public services; building partnerships
socio-economic dynamics of South African with society for equitable development; and
society. Such a state", said the ANC, "will strengthening democratic institutions.
guide national economic development and
mobilise domestic and foreign capital and So What is a Developmental
other social partners to achieve this goal".18 State?
In the ANC's scheme, such a developmen-
tal state "will have attributes that include In spite of its relatively late introduction into
capacity to intervene in the economy in the public policy discourse in South Africa,
the interest of higher rates of growth and the concept of a developmental state is fast
sustainable development; effecting sustain- becoming one of the most over-used words
able programmes that address challenges of in the national discourse, and one of the
unemployment, poverty and underdevelop- problems is that key role players prefer an
ment with requisite emphasis on vulnerable a la carte approach to South Africa becoming
groups; and mobilising the people as a whole, one. Many people have much to say about
especially the poor, to act as their own liber- this new-fangled concept; few, however,
ators through participatory and representa- have a real grasp of what exactly it means.
tive democracy".19 The ANC clearly took as a Let us proceed here to try and give some
given the requisite of a developmental state meaning to this concept. In its most basic
and its ability to "intervene in the economy". sense, the concept of a developmental state
It was equally confident about its apparent denotes a state that is able to direct develop-
ability, through developmental state tactics, ment, and to get its society to support and
to address the triple challenges of poverty, follow a particular development trajectory.
unemployment and inequality. It is thus a state that endeavours to steer
economic development in a particular direc-
All the promises of change away from the tion and determine the pace at which such
Mbeki trajectory proved to be just that: economic progression is achieved. Accord-
promises. Instead of moving away from the ing to Bagchi, a developmental state "is a
Mbeki posture, the Zuma government con- state that puts economic development as
tinued along Mbeki's developmental path, the top priority of government policy and is
so much so that the new administration pro- able to design effective instruments to pro-
claimed, in July 2009, that it was committed mote such a goal."21 The economic growth

Chris Landsberg
dimension is so key to the developmental relatively autonomous in relation to the state

state debate that you cannot have such a and the political elite; existence of a "pilot
state without this component, or without agency", a navigating unit, often a super min-
any other of the components for that matter. istry, within the governmental bureaucracy,
The developmental state must create new tasked with driving and co-ordinating the
state institutions that will act as agents in developmental process; and devotion to the
the quest for long-term development; it must public interest and the welfare of the public
facilitate the establishment of relationships sphere. This is illustrated by the prioritisa-
between traditional and unconventional tion of the expansion of social infrastructure
players within the economy; and the state and human capital by placing issues such as
must be innovative and capitalise on new education and health high up on the devel-
opportunities for trade due to the positive opmental agenda; and embedded autonomy,
impact that an outward-orientated economy which is defined as the concrete set of social
has on internal growth. Government and ties that binds the state to society and pro-
state agencies again cannot simply follow vides institutionalised channels for continual
an a la carte approach to this challenge and negotiation of goals and policies.
pursue this task half-heartedly and in piece-
meal fashion; there has to be unreserved Elsewhere, Evans argued that, "in order to
dedication to pursuing this goal, as there be `developmental', a 21st century develop-
has to be unwavering commitment to pursue mental state must be a capability-enhanc-
all the other prerequisites to the project. ing state".24 Evans continued to argue that
"expanding the capabilities of the citizenry is
A developmental state furthermore places not just a `welfare' goal. It is the inescapable
a high premium on education, as it seeks foundation for sustained growth in overall
to efficiently utilise human capital so as GDP".25 The key point to stress here is that
to achieve growth.22 Indeed education and a developmental state comes about due
health are major policy priorities to be to a staunch following of all these criteria,
championed by the government, and South not cherry-picking which ones we like and
Africa faces enormous backlogs in these which ones we would like to discard. The
areas caused, in the main, by decades of elements identified by Evans do not repre-
apartheid health and Bantu education. One sent some variety menu; they form a com-
of the doyens of the concept, Peter Evans, prehensive package of essentials that states
identified a number of key characteristics must commit to work towards. Linking to
of the developmental state. For Evans, a the conceptualisations of Chalmers, Evans
developmental state is broadly character- and others, Vusi Gumede advanced a work-
ised by23 a preoccupation with bringing ing definition: "A developmental state is [a
forth rapid, sustainable economic growth; state] that is active in pursuing its develop-
a well-developed, meritocratic bureaucracy, mental agenda, maintains strategic relations
which is efficient, possesses capacity, and is with stakeholders, and has the capacity and

Chris Landsberg
is appropriately organised for its predeter- blocks confronting South Africa as it seeks
mined developmental objectives".26 to embark on this new path. To cite but one
example, there continues to be tensions
In all the depictions of a developmental state, between those perceived to be emphasising
the emphasis on a strong, technocratic state growth, and those who appear to place the
is central to the debate here. State autonomy emphasis on greater levels of state activism.
and state embeddedness, in other words, the
insulation of the state from being captured Space does not permit a treatise of all the
by narrow self-interests of elites, is key here. features of a developmental state, and their
The quest for fast growth and strong ele- application to the case of South Africa. The
ments of industrialisation is just as impor- article settles for an assessment of the much
tant in the case of a developmental state. vaunted National Planning Commission
What South Africa urgently requires, that is (NPC), asking whether the establishment of
central to a developmental state, is to pro- the NPC places South Africa firmly en route
mote visionary leadership, a meritocratic to becoming a fully-fledged developmental
civil service, the ability to plan "rationally" state. Specifically, the author is interested in
and, more interestingly, to implement poli- assessing whether the NPC has the makings
cies effectively and show major concern for, of becoming a navigating unit. As Omano
and commitment to, national development Edigheji reminds us, "planning agencies,
goals. How would South Africa fair on this often referred to as super-ministries, are
score? vital institutions of developmental states".27
"Over recent decades," argued Edigheji,
South Africa’s a la carte, "every state that aspired to become a devel-
Declaratory Approach to opmental state established a planning
Becoming a Developmental agency within the state." In short, the ques-
State tion is whether the recently established NPC
can be regarded as a navigating unit that
The foregoing reveals that South Africa's leads and co-ordinates South Africa's devel-
shift towards a developmental state was opmental goals.
firmly placed on the agenda in 2004, and
has since remained a policy priority. It is also For the first year of the new post-April
worth pointing out that significant progress 2009 presidency, much debate about policy
had been achieved en route to this emerging decision-making in the Zuma government
paradigm. For example, there has emerged, focused on the NPC. The purpose of the
over the course of the past six years or so, NPC, according to the former Minister in the
general ideological consensus among inter- Presidency responsible for National Plan-
ested stakeholders around the idea of such ning, Trevor Manuel, would be "to prevent
a developmental state trajectory. But there government from being trapped in its own
also continues to be significant stumbling institutional preconceptions."28 According to

Chris Landsberg
Manuel, South Africa was in need of a "long- have developed rapidly, argued the Green
term perspective, focus and determination Paper on Strategic Planning, have had three
to realise our vision"; the issues of "growth critical characteristics:36 rapid economic
and development, strengthening of institu- growth; education and skills development;
tions, nation-building and the making of a and high quality, strong and credible public
developmental state" were dubbed "long- and private institutions.
term projects."29
In order to meet its goal of bringing about
In September 2009, the Presidency released a developmental state, there was a need to
its Green Paper on National Strategic Plan- ensure "policy coherence, policy co-ordi-
ning, which recognised that "two striking nation and performance monitoring and
weaknesses in government are the lack of a evaluation". The Green Paper cautioned
coherent plan and poor co-ordination."30 It that "fragmented policymaking can lead
identified the need for "better long-term plan- to duplication of efforts and contradictory
ning to inform shorter-term plans, resource outcomes."37 It described coordination as
allocation, trade-offs and the sequencing "essentially about ensuring that govern-
of policies."31 In creating a rationale for its ment as a whole can develop and effectively
existence, the Green Paper asserted that pursue its objectives and priorities through
"markets alone cannot initiate and lead such a myriad of institutions, spheres, agencies
fundamental change. The state has to play and public corporations."38 According to
a leading role in reshaping the economy so the Green Paper, many, if not all, of govern-
that it is better able to meet the needs of ment's objectives–for instance, increasing
the majority."32 It recognised that "there are employment, reducing poverty and improv-
also substantial vulnerabilities in the capa- ing skills–would require the interaction
bilities of the state, and state failures are as of several departments, all three spheres,
harmful to poverty-reduction as are market national, provincial, and local, numerous
failures."33 It clearly stated that construct- public entities and state-owned enterprises.
ing a developmental state was not an event,
but a process. In the words of the discussion The international dimension also featured in
document, "the construction of a develop- the Zuma government's plans, as the Presi-
mental state cannot happen by decree, nor dency sought to learn from international
is it a single event. It is an ongoing process experiences and other countries that have
of building intelligent public institutions."34 experimented with planning departments
It stated further that such a process of con- over the decades. The Presidency conducted
structing a developmental state "is about research in the form of country studies, and
building a culture of caring public services, of in some instances visits, on planning in a
prudent conduct and honest interaction with range of countries, including Malaysia,
society."35 It is a fast developing state, able to South Korea, Brazil, India, Botswana, Tuni-
meet its development goals. Countries that sia, Nigeria, Chile and Sudan. The research

Chris Landsberg
undertaken by the Presidency showed that food security, water security, energy choices,
the rationale for national strategic plan- economic development, human resources
ning, in many of these countries, stemmed development, social cohesion, health pro-
largely from a number of structural consid- files, scientific progress, and international
erations, including complex challenges faced relations and cooperation.
by modern societies; uncertainty and tur-
bulence in the global environment; and the The Ministerial Committee on Planning, for
long lead-times required to transform a soci- its part, will be established to provide col-
ety's socio-economic structure and culture. lective input into planning. This Committee
is appointed by the President, and the Pres-
What about structures and entities involved ident and Deputy President are ex-officio
in the Planning Commission? In recognition members of this structure. The Minister in
that strategic planning is a broad process the Presidency for National Planning feeds
involving multiple institutions, government the work of the NPC into government and
decided to recognise, and establish, where Cabinet through the ministerial committee.
they did not already exist, five key planning The committee's overarching role will be
institutions, namely, Cabinet; the President's to40 provide political guidance to the plan-
Co-ordination Council; a National Planning ning process; support the planning ministry
Commission (consisting of external commis- in driving strategic planning; and ensure
sioners); a Ministerial Commission on Plan- consistent and integrated policies and pro-
ning (to provide guidance and support to grammes across multiple layers of policy-
the planning function); and a Secretariat (to making, planning and implementation.
support the work of the commission).
The Ministry of National Planning will con-
The NPC would be responsible for develop- tain the Secretariat to the NPC, and the
ing a national plan for South Africa in consul- former Policy Communication and Advisory
tation with government, and "in partnership Services in the Presidency (PCAS) will serve
with society"; it will consist of respected as the Secretariat. The Secretariat will sup-
intellectuals, leaders and experts in South port the Commission's work and do back-
Africa, and the Minister for National Plan- ground work on the commission's needs to
ning will be the chair.39 The NPC will be a fulfil its objectives. While the objectives and
permanent institution with part-time com- institutional design of the NPC had been
missioners, and its mandate will be updated clearly spelled out, there was a major politi-
and renewed annually. The minister will cal fallout in tripartite alliance ranks over the
work with the Commission in conducting establishment of a Ministry in the Presidency
research and developing papers on critical for National Planning and, in particular, the
trends that would feed into government's appointment of the first Minister, Trevor
policy and planning processes. Expert panels Manuel, to head that Ministry. It is clear that
will advise government on issues such as the fallout had to do with major suspicions

Chris Landsberg
between the so-called Mbeki and Zuma lost in the establishment of the much needed
camps in government, and Trevor Manuel super ministry. Because of this vacuum in
was viewed by COSATU and the SACP as an political leadership, as opposed to the core
Mbeki loyalist who was bent on turning the leadership that is required in a develop-
NPC and his Ministry into some super struc- mental state, we saw a growing battle for
ture. COSATU, in particular accused Manuel political and economic control of the ruling
of wishing to dominate macro-economic party, and this even threatened to spill over
policymaking, and of continuing to foster into matters of government and state in the
"neo-liberal" policies, which, according to years to come.
them, was the hallmark of policy during the
Mbeki years. This they dubbed the "1996 2009: The Jacob Zuma-
class project", named after the establish- Led Administration and
ment of the macro-economic policy, Growth, the Search for a Capable,
Employment and Redistribution (GEAR).41 Developmental State
Some in the ANC have accused COSATU and The Jacob-Zuma-led administration's com-
the SACP of wishing to impose a socialist mitment to position South Africa as a
agenda on the ANC. President Zuma was developmetal state became apparent in the
even accused by some in his own ranks of institutionalisation of the National Planning
having succumbed to leftist pressures on Commission (NPC).
a number of decisions since he became
president.42 The purpose of the NPC, according to
Manuel, would be "to prevent government
While this tug of war between the two from being trapped in its own institutional
alliance partners and some in the ANC preconceptions". South Africa was in need
was playing itself out, Zuma's silence was of a "long-term perspective, focus and deter-
conspicuous, and his only direct interven- mination to realise our vision"; the issues of
tion was to seek legal advice. Weeks went "growth and development, strengthening of
by without the president taking a stand or institutions, nation-building and the making
trying to calm the waters in this feuding of a developmental state" were dubbed
battle. Zuma was trying to extricate himself "long-term projects".
from the firing line, and did not wish to be
seen to choose between camps that were In September 2009, the Presidency released
both instrumental in elevating him to the a Green Paper on National Strategic Plan-
highest office in the land. Critics interpreted ning, which recognised that "two striking
this as indecisiveness and said that tensions weaknesses in government are the lack of a
would grow in the years to come, because coherent plan and poor co-ordination".43 It
of Zuma's lack of assertiveness. While the identified the need for "better long-term plan-
interregnum persisted, valuable time was ning to inform shorter-term plans, resource

Chris Landsberg
allocation, trade-offs and the sequencing of government decided to recognise and estab-
policies".44 In making a rationale for its exist- lish, where they did not already exist, five
ence, the Green Paper asserted that "markets key planning institutions, viz: Cabinet; the
alone cannot initiate and lead such funda- President's Co-ordination Council; a National
mental change. The state has to play a lead- Planning Commission, consisting of external
ing role in reshaping the economy so that it commissioners; a Ministerial Commission on
is better able to meet the needs of the major- Planning to provide guidance and support to
ity."45 It is a fast developing state, able to the planning function; and a Secretariat to
meet its development goals. Countries that support the work of the commission.50
have developed rapidly, argued the Green
Paper on Strategic Planning, have had three The NPC would be responsible for develop-
critical characteristics:46 rapid economic ing a national plan for South Africa in consul-
growth; education and skills development; tation with government, and "in partnership
and high quality, strong and credible public with society"; it would consist of respected
and private institutions. intellectuals, leaders and experts in South
Africa, with the Minister for National Plan-
In order to meet its goal of bringing about ning as the chair.51 The NPC would be a
a developmental state there was a need to permanent institution with part-time com-
ensure "policy coherence, policy co-ordi- missioners, and its mandate would be
nation and performance monitoring and updated and renewed annually.
evaluation".47 The Green Paper cautioned
that "fragmented policymaking can lead The Ministerial Committee on Planning, for
to duplication of efforts and contradic- its part, would be established to provide col-
tory outcomes". It described coordination lective input into planning. This Committee
as "essentially about ensuring that govern- would be appointed by the President. The
ment as a whole can develop and effectively President and Deputy President were to be
pursue its objectives and priorities through ex-officio members of the committee. The
a myriad of institutions, spheres, agencies Minister in the Presidency for National Plan-
and public corporations".48 According to ning was to feed the work of the NPC into
the Green Paper, many, if not all, of govern- government and Cabinet through the min-
ment's objectives–for instance, increasing isterial committee. The committee's over-
employment, reducing poverty and improv- arching role would be to52 provide political
ing skills–would require the interaction guidance to the planning process; support
of several departments, all three spheres, the planning ministry in driving strategic
numerous public entities and state-owned planning; and ensure consistent and inte-
enterprises.49 grated policies and programmes across
multiple layers of policymaking, planning
In recognition that strategic planning is a and implementation. As already stated
broad process involving multiple institutions, above, while the objectives and institutional

Chris Landsberg
design of the NPC had been clearly spelled Affairs from Gordan. All these happened
out, there was what I call the "Polokwanisa- recently. Let's revert back to the tension of
tion" of this issue, manifested in the major the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of
fallout and tension within the ranks of the Economic Development. So serious did these
ruling alliance, which came as a direct result tensions become that Zuma had to seek legal
of that 2007 ANC congress.53 While these advice on who was responsible for economic
tensions, examples of which are provided policy.55 What made the President's role so
above, were playing themselves out, it was curious was that he created new positions
difficult to gauge the views of Zuma on in government, including those of Minis-
these matters. One interpretation was that ter in the Presidency for National Planning
he was highly indebted to the alliance part- and Minister for Economic Development,
ners for their role in helping to challenge in efforts to ease tensions and suspicions
Mbeki and securing the former president's in alliance ranks, only to find that these
recall, and for helping to elevate him to the new positions actually helped to heighten
presidency. The SACP leader, and Minister tensions.
of Higher Education, Blade Nzimande, was
accused by ANC NEC member, Billy Masetl, Not only did the NPC metamorphose into
of trying to control the direction of govern- something other than the desperately
ment. With some in the ANC seeking to fight needed super ministry, but it was patently
back against attempts of a leftist takeover, clear that the social compacting, needed to
the SACP accused them of trying to liquidate help construct a developmental state, was
them.54 at an all-time low, and the fractures and
schisms between social partners had become
Tensions in alliance quarters were not con- even deeper than during the Mbeki era.
fined to disagreements over the role of
Trevor Manuel in government. There were Towards a Capable,
also bitter feuds over economic policy, and Developmental State
tensions between the Minister of Finance,
Pravin Gordhan, and newly appointed Min- By 2012, we saw yet another attempt at
ister for Economic Development, Ebrahim tabling a mode of the ANC-led govern-
Patel. Gordan was later shifted to the Min- ment's search for a rational governance-
istry of Co-operative Governance and Tradi- cum-development model. The government
tional Affairs. He was replaced by Nhlanhla had released its much anticipated National
Nene, who too was replaced by David van Development Plan (NDP), supposedly to give
Rooyen. Following public outrage against the details about how government would give
appointment of Van Rooyen to the Ministry practical expression to the developmental
of Finance, Gordan was brought back to this state concept, and how it would place the
Ministry. Van Rooyen took over the Ministry emphasis on implementation. As it con-
of Co-operative Governance and traditional tinued to struggle to introduce its rational

Chris Landsberg
governance model, it began to recognise Service Commission, which should be given

openly that the issue of state capacity and power to develop and monitor norms and
implementation capability had become a standards for appointment, make public
huge challenge confronting the government. service a career of choice, have a public
In the words of the Executive Summary of service that is both skilled and representa-
the NDP, (2012), "there is a real risk that tive; (2) stabilise the political-administrative
South Africa's developmental agenda could interface through hybrid appointments;
fail because the state is incapable of imple- heads of department report to a head of the
menting it".56 The NDP identified the need civil service on administrative matters; (3)
for a new approach, premised on57 people respond to inward migration and its strain
being active champions of their own devel- on resources; (4) state-owned enterprises
opment; redressing injustice; faster eco- should be globally competitive (clear man-
nomic growth and higher investment and dates; clear governance structures; deal
employment rates; effective capable gov- with capacity constraints); and (5) improve
ernment; and the need for leadership, unity, relations between national, provincial and
cohesion and trust, in other words, creating local government. What is interesting about
national consensus. the narrative that is emerging is that, while
the emphasis remains on what the develop-
No sooner had the Zuma government prom- mental state literature calls a "meritocratic
ised to focus on making sense of, and deep- civil service", it is surprising that the NDP
ening its understanding of, a "developmen- seems to place emphasis on a "capable state"
tal state" than it introduced the idea of a on staffing issues. While human resources
"capable state", which it regarded as a "pre- and staffing issues are key determinants of
condition for development".58 It believed it capability, it is important that emphasis also
"requires collaboration by all sections of be placed on political capability, technical
society".59 Such a state also requires stra- capacity, organisation capacity, and indeed,
tegic leadership. The NDP was very explicit ideational capacity.
in recognising that South Africa faced chal-
lenges of uneven state capacity, including No sooner had government placed the
political deployments, policy instability, notion of a "capable state" on the agenda,
skills shortages, and lack of clear vision of than the issue of fighting corruption again
where the next generation of public servants enjoyed centre stage. There was a recogni-
would come from.60 A human resources skills tion that corruption is a serious challenge
crisis is thus an important challenge faced facing South Africa. The NDP called for
by the state, and the NDP tackles this issue the development of a resilient anti-corrupt
squarely. According to the NDP, the follow- system, stressing deterrence, prevention
ing proposed actions need to be redressed: and education. It proposed actions such as
(1) building a professional public service centralising the awarding of large long-term
(graduate recruitment programme); a Public tenders, while also strengthening the tender

Chris Landsberg
compliance monitoring office. The NDP Mbeki in 2004. Even though South Africa
states that there was a need to strengthen remains highly committed to transforming
accountability and responsibility of public the State into a developmental one, the real-
servants, while also bolstering judicial gov- ity, of course, is that such a state does not
ernance and the rule of law, as well as a come about through declarations, proclama-
multi-agency corruption system. To cite the tions and edicts. Becoming a developmental
NDP, "there is a real risk that South Africa's state is a process; you become one, not by
developmental agenda could fail because decree, but by painstaking commitment to
the state is incapable of implementing it".61 the elements and criteria that make for one.
Government is now openly concerned about Such states have evolved through continu-
capacity and service delivery challenges at ous commitment to fast economic growth,
local level. South Africa has, in recent years, and putting all the elements in place that
experienced a spike in "service delivery pro- would help to realise that goal. In a devel-
tests" to the point that it is now referred to opmental state, government consistently
as "the protest capital" of the world. This has prioritises education and human resources
prompted the former Minister of Co-oper- development, on the one hand, and health-
ative Governance and Traditional Affairs, care alongside fast growth, on the other
Pravin Gordhan, to state that "municipalities hand. A developmental state also evolves
across the country should work differently, through dedication to building a meritocratic
serve with care and respond to commu- civil service, populated with the best talent,
nity concerns timeously".62 He launched a who serve in government and the bureau-
"Going back to basics capacity" with the aim cracy, and ensuring that people with the best
to "ensure that in every municipality, traf- technical, vocational and intellectual training
fic lights work, potholes are filled, water is join the civil service, and that their skills are
delivered, refuse is collected, electricity is being utilised. One of the most important
supplied, and refuse and waste management features of this meritocratic civil service, the
takes place".63 Gordhan was placing a focus one we zeroed-in on in this policy essay, is
on the developmental state's prerequisite the idea of putting at the centre of govern-
of building a capable bureaucracy and civil ment a lead agency, a powerful navigating
service, especially at local government level, unit that could become, over time, a super
which appears to be the poorest developed ministry. Vusi Gumede is correct, therefore,
stratum in post-settlement South Africa, 20 when he asserts that "the consensus seems
years after democracy. to be that South Africa is a developmental
state in the making".64
Conclusion
While the new Jacob Zuma-led government
Twenty years into democracy, South Africa started off with clear intentions to see the
has nailed its political heart to the "devel- putative National Planning Commission
opmental state mast", a project started by (NPC) becoming this powerful navigating

Chris Landsberg
unit and potential super ministry, the sad that of a "capable, developmental state".
reality is that this agency became a victim
of ANC-SACP-COSATU alliance politics, and All those interested observers committed to
a victim of the Polokwane squabbles. The a developmental state in South Africa should
latter two partners reacted negatively to the appreciate that such a state comes about by
planned NPC for avowed political reasons: respecting all the criteria and benchmarks
the NPC, and its proposed new leader, Min- that make for one. You cannot have a devel-
ister Trevor Manuel, were too closely asso- opmental state a la carte, by picking and
ciated with the persona of former President choosing the elements that you like, and
Thabo Mbeki, and COSATU and the ANC saw rejecting the ones you do not like. A devel-
it fit to campaign for diminished powers and opmental state comes through total com-
a limited role to be played by the NPC. With mitment to all criteria, not just adherence to
this, the seeds were sown for an NPC that the ones we are comfortable with. Chances
would perform below par, and certainly not are, if South Africans continue to pursue a
behave like a super ministry; thus South piecemeal approach to the developmental
Africa had lost a golden opportunity to trans- state debate, it will end up with a piecemeal
form the NPC into a powerful navigating unit developmental state. South Africa should
at the centre of government. By 2012, the commit to a long-term process rather than
Zuma government had experimented with hoping for fiats and declarations, for procla-
another variant of the developmental state, mations do not make a developmental state.
Chris Landsberg is a Research Professor at the University of Johannesburg and NRF SARChI Chair:
African Diplomacy and Foreign Policy. He is Senior Associate Fellow in the School of Leadership at
the same University. Landsberg is the co-founder of the Centre for Africa’s International Relations
at the University of the Witwatersrand. He held Visiting Professorships at various universities.
Landsberg has published extensively.

1 Mingst, K.A. 2004. Essentials of 4 Ibid. A Strategic Appraisal of South
international relations. New York: 5 Ibid. Africa’s Foreign Policy, op. cit., p. 2.
W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 107- 6 Ibid. 10 The Presidency. 2008. The strategic
111. 7 Woo-Cummings, M. 1999. Intro agenda of government , Draft
2 Kegley, C.J. 2009. World politics. duction. In M. Woo-Cummings (ed). 2007/08 Annual Report, 2 (16).
Trend and transformation. Australia: The developmental state. Ithaca, 11 Minister Trevor Manuel, Minister
Wadsworth Cengage Learning. pp. New York: Cornell University Press. of Finance Budget Vote Speech,
58-56. 8 African National Congress. 1994. National Assembly, Cape Town,
3 Cited in Gumede, V. 2014. Demo The Reconstruction and Dev February 2004.
cratic developmental state in South elopment Programme (RDP). 12 Ibid.
Africa: a dream deferred? Paper pres- Johannesburg: Umanyano Pub 13 African National Congress. 2002.
ented at the SAAPS Conference, lications. ANC Today. Johannesburg: Luthuli
10-12 September 2014. 9 Department of Foreign Affairs, House, December 2004.

Chris Landsberg
14 Ibid. 25 Ibid. 50 Ibid.

15 Ibid. 26 Cited in Gumede, V. Democratic 51 Ibid.
16 Ibid. developmental state in South 52 Ibid.
17 For a perspective on what a dev Africa: A dream deferred? Op. cit. 53 For an elucidation of the concept
elopmental state is, and challenges 27 Edigheji, O. 2010. Rethinking "Polokwanisation", see Landsberg,
faced by South Africa, see S.S. national planning institutions, a C. 2012. The Jacob Zuma govern
Sangweni, who emphasised that critical appraisal of the green paper. ment’s foreign policy: Association
it does not matter what slant or New Agenda, 37: 18. or dissociation? in AUSTRAL:
take you have on a developmental 28 Manuel, T.A. 2009. Minister in the Brazilian Journal of Strategy and
state, at the end of the day a strong, Presidency for Planning. Address International Relations, vol. 1(1):
coherent and astute public service to Parliament on the launch of the 75.
is critical. Paper delivered at the Green Paper on National Strategic 54 Brown, K. 2009. Alliance fissures
Developmental State Seminar, Planning, 8 September 2009. deepen, The Weekender, Saturday-
Burgers Park Hotel, 19 October 29 Ibid. Sunday, 10-11 October 2009.
2007. 30 The Presidency. 2009. Green 55 See Hartley, R. 2009. Furious battle
18 Cited in Gumede, V. Democratic Paper: National Strategic Planning. over economic policy – has Zuma
developmental state in South Pretoria-Tshwane, Government stuffed it up?, 4 October 2009,
Africa: A dream deferred? Op. cit. Printer. September 2009. posted on http://blogs.timeslive.
19 Ibid. 31 Ibid. co.za/hartley/2009/10/04/furious-
20 National Treasury. 2009. Medium 32 Ibid. battle-over-economic-policy-has-
Term Strategic Framework (MTSF), 33 Ibid. zu.
Pretoria-Tshwane, July 2009. 34 Ibid. 56 The Presidency. 2012. National
21 Bagchi, A. 2015. The past and 35 Ibid. Planning Commission, National
future of the developmental state. 36 Ibid. Development Plan 2030: Our
Journal of World Systems Research, 37 Ibid. future: make it work, Executive
1(2): 45. 38 Ibid. Summary, p. 14.
22 See Evans, P. 2008. In search of 39 Ibid. 57 The Presidency. National Plan
the 21 st century developmental 40 Ibid. ning Commission, National Dev
state. Centre for Global Political 41 See Mail and Guardian , "ANC elopment Plan. op. cit., p. 2.
Economy, Brighton: University of backlash against the left", October 58 Ibid. p. 22.
Sussex; see also Edigheji, O. 2006. 9-15, 2009. 59 Ibid.
The discourse of the developmental 42 Ibid. 60 Ibid. p. 364.
state and people’s contract in South 43 The Presidency, National Plan 61 Ibid. p. 44.
Africa. Policy: Issues and Actors, ning Committee. 2009. Green 62 Government Communications
9(5). Centre for Policy Studies. Paper: Improving government (GCIS). 2014. Vuk’Uzenzele,
23 Evans, P. In search of the 21 cen performance – Our approach . Going back to basics, October
st
tury developmental state. Centre Pretoria: Government Printer . 2014.

for Global Political Economy, op. 44 Ibid. 63 Ibid.
cit. 45 Ibid. 64 Gumede, V. 2011. Public policy-
24 Evans, P. 2009. Constructing the 46 Ibid. making in South Africa. In Venter,
21st century developmental state: 47 Ibid. A. and Landsberg, C. Government
Potentialities and pitfalls, New 48 Ibid. and politics in the New South
Agenda, 36: 7. 49 Ibid. Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Public Service By, Of and For the Public
Barry Gilder
Abstract of ideologies and economic systems, those

of us who imbibed our own history and the
A public service by, of and for the public–a history of our planet and the theories of
utopia or a realisable ideal? This question Marx, Engels and Lenin at the feet of Rusty
undergirds the thematic essence of this arti- Bernstein in a flat in London, or sitting in the
cle, which is penned from the optimism of a abandoned coffee plantation in Umkhonto
former senior public servant and a freedom we Sizwe (MK)1 camp in Quibaxe in Angola
fighter, who was a member of Umkhonto or under the tutelage of Comrade Vladimir
we Sizwe [Spear of the Nation]–the armed in a safe flat in Moscow, were enamoured
wing of the African National Congress (ANC). with the notion of the dictatorship of the pro-
For contextual reasons the article starts by letariat. Twenty-one years into democracy,
succinctly historicising the struggle against with the African National Congress (ANC)
apartheid. This is important in order to being the governing party, in alliance with
establish a premise from which "a public the South African Communist Party (SACP)
service by, of and for the public" could be and Congress of South African Trade Unions
understood. Thereafter, the article analyses (COSATU), the fundamental question is: to
how the ANC uses state power to achieve what extent does the phenomenon of the
a humanitarian public service. The article dictatorship of the proletariat manifest itself
offers important suggestions to this end. in the quest for a national democratic soci-
ety? In other words, does the working class
Introduction have control of political power? Despite the
importance of these questions, this article
It may be grossly unfashionable to confess is not necessarily about them. Its focus is
this now, but in the heady days of strug- on building a national democratic society
gle against apartheid, of the great working through a humanitarian public service. It
class and national liberation struggles of starts with a brief history of the struggle
the twentieth century, of the global clash against apartheid. This is important in order

Barry Gilder
to establish a premise from which a people- These beliefs were not born of idle intellec-
centred public service and the reason for tualism, nor wishful thinking, nor yearning
its pursuit could be understood. This is fol- for revenge, nor a mean desire to do unto
lowed by the analysis of state power and others as they had done unto us. They were,
transformation of the apartheid bureau- we believed, scientific truths, proven in the
cracy, which leads to the consideration of laboratory of history, in the short-lived but
the notion of a developmental state in the instructive Paris Commune, in revolution-
hope that it would instruct our quest for ary Russia, in inspirational Cuba and, closer
a "public service by, of and for the public". to home, in Mozambique and Angola. And,
Towards the end, important suggestions on for those of us who spent some of our exile
how to build a humanitarian public service years in the supposedly democratic West,
are made. we observed first-hand how what we called
the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie imposed
Brief History of the the will of the capitalist class on their citi-
Liberation Struggle zens. After all, we roamed the planet in
the days of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald
The proletarian revolution aside, for those Reagan.
of us focused on overthrowing apartheid
and undoing centuries of colonialism, the And we supported the Soviet Union and the
notion of the need for a decisive seizure of socialist countries of Eastern Europe in spite
power by the oppressed majority, and its of their imperfections not, as our detractors
muscular use to put right the social, political, would have us believe, out of blind loyalty or
cultural and economic inequities that these simple gratitude for the support they gave
systems had imposed on our land, made our own struggle, but because we believed
profound sense. We understood, then, that that the class war and the war of national
those who ruled us in the political realm liberation were being fought on a global bat-
and lorded over us in the economic realm tlefield, and that war, as inhumane and ugly
would not, being convinced as they were of as it is, is ultimately about the exercise of
their might and their right, surrender real force, scruples aside. For we perambulated
power unless they were forced to do so, the planet in the time of the Bay of Pigs, the
unless power was wrested from them. And Chilean coup, the invasion of Grenada and
we understood, too, that, should we manage the defeat of the Sandinistas.
to wrest power from them, we would face
years, if not decades, of continued attempts And we well understood that those in the
by them to turn back the tide–what we opposite trenches to the ones we elected to
called "counter-revolution". This, we under- fight from–the countries of the West, the
stood, was the way of the world, the way of capitalist class of the world–supported tac-
capitalism, colonialism and imperialism, of itly and explicitly our own national enemy,
national oppression. in spite of the iniquity of the system we

Barry Gilder
fought against and the justness of our cause. struggle in our continent has had its cli
And those on the other side of the Cold War max at the negotiating table, occasionally
barricades, who did give us some support– involving compromises judged to be in
the social democratic countries, parties and the interests of revolutionary advance.
movements of the world–did so mainly to But, whether there is an armed seizure of
wean us from our determination for a radi- power or negotiated settlement, what is
cal seizure and exercise of power–more indisputable to both is the development
so as our own struggle progressed and the of the political and military forces of the
defensibility of supporting apartheid waned. revolution…
Well… we "lost" the war. We watched as the ` …Whatever prospects may arise in the
detachments in the neighbouring trenches future for a negotiated transition, they
were decimated, retreated and surrendered. must not be allowed to infect the purpose
We watched the Soviet Union collapsing, and content of our present strategic
taking with it its neighbours. We watched approaches. We are not engaged in a
the triumphalism of the West and its neo- struggle whose objective is merely to
liberalism and anti-radicalism. We, still hold- generate sufficient pressure to bring the
ing firm in our trenches in Lusaka, Harare, other side to the negotiating table. If,
Gaborone, Maseru, Manzini, Robben Island, as a result of a generalised crisis and a
Pretoria Central, Soweto and Gugulethu, heightened revolutionary upsurge, the
Mangaung and Seshego, Kwa Mashu and point should ever be reached when the
Mdantsane, began to hear rumours that enemy is prepared to talk, the liberation
our leaders were negotiating an end to our forces will, at that point, have to exercise
own war. At the Seventh Congress of the their judgment, guided by the demands
South African Communist Party in Matan- of revolutionary advance. But until
zas, Cuba, in early 1989, the party adopted then its sights must be clearly set on the
its programme "The Path to Power", which perspectives of a seizure of power.2
contained a section entitled "Prospects of a
Negotiated Transfer of Power" which read Perhaps, in retrospect, the wording of this
in part: passage can be construed as somewhat
disingenuous, given that senior leaders of
There is no conflict between [the] the party and the ANC present at the con-
insurrectionary perspective and the gress were already aware of and involved
possibility of a negotiated transfer of in putting out pre-negotiation feelers to the
power… apartheid regime. In the same month as the
congress, Mandela sent his memo on nego-
` …Liberation struggles have rarely end tiations to P.W. Botha, and about a month
ed with the unconditional surrender of after the congress, Thabo Mbeki had his
the enemy's military forces. Every such famous meeting with Willie Esterhuyse in

Barry Gilder
a pub in London, which set the stage for geared towards imposing a dictatorship of
discussions between apartheid's National the oppressed, proletariat or otherwise. It
Intelligence Service and the ANC. Be that as was not even geared to effectively imple-
it may, for those of us still in the trenches, ment the policies of the new democratically
the wording of this passage reflected our elected government, in many cases obstruct-
ongoing belief in a revolutionary seizure ing, diluting and sometimes actively oppos-
of power, negotiated or otherwise, and an ing those policies.
outcome that would enable us to impose our
revolutionary, transformatory agenda on a Our primary challenge as we entered the
post-apartheid South Africa. public service in the mid-1990s was, as
quickly as possible, to bring into the service
But history, and the global and domestic change agents–people who understood
dynamics of the time, together with the and were committed to the ANC's trans-
perhaps necessary compromises of negotia- formatory agenda, and who had the tenac-
tion and reconciliation, conspired to deny us ity to enforce the will of the governing party
this decisive intervention. Indeed, we won against all the odds. Such people, relative to
political power decisively enough through the size, scope and geographical spread of
the 1994 election, but that was largely a the public service, were few and far between.
policy-making power, itself diluted by the And understanding, commitment and tenac-
constraints of a government of national ity were not always accompanied by experi-
unity, and the myriad influences on policy ence, administrative skill and capacity. That
of the powers-that-were in the economic was the nature of apartheid exclusion and
sphere, the international arena, and the dis- the relative suddenness of our admission to
parate influences and philosophies within the halls of state power.
the broad church of the ANC and the many
interests in broader society. But the injection of change agents into the
public service was only one part of the chal-
State Power and lenge of state transformation. We also had to
Transformation of change the complexion of the public service
Apartheid Bureaucracy and its management and leadership. Some
may argue that this was our historic error–
State power, on the other hand, was a totally if we wanted to use the tools of the state to
different matter. We had to sidle our way effectively transform our society, we should
into the public service, a service which, until have put the administration in the hands
then, regarded the public as consisting of of the skilled and experienced rather than
only 20 percent of the population. We inher- trying to achieve race, gender and ethnic
ited a public service whose ethos and prac- representivity. Apart from the obvious fact
tice had been geared towards managing and that there is an inherent racist assumption
protecting apartheid. It was certainly not that the skilled and experienced were, in

Barry Gilder
the main, white and therefore anti-change and uncoordinated, struggling for transfor-
agents, we could not escape the historical mation and–above all–bemoaning the dif-
obligation, imposed by apartheid, of making ficulties of implementation.
our public service representative of the
demographics of our country. There was not, I remember a Cabinet lekgotla 3 in 2004, if
and could not have been, any escaping this memory serves, in which the then president,
reality. But there is no natural correlation Thabo Mbeki, paused a discussion on some
between demographic representivity and or other presentation and asked the pointed
change agency. In fact, many of the black question as to why it was that we found it so
public servants who benefited from affirma- difficult to implement our programmes and
tive action were those who had served the policies. After some discussion, he tasked
former Bantustan administrations, certainly, the directors-general, present, to go away
in the main, not change agents. And for and draft a discussion document identifying
many of the new public servants, a job in the challenges to implementation. We were
the administration was just that–a job, an happy for the tasking. After all, we were per-
opportunity to survive, advance and prosper haps at the sharp end of the frustrations
that had been denied them and their parents of trying to make the things which we all
before. There was certainly no requirement agreed needed to be done, happen. I do not,
for understanding, commitment and tenac- now, remember the details of our delibera-
ity. And for some, the opportunity of a job tions, except for our long discussion on the
and a steady income was not enough. In the fretfulness of the political-administrative
way of the human species, compounded by interface and the resulting loss of exper-
apartheid deprivation, it was also an oppor- tise, institutional memory and continuity
tunity for "a bit on the side". as directors-general came and went. I do
remember that, in the end, our document
Post-Apartheid Public was considerably watered down, perhaps
Service out of deference to the sensitivities of our
ministers. I do note, now, that many of the
South Africa's post-apartheid public ser- issues we dealt with, at the time, are dealt
vice, from its inception to the present day, with reasonably forthrightly in South Afri-
is made up of a hodgepodge of old apart- ca's recently-adopted National Development
heid bureaucrats, Bantustan administra- Plan, specifically in the chapter that deals
tors, struggle veterans and hand-to-mouth with the capacity of the state.
recruited new public servants. There is no
such thing in South Africa as a public ser- This is the crux of the matter and ultimately
vice career. There is certainly no such thing speaks to the nature of the state and the
as a public service ethos. Since 1994, we nature of our public service. Many may argue
have muddled along, fighting fires, pushing about, and increasingly contest, the correct-
policies, making new rules, being discordant ness of some of the policies of the ruling

Barry Gilder
party and its government. Speaking from my remain a party of liberation. I argue else-
own time in government, I was never in any where4 that there seems to be an underly-
doubt that our hearts were in the right place, ing, if unprofessed, assumption that the ANC
that our intentions were noble and that our coming to power, in 1994, was analogous
focus was always on undoing the legacies to the Labour Party in the United King-
of our past and effectively manoeuvring our dom unseating Margaret Thatcher after
way through the complex web of domestic her eighteen-year reign, or the Democrats
and international interests that impinged unseating Ronald Reagan after his twelve
on the terrain in which we operated. But years in power–that, in other words, the
we constantly bruised ourselves against the South African electorate, which was tired of
challenges of making things happen. forty-six years of National Party rule, simply
decided to give the opposition a chance. Any
Developmental State party that governs South Africa would, by
historical necessity, have to be driven by the
Perhaps, in response to the foregoing frus- need to address the inequities and injustices
tration (and other realities), we developed inherited from the past and perpetuated in
the notion that South Africa needed to the present. In other words, the governance
become a developmental state. I used to joke of South Africa has to be people-focused and
at the time (perhaps only half-jokingly) that, transformation-driven.
for us "old revolutionaries", a developmental
state was the closest we could get to our The state is the primary organ for this and
once beloved dictatorship of the proletariat the public service is its front-line instrumen-
in the historical circumstances in which we tality. Thus, if we wish to speak of a humani-
found ourselves. Of course, we recognised tarian public service, we must speak of a
that, unlike the so-called developmental public service whose primary focus is on
states of Asia, that were able to drive their the well-being of people. In the South Afri-
developmental agenda with some authori- can context, this must mean a public service
tarianism, ours would have to be a demo- that is geared in everything it does towards
cratic developmental state. In other words making life better for South Africa's inhabit-
we would have to "impose our will" through ants, which, in turn, must imply undoing the
the democratic institutions and processes legacies of colonialism and apartheid–our
that our negotiated constitutional democ- (more benign) version of the dictatorship of
racy imposed on us. the proletariat.
There is a simple truth here, on which my When I was appointed director-general of

allusion to the dictatorship of the proletariat the Department of Home Affairs in 2003,
is based. In spite of arguments to the con- I spent my first four months in the depart-
trary from opposition parties and in "public ment travelling to offices and border posts
discourse" the ANC has, by necessity, to around the country, talking to staff and

Barry Gilder
clients and observing the workings of our systems, that the client did not ask to be
offices. At the end of my odyssey, we held required to carry an ID, or to register their
a strategic planning workshop at which I births, marriages and deaths, or to carry
presented my findings and proposed the key a passport to travel abroad, or to comply
elements of a turnaround strategy for the with our complicated immigration
department. In that presentation, I made the requirements when visiting our country.
following remarks related to service delivery: It is we who [us that] require these things
of them.
I have said this many times as I travelled
through the regions. But I must say We therefore need to find a way of
it again here for the record. Visiting changing our attitude to our clients to
a Home Affairs office must be like one in which we assume they are right,
going into an expensive store with a lot that they are entitled to the service they
of money in your pocket. No matter have come for, until we have proved
how many clothes you try on and how conclusively that they are in fact wrong.
many times you change your mind,
the sales attendant is at your beck and This attitude that the client is always
call–advising, cajoling, ever willing to right needs to infuse our systems,
assist. I think that is why some of us are our processes, our training and our
so addicted to shopping. It's about the interaction with our clients. We need a
only time you get treated like a DG! campaign to inculcate this in our staff
and to interpret for them what this
In the private sector they have a slogan: means in practice.5
The customer is always right. Our slogan
at Home Affairs is: The customer is al I believe things have improved at Home
ways wrong! Affairs, in recent years, at least as far as its
citizen services are concerned, although
Think about it. We expect our clients I have not used the Department enough
to know all the laws and regulations, to myself to have observed whether the
know how to fill out a form, and which client now is indeed always right. But the
documents to bring along. And God chief point of this anecdote is the need for
forbid if a client should fill out a form people-centrism in our public service. This
incorrectly, or stand in the wrong queue, is not only about how we interface with our
or forget a document! It's "Away with clients, although that is key. It is also about
you and come back when you are ready the bigger issues–ensuring that the focus,
to do this thing right!" the resourcing, the ethos, the organisation
and the management of our various public
We need to remember, in the way we service departments–at national, provincial
relate to our clients and design our and local levels–is indeed humanitarian:

Barry Gilder
focused on providing services, opportunities human resources management, corruption

and support to our people, whether it be in and many others. But at the centre of all
the state-imposed requirements for identity these challenges is the public servant her- or
documents or whether it is the provision of himself. The individual human being who
housing, healthcare, education, welfare sup- leads, manages, administers, operationalises,
port, economic support and so on. In other serves and interfaces with the public is the
words, it is about both what we do and how primary tool and medium of implementation
we do it. and delivery.
Towards a People-Centred We are now surely beyond the time of

Public Service having to inject change agents into the
public service to drive the transformation
The question to ask is: what do we need to of the service and the delivery of its pro-
do to make our public service more people- grammes. Should we not indeed be moving
centred? At the macro-level, it is the policies to a time when every public servant is a
and programmes of government in all three change agent, whatever their background,
spheres that are the key driver in addressing political and ideological preferences, race
the challenges of inequality, poverty, social or gender? That perhaps sounds far-fetched
injustice, the economy and so on. There and ambitious. But, in reality, it is an ambi-
are indeed many ongoing and vociferous tion that must be strived for, however long
debates–especially in this election year– it may take. What does it take to become a
about whether the policies and programmes public servant in South Africa today? In the
of the ruling party and government are suf- main, it involves seeing a job advert for a
ficiently addressing these challenges. This particular government department, sending
article is not about these debates. I have in an application form and CV, being short-
already made the point that, in my experi- listed (if you are lucky), going for an inter-
ence in government, our hearts were largely view and, if successful, after a few checks of
in the right place. I have also made the point criminal record and qualifications, starting
that, correct policies or not, the major chal- your employment. After that you may be
lenge remains implementation. Even if an sent on some induction and/or specialised
election produces a new government, with training. This is not very different from get-
possibly better policies, that challenge will ting a job in the private sector (and many of
remain. the larger private sector entities have much
more stringent selection processes).
There are many elements that constitute the
matrix of the challenges of effective imple- In India, entry into the civil service is highly
mentation–organisational design, leader- competitive and a civil service career is
ship, the political-administrative interface, highly regarded in society. 6 There is an
financial and procurement management, exhaustive selection process. It involves a

Barry Gilder
multi-step examination process that spans a they have to undergo regular compulsory
calendar year, overseen by the Union Public in-service training programmes.7
Service Commission. Applicants undergo
a first preliminary examination for initial It has, perhaps, to be said that the mixed
screening purposes, followed by a second nature of the efficacy and efficiency of
preliminary examination in which they have India's civil service underlines the point
to write two papers–one on general stud- that a comprehensive selection and train-
ies and one on an optional topic. For those ing programme is not a panacea to the
candidates, who clear this preliminary challenges of effective, people-centred
round, there is a second stage that consists public service delivery and implementation.
of written tests (comprising nine papers) There are many other challenges that have
and an interview. The marks obtained in to be simultaneously addressed, as I have
these tests and the interview determine the intimated above. But the Indian model is
candidate's future rank in the civil service. a marked contrast to the way our own
The tests seek to determine the candidates' public service has been constituted over
grasp of academics and awareness of cur- time–what I called a hodgepodge, de facto
rent affairs and social issues. inheritance and hand-to-mouth recruitment
of new public servants. The Indian model is
This comprehensive selection process is surely, at the very least, a signpost towards
not the end of the story. Successful can- the ambitious vision of populating our own
didates then undergo two years of proba- public service with change agents capable
tion and training. They spend nine months of delivering a people-centred and humani-
undergoing foundational training at an tarian public service.
academy, which is aimed at strengthen-
ing their understanding of the political, Public Service Vision
social and administrative environment and
developing the ideas, attributes and values If we had a programme, in collaboration
expected of a civil service officer. After with schools and universities, to identify
this foundational phase, candidates then the best of forthcoming school leavers and
spend twelve months in one of the Indian graduates, encouraged them to consider a
states working at the coalface, so to speak, public service career, and then put those
during which they are expected to imbibe so persuaded through a rigorous selection
the socio-economic and cultural conditions process, measuring not just their intellect
of the state, state administrative systems, and skills, but also their values, morals and
legislation, institutions and language. After understanding of and commitment to South
this, they spend another three months back Africa's development agenda, we would be
at the academy processing what they have making a good start, wouldn't we? If we then
learned from the state experience. Once put the successful candidates, so selected,
permanently employed in the civil service, through a rigorous, extended full-time

Barry Gilder
education and training programme, which, create cadres of public servants who have
as in India, included coalface time spent in had experience in all spheres of govern-
a provincial or local administration or, say, ment and would have, in the process, devel-
at the front-line in a Home Affairs office, oped networks of fellow cadres (as is the
we would surely come out of the other end case in India) across national departments
of this process with a public service cadre and the three spheres of government, thus
far more attuned to, and prepared for, serv- enhancing intergovernmental cooperation
ing a people-centred public service, a cadre and coordination. Ambitious? Yes. And it
who understands our history, our political would take years, if not decades, for such
economy and our social challenges, in addi- an approach to decisively transform our
tion to all the administrative and technical public service. But it is surely the only way
requirements of the public service. into the future.
The graduates of such a programme would Conclusion

form a pool of public servants from which
individual departments, in all three spheres So, after all, moving conceptually from the
of government, could recruit, taking into dictatorship of the proletariat to the build-
account the specific skills and interests of ing of a state and a public service geared
this new public servant and the require- towards decisively addressing the inherited
ments of the department. Of course, such and new challenges of South Africa, as it
a programme would have to be tailored for finds itself in the current historical conjec-
different levels or functions in the public ture, is not such a big conceptual leap. The
service, from administration to manage- spirit is the same–impose on our country a
ment, as well as for specialised public serv- rigorous transformatory agenda. Does this
ants such as doctors, nurses, teachers and therefore mean that a question about the
engineers. Apart from anything else, such dictatorship of the proletariat, raised in the
an approach to the selection and training introduction, is an ideological nostalgia of a
of our public servants would, over time, former liberation struggle activist?
Barry Gilder served variously in the post-apartheid government as deputy director-general of the
South African Secret Services, deputy director-general of the National Intelligence Agency, director-
general of Department of Home Affairs and as Co-ordinator for Intelligence until his retirement
in late 2007. He has recounted his experience of the liberation struggle and the challenges of
post-apartheid governance in the book titled, Songs and secrets: South Africa from liberation to
governance, published by Jacana Media in South Africa and by Hurst Publishers internationally
in 2012. He is currently a Fellow of the Mapungubwe Institute, a Senior Visiting Fellow in the
School of Governance at the University of the Witwatersrand, and a member of the Council of South
Africa’s newly-established National School of Government.

Barry Gilder

1 MK is the common abbreviation for ation to governance. Johannsberg: Lindiwe Sisulu, to advise her on
Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Jacana. p.270. the establishment of a new National
Nation), the armed wing of South 5 Barry Gilder. 2003. Director- School of Government in South
Africa’s African National Congress. General’s Address to Senior Africa.
2 The Path to Power, programme of Management Team-Building, 25 7 Note that the information on the
the South African Communist Party September 2003. Pretoria: Gilder’s selection and training of Indian
as adopted at the Seventh Congress, archive. civil servants applies to India’s
1989. http://www.sacp.org.za/docs/ 6 Information on the Indian civil Central Services. India has quite a
history/power1989.html service selection and training is complex civil service architecture.
3 Bi-annual strategic planning drawn from a desktop bench The Central Services are concerned
session of the South African marking done by the author on with the administration of India as a
Cabinet. behalf of the Advisory Task Team whole and include, inter alia, foreign
4 Barry Gilder. 2012. Songs and set up by South Africa’s Minister of affairs, defense, income tax, customs,
secrets: South Africa from liber Public Service and Administration, posts and telecommunications.

Administrative Culture of the South African
Public Service: A Finity of Transformation
William Gumede
Abstract movement organisational culture, which

have come to dominate the party since it
The new democratic government in 1994 took power. The article will argue that the
inherited the apartheid public service, which ANC government has mostly succeeded in
combined the so-called former "independent" transforming the racial make-up, but that
states, homelands and Bantustans, which all it has not transformed the administrative
had distinct administrative cultures. Even culture of the public service into one that is
though genuine attempts have been made democratic, developmental and accountable.
since 1994 to transform the apartheid- The inability to transform the administra-
inherited public service, by democratising tive culture of South Africa's public service
it, making it developmental, effective and is the root of its poor performance. Given
accountable–changing its culture–the the ANC's dominance, to transform South
results have at best been uneven. A key part Africa's public service's administrative cul-
of the post-1994 transformation reforms of ture, the ANC's organisational culture will
the public service was a strong emphasis on also have to be overhauled.
changing the racial make-up of the public
administration, not only to make it more rep- Introduction
resentative, but also to transform the racially
discriminatory developmental outlook of the Even though genuine attempts have been
state. The organisational culture of the ANC, made since 1994 to transform the organisa-
South Africa's dominant governing party, has tional structure, character, systems and orien-
had a strong influence on the administrative tation, and individual behaviours–whether
culture of the democratic public service. In at junior or senior levels–within the admin-
the post-1994 era, some of the apartheid istration, or collectively, the administrative
and Bantustan administrative cultures have culture of the South African public service,
been entrenched in the democratic public from an apartheid one, into a democratic,
service and have been reinforced with developmental, effective, accountable and
undemocratic aspects of the ANC's liberation socially responsive one1–the results have at

Administrative Culture of the South African Public Service: A Finity of Transformation
William Gumede
best been uneven. Former Public Service and purposes of this essay, from Gabriel Almond
Administration Minister, Geraldine Fraser- and Sydney Verba's ground-breaking work
Moleketi, remarked about the challenge: on "civic culture".4 Like any organisation, a
`"We had to dismantle the old administrative public administration has a certain "culture",5
order, transform it, democratise it, re-orient which is "socially embedded".6 Culture is "a
its ethos, its structure and culture and we set of values, beliefs, common understanding,
had to do this with a sense of urgency; we thinking and norms for behaviour that are
had to both repeal race-based apartheid leg- shared".7 In organisations, culture provides
islation and bring in new legislation based `"guidance to behaviours" and "profoundly
on a new constitutional dispensation."2 The influences decision-making". Almond and

particular characteristics of the apartheid Verba8 argue "civic culture" is about individ-
public service could hardly be compatible ual "norms", "attitudes", "values", "behaviour",
with the notion of a democratic one. In itself, and "perceptions".9 Administrative culture is
transplanting democracy, a developmental the collective patterns of inculcated behav-
outlook, a constitutional value ethos and a iour, attitudes, traditions and values that are
racially and ethnically inclusive outlook, into widely shared in the public administration
the peculiar apartheid and homelands public and which provide a "framework for behav-
service structures inherited, was never going ing, acting, and forming preferences". The
to be an easy challenge. The problem of the actions of the individual employee within
poor performance of the public service and the administration are socially governed by
low administrative capacity in South Africa the particular administrative culture.10
is much more than technical incompetence,
its root causes are deeply embedded in the Henderson argues that administrative
social norms, behaviour patterns and admin- culture is "related to the broader political
istrative culture, entrenched in the apart- culture, from which it derives".11 Surendra
heid state and reinforced by elements of the Kumar12 emphasises the two-way relation-
organisational culture of the ANC as a lib- ship between public administration and
eration movement with a dominant military its external environment–the political,
wing, underground and clandestine opera- socio-economic and cultural, where each
tional mode. influences the other. Wilson13 says "the
long-term character of a bureaucracy is not
The Conceptual determined by the technical tasks it con-
Underpinnings of the fronts but by the political and social forces
Administrative Culture operating on it". Jamil14 argues, insightfully,
Framework that within the context of administrative
culture, the public service's orientation to
The concept of administrative culture as society's socio-economic environment, dom-
a framework is derived from the theories inant governing politics, and the adminis-
on organisational culture3 and, also for the tration's cohesiveness–the dimensions of

William Gumede
"internal sources of control and the exercises

` Jamil, Askvik and Hossain argue rightly that
of authority and power within a bureau- changes in the administrative culture of
cracy"–is very important. An administrative a bureaucracy do not come easy because
culture that is based on democratic govern- often in a bureaucracy, where administrative
ance15 demands that public servants act in culture is institutionalised, values are often
a morally responsible way, serve justice, are `"persistent" and "deep rooted".
24
accountable and pursue an "honest effort

to achieve the common good and welfare Methodological Approach
of citizens".16
Survey methods are often very useful and
In many developing countries, whether popular tools to analyse administrative
` "bureaucratic actions" are based on merit, culture.25,26,27,28,29,30 The article will aggre-
skills and the rule of law, or whether they are gate the results of a number of government-
based on political loyalty, and what extent commissioned surveys. Chief among these
public servants' lives and careers depend on will be the annual reports of the Public
responding to "narrow political interests"17 Service Commission (PSC), the annual audit
is very much determined by the adminis- reports of the Auditor General, and key
trative culture. Often in many developing government assessments of the state of the
countries, informal rules, relationships and public service over the past 20 years. These
networks, in reality, become the adminis- include the 10-year, 15-year and 20-year
trative culture, rather than the formal rules, reviews of the performance of the public ser-
procedures and regulations,18 when "infor- vice, done by the South African Presidency,
mal relations then become important for National Treasury, Public Service and Admin-
gaining access to public services, and official istration Department, the National Planning
rules are frequently violated or neglected".19 Commission's National Development Plan
and other relevant government surveys.
In some developing countries clientelistic
behaviour becomes part of the adminis- To analyse the organisational culture of the
trative culture.20,21 The rule of law is often African National Congress, the paper will
selectively applied; "there is little distinc- analyse the five-yearly ANC general secre-
tion between public and private life, public tary state of the ANC reports at the ANC's
offices and positions are frequently abused national general councils, policy conferences
for private gain".22 Political loyalty is a pre- and national conferences. These are supple-
requisite for promotion, displacing merit, mented with reports and surveys presented
fairness and justice, which breaks down to the ANC's national executive committee,
the esprit de corps of the bureaucracy and provincial and other party structures.
fragments the bureaucracy, and connected
insiders who get lucrative benefits for doing The South African Constitution (1996)
very little for outsiders.23 set out nine values and principles for a

William Gumede
democratic public service: The Organisational Culture

of the African National
●● The promotion and maintenance of a Congress
high standard of professional ethics.
●● The promotion of efficient, economic In South Africa, the ANC is the dominant
and effective use of resources. party–its influence extends to every nook of
●● Public administration must be develop society, far beyond its electoral success.31,32
mental. The ANC's organisational culture strongly
●● Public services must be provided im influences the administrative culture of the
partially, fairly, equitably and without South African public administration and
bias. broader society. Because of its leading role
●● People's needs must be responded to in the struggle for liberation, the ANC has
and the public must be encouraged to widespread popular legitimacy. The ANC's
participate in policymaking. organisational culture has a dominant influ-
●● Public administration must be account ence on the culture of public administration.
able. There are some aspects of the ANC's organi-
●● Transparency must be fostered by pro sational culture that have a negative impact
viding the public with timely, accessible on the administrative culture of the public
and accurate information. service.
●● Good human resource management
and career development practices to The ANC's March 2007 discussion docu-
maximise human potential must be cult ment on organisational renewal, warns that
ivated. the ANC was succumbing to "micro-manage
●● Public administration must be broadly governance as if they (the party) are the
representative of the people of South executive authority or administrative arm
Africa. of the state".33 There appears to be a strong
belief among ANC leaders and members
These nine Constitutional values and princi- that the ANC and its leadership are above
ples provide us with a benchmark for meas- that of democratic institutions and bureau-
uring progress towards transforming the cracy, and that the rules of the party have
administrative culture of the South African preference over the country's democratic
public service. The Public Service Commis- laws or Constitution. President Jacob Zuma
sion, in its annual surveys since 1994, used expressed the sentiment when he said "no
these values and principles to analyse the one is bigger than the ANC".34
transformation of the public service. The
paper used these Constitutional principles Justice Minister, Jeff Radebe, said "the ANC
and values as a benchmark to analyse the intended to reduce the powers of the Con-
dimensions of South Africa's administrative stitutional Court, because it had made deci-
culture. sions going against the ANC government".35

William Gumede
The ANC's Strategy and Tactics36 discussion not want "graduates and businessmen and
document said "elements", specifically which women who are competent, but who are hos-
`"promoted a national consensus", have tile to the programme of the ANC".41
`"proven inadequate and those of the Consti-
tution needed to be reviewed". Party rank in South Africa's Constitution calls for a "public
the ANC is seen as more senior than in gov- administration that is broadly representative
ernment.37 A party leader who is employed of the South African people",42 but makes it
in government may be more junior than his clear that the pursuit of this objective must
or her superiors, but he or she may be more be "based on ability, objectivity, and fair-
senior in the party ranks, and therefore give ness",43 and ensuring that the public service
instructions to his or her own government delivers "efficient, economic and effective
superiors.38 use of resources".44
Democratic centralism is a key tenet of the During the African liberation struggle, many
ANC, which roughly means that a few lead- liberation movements, such as the ANC, saw
ers make decisions and send out commands, opponents, colonial and apartheid govern-
and members and supporters must unques- ments, as well as rival opposition groups and
tioningly obey.39 Members are not allowed to individuals as "enemies".45 In government,
publicly criticise leaders or expose wrongdo- these movements often try to crush opposi-
ing by them. Loyalty to the party and leader- tion or cut them off from state patronage.
ship is sacred.40 The ANC appears to be increasingly follow-
ing this trend.
Because the liberation movement was the
leading movement in the fight for liberation, The ANC appears to be increasingly govern-
many of its members argue that not only is ing in the interests of what it deems its own
it entitled to the spoils of government, but constituencies. The ANC's March 2007 dis-
only its loyal cadres should be appointed to cussion document on organisational renewal
key positions in government. says there is a tension between the "imper-
atives of the ANC as a national liberation
The ANC has introduced the policy of de- movement with a distinct culture and revo-
ployment whereby the party decides who lutionary traditions", and the "demands and
should be appointed to key positions in the obligations" of the government overseeing a
public service, who should get government democracy, which is supposed to represent
contracts and tenders and who should be `"the nation as a whole".
included in large black economic empower-

ment transactions with private companies. Worryingly, it appears that the ANC's organ-
Gwede Mantashe, the general secretary of isational culture has increasingly become
the ANC, said the party will not do away with ossified in government. President Jacob
cadre deployment, because the ANC does Zuma said corruption was only a crime in

William Gumede
a "Western paradigm", and even if it was policy frameworks, unequal allocation of

a crime, there are "no victims".46 However, financial and human resources, mismanage-
Gwede Mantashe, the ANC general secretary, ment and little adherence to the concept of
said greed and corruption was "devouring" accountability.50
the ANC.47 "(Greed) is eating (the ANC) to
death … (Some ANC members) have become Red tape was endemic, from complex bureau-
like mice in a cheese factory", Mantashe cratic procedures to foot-dragging on what
said. Kgalema Motlanthe,48 then ANC gen- should be routine applications. At the lower
eral secretary, in his 2005 ANC organisa- levels of the state, administration was char-
tional report to the ANC's national general acterised by a compliance culture. The cul-
council, said that many of the problems of ture was one of "bureaucratic accountability",
the public service have much to do with the `"the extent to which rules and procedures
`"preoccupation on the part of (ANC) public were adhered to and not with regard to the
representatives with securing access to and services delivered to members of society".51
control over public resources".
Furthermore, at the time of the transition
The Inherited Administrative to democracy, the state inherited from the
Culture of the South apartheid regime had substantially less of
African Bureaucracy what Michael Mann calls "infrastructural
power"52–the ability of the state to pen-
The White Paper on the Transformation etrate civil society and get its decisions to
of the Public Service of 1995 analysed the be carried out.
state of the public service at the time: lack
of representativity, lack of legitimacy, lack The apartheid state was focused on serving
of service delivery, centralised control and a small white minority. It was positioned to
top-down management, secrecy, lack of oppress the black majority. It was racially
accountability and transparency, absence segregationist in its DNA. The Bantustans
of effective management information, low and homelands linked to the "mother" apart-
productivity, poorly paid and demotivated heid state were positioned to service specific
staff, conflicting labour relations, and a lack ethnic groups. Linked to the apartheid state
of professional ethos and work ethic49. Inef- was customary power,53 especially in the
ficiencies were endemic. rural areas, where some traditional leaders
were locked into the apartheid state struc-
The public service was highly fragmented, tures, either as part of the Bantustans or
whether along ethnic, regional or political homelands or alongside it in the rural areas.
lines. The public service was insular, from
the black majority, run along hierarchi- The diverse make-up of the different com-
cal and militaristic lines; with fragmented ponents–national departments, provinces,
structures and services, lack of co-ordinated Bantustans and homelands–inherited from

William Gumede
the apartheid public services, reinforced a Democratic South African

silo-style operation. The ANC government Public Service – Racial
inherited the state as part of a compromise Parity, But Untransformed
deal, with the civil servants of the ancient Administrative Culture
regime, whether from the apartheid state
proper or the homelands, the customary It is estimated that South Africa has lost at
structures of the traditional leaders, the least R700bn in public sector corruption
administrative culture of the apartheid and over the past 20 years.56 The Special Investi-
homelands states, and its norms and values gation Unit (SIU) of the National Prosecuting
all retained. Authority, in a report, said South Africa was
losing as much of 20 percent or between
With an apartheid state already fragmented R25bn and R30bn of the total public sector
along regional, racial and ethnic lines, the procurement budget to corruption annu-
danger was that the incoming ANC govern- ally.57 Auditor-General, Kimi Makwetu,58 said
ment would superimpose its own fractures that public sector corruption goes unpun-
above the already fragmented apartheid ished too often, and findings of audits are
state. The apartheid state was removed from rarely addressed. Willie Hofmeyr said there
progressive civil society, yet it was embed- was "a culture of impunity"59 in the public
ded in white civil society–white business, service.
white labour, white academia. The demo-
cratic state, when it came to power, was The Auditor-General reported in 2013 that
viewed with suspicion, if not on occasion only 22 percent of the public sector institu-
was actively opposed, by civil society groups tions achieved clean audit opinions in the
that were institutionally linked to the apart- 2012/2013 financial year. In the 2011/2012
heid government. financial year, the Auditor-General had actu-
ally audited 29 fewer departments and enti-
The ANC General Secretary, Gwede Man- ties than the year before, yet the resources
tashe, said the ANC government had "inher- wasted were more. The Auditor-General
ited a well-entrenched value system that blamed weak political leadership and over-
placed individual acquisition of wealth at the sight, lax internal financial controls, disre-
very centre of the value system of our soci- gard for procurement rules and deviations
ety as a whole".54 Mantashe quoted Mbeki from supply chain management processes
as having argued "now because the white as the major reasons for public funds being
minority was the dominant social force in wasted, and ineffectively and uneconomi-
our country, it entrenched in our society as cally used.60
a whole, including among the oppressed, the
deep-seated understanding that personal In the 2013/2014 financial year, the public
wealth constituted the only true measure of service spent more than R30bn on consult-
individual and social success".55 ants and outsourcing,61 the year before

William Gumede
R33.7bn was spent on consultations. Heads says that the ANC's "cadre deployment" has
of departments regularly give themselves often been misused to reward undeserving,
performance bonuses without conducting unqualified and inexperienced political party
proper performance appraisals.62 The PSC apparatchiks.66 The PSC (2013) says: "Cadre
says performance reporting in the public deployment has, in recent times, assumed
service is mostly compliance based rather a negative connotation as it is taken to
than focused on value for money and qual- mean the appointment, on purely political
ity of services.63 The PSC report states that considerations and patronage, of persons
`"decisive measures are necessary" to ensure who are not suitably qualified for the posts
the public service is fully developmentally concerned". There appears to be a culture
orientated. The PSC (2009) noted the public in the public service of keeping even rou-
service needed "to ensure that complaints tine information away from the public, often
and recourse mechanisms are functional, under the rubric of the "national interest".
and that these inspire confidence among The proposed Protection of State Informa-
citizens that their concerns will be addressed tion Act will, if signed into law, undermine
timeously and seriously".64 transparency in public institutions–and
thus undermine the accountability of these
Policies, decisions and senior appointments institutions. By 2009, nearly 79 percent of
in the public sector have often been central- all public servants were black.67 However,
ised in the same way that they are central- the PSC worried that making the public ser-
ised in the ANC. Similarly, the public service vice representative had become a "target-
appears to have become intolerant of dis- chasing" exercise, without consideration for
sent, in a similar way in which criticisms the quality, competence and suitability of the
and dissent are frowned upon in the ANC. candidates appointed. Progress for gender
There appears to have been a convergence representativity has been slower, with only
between the top-down style of the inherited 35 percent by the end of 2009.68 The modest
apartheid public sector and the top-down disability target of 2 percent has not been
administrative culture of an influential sector met over the term of the ANC government.
of the ANC liberation movement. There has
recently been an upsurge in community Conclusion
protests against poor public services. The
PSC has noted that this development "should The ANC government has mostly succeeded
come as a signal to government that effec- in transforming the racial make-up of the
tive communication and public participation public service, but that has not transformed
must remain a fundamental priority".65 its administrative culture. Aspects of the
character of the apartheid, Bantustan and
The public service appears not to have suf- homelands public services have endured.
ficient and well-distributed competencies, Negative aspects of the ANC's own organi-
capabilities and functional skills. The PSC sational culture have also taken root in the

William Gumede
public service, and, combined with the so. The inability to transform the administra-
apartheid-era culture, have brought about a tive culture of South Africa's public service
hybrid administrative culture in the public is at the root of its poor performance. While
service, which has undermined efforts to the ANC is dominant, to transform the public
make it developmental, accountable, effec- service's administrative culture, the ANC's
tive and democratic, despite efforts under- organisational culture will also have to be
taken by the democratic government to do overhauled.
William Gumede is Associate Professor at the University of Witwatersrand's School of Governance

in Johannesburg. He is a bestselling author and prolific writer who often shapes the public discourse.
He writes for the different media houses. His book Thabo Mbeki and the Battle for the Soul of the
ANC, is one of the finest analyses that offers invaluable insights into the politics of the ANC as
the governing party and Mbeki as its leader, and the President of South Africa. He is the founder
of Democracy Works – a Foundation established to promote democracy in South Africa and other
African countries, as well as in developing countries in the rest of the world. He has been a lead
advisor of the Development Bank of South Africa (DBSA). Gumede is the former deputy and
managing editor of The Sowetan newspaper.

1 Gaventa, J. 2004. Strengthening par- F. 2013. Understanding adminis 12 Kumar, S. 2011. Indian perspectives
ticipatory approaches to local trative culture: Some theoretical of administrative culture. Indian
governance: Learning the lessons and methodological remarks. Journal of Public Administration,
from abroad. National Civic Review, International Journal of Public 57 (1):1.
93:16-27. Administration , 36:900-909 13 Wilson, G.K. 1993. Counter-elites
2 Fraser-Moleketi, G. & Saloojee, A. (Special Issue). and bureaucracies. Governance,
2008. South Africa's Public Service: 7 Mobley, W.H., Wang, L. & Fang, 6(3):426-437.
Evolution and Future Perspective. K. 2005. Organizational culture: 14 Jamil, I., Askvik, S. & Hossain,
Address to the New World, New Measuring and developing it in your F. 2013. Understanding adminis
Society, New Administration con organization. Harvard Business trative culture: Some theoretical
ference. Quebec City, August 25, p.4. Review, Summer 2005:128-139. and methodological remarks.
3 Alvesson, M. 2012. Understanding 8 Almond, G. & Verba, S. 1963. The International Journal of Public
organizational culture. London: civic culture: Political attitudes and Administration, 36:900-909 (Special
Sage; Sharma, R.D. 2002. Concep democracy in five nations. Princeton, Issue).
tual Foundations of Administrative NJ: Princeton University Press. 15 March, J.G. & Olsen, J.P. 1989.
Culture – an attempt at analysis 9 Kumar, S. 2011. Indian perspectives Rediscovering institutions: The org
of some variables. International of administrative culture. Indian anizational basis of politics. New
Review of Sociology, 12(1): 65-75. Journal of Public Administration, York: The Free Press, pp. 119-134.
4 Almond, G. & Verba, S. 1963. The 57 (1): 117-126. 16 Jamil, I., Askvik, S. & Hossain, F.
civic culture: Political attitudes and 10 Ibid. 2013. Understanding administrative
democracy in five nations. Princeton, 11 Henderson, K.M. 2004. Character- culture: Some theoretical and
NJ: Princeton University Press. izing American public adminis methodological remarks. Interna-
5 Alvesson, M. 2012. Understanding tration: The concept of administrative tional Journal of Public Admin
organizational culture. London: culture. International Journal of istration, 36:904 (Special Issue).
Sage. Public Sector Management, 17:238- 17 Jamil, I., Askvik, S. & Hossain, F.
6 Jamil, I., Askvik, S. & Hossain, 239. 2013. Understanding administrative

William Gumede
culture: Some theoretical and meth values: Theory and empirical Africa: A case study on the impact
odological remarks. International tests in 20 countries. Advances in of organizational culture. MBA
Journal of Public Administration, experimental social psychology, Thesis, Rhodes University, p. 144;
36:901 (Special Issue). vol. 25. New York: Academic Press. Wenzel, P. 2007. Public-sector
18 Jamil, I., Askvik, S. & Hossain, F. 29 Jamil, I., Askvik, S. & Hossain, transformation in South Africa:
2013. Understanding administrative F. 2013. Understanding adminis- Getting the basics right. Progress
culture: some theoretical and meth- trative culture: Some theoretical in Development Studies 7, (1):48;
odological remarks. International and methodological remarks. Inter- Gumede, W.M. 2011. Driving
Journal of Public Administration, national Journal of Public Admin change through institutional inno
36:905 (Special Issue). istration , 36:900-909 (Special vation, Chapter 9, Development
19 Ibid. Issue). Report 2011. Prospects for South
20 Zafarullah, H. & Huque, A.S. 2001. 30 Jamil, I. 2007. Administrative cul Africa's Future, Development
Public management for good govern- ture in Bangladesh. Dhaka: A.H. Bank of Southern Africa. Midrand:
ance: Reforms, regimes and reality Development Publishing House. DBSA Publications.
in Bangladesh. International Journal 31 Duverger, M. 1954. Political parties. 39 Gumede, W.M. 2005. Thabo Mbeki
of Public Administration, 24(12). London: Methuen and Company. and the battle for the soul of the
21 Jamil, I. & Dangal, R. 2009. The state 32 Arian, A. & Barnes, S.H. 1974, The ANC. Cape Town: Struik Random
of bureaucratic representativeness dominant party system: A neglected House.
and administrative culture in model of democratic stability, The 40 Mqaqelwa, A. 2012. ANC must
Nepal. Contemporary South Asia, Journal of Politics, 36(3) pp. 592-61 take a chill pill – Vavi. The Times,
17(2):193-211. 33 ANC. 2007. Towards the centenary December 20.
22 Jamil, I., Askvik, S. & Hossain, F. of the ANC: Discussion document 41 Mantashe, G. 2014. Comments foll-
2013. Understanding administrative on organizational review – A strat owing the ANC's National Exec-
culture: Some theoretical and egic agenda for organizational re utive Committee meeting. Johan
methodological remarks. Internat- newal. ANC discussion document, nesburg, June 9.
ional Journal of Public Adminis March 30. 42 Republic of South Africa. 1996.
tration, 36:905 (Special Issue). 34 Zuma, J. 2008. Jacob Zuma speech Constitution of the Republic of
23 Jamil, I., Askvik, S. & Hossain, F. to black business leader. October South Africa, 1996 (Section 195),
2013. Understanding administrative 7, Sandton. Pretoria, Government Printer.
culture: Some theoretical and meth- 35 Ramatlhodi, N. 2012. Constitution 43 Republic of South Africa. 1996.
odological remarks. International alism and its challenges in South Constitution of the Republic of
Journal of Public Administration, Africa. Harold Wolpe Conference South Africa, 1996 (Section 195),
36:906 (Special Issue). on Revisiting the political econ- Pretoria, Government Printer.
24 Jamil, I., Askvik, S. & Hossain, F. omy of social change in con 44 Republic of South Africa. 1996.
2013. Understanding administrative temporary South Africa. June 24, Constitution of the Republic of
culture: Some theoretical and meth Johannesburg. South Africa, 1996 (Section 195),
odological remarks. International 36 African National Congress. 2012. Pretoria, Government Printer.
Journal of Public Administration, Strategy and tactics of the ANC. 45 Gumede, W.M. 2005. Thabo Mbeki
36:903 (Special Issue). December 2012. and the battle for the soul of the
25 Cresswell, J.W. 2003. Research 37 Gumede, W.M. 2011. Driving change ANC. Cape Town: Struik Random
design: Qualitative, quantitative, and through institutional innovation, House.
mixed methods approaches. Thous Chapter 9, Development Report 46 Hulley, M. 2009. Written represent-
and Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 2011. Prospects for South Africa's ations to the National Prosecuting
26 Christensen, T., Laegreid, P. & future, Development Bank of Authority on behalf of Jacob Zuma.
Rovik, K.A. 2007. Organisation theo- Southern Africa. Midrand: DBSA March 3 (Addendum to the NPA
ry and public sector: Instrument, Publications. Gumede, W.M. 2008. memorandum drawn up by Billy
culture and myth. London: Rout Modernising the ANC: The Downer, senior state prosecutor,
ledge. legacy of Thabo Mbeki, State of Directorate of Special Operations,
27 Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G.J. & the Nation: South Africa. 2008. P. National Prosecuting Authority,
Minkov, M. 2010. Cultures and org- Kagwanja & Kondlo, K. Pretoria: March 3, 2009).
anizations: Software of the mind (3rd HSRC Press. 47 Mantashe, G. 2013. Speech to the
Ed.) New York: McGraw Hill. 38 See Williams, Q.W. 2006. Implem rally of the ANC 's 101st anniver
28 Schwartz, S.H. 1992. Universals in enting performance management sary. Richmond, KwaZulu-Natal,
the content and structure of at local government level in South January 8.

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48 Motlanthe, K. 2005. ANC Organis Violet Seboni Lecture. Johannes 62 Public Service Commission. 2010.
ational Report. Points 19 and 27. burg City Hall. April, 16. State of the Public Service Report
49 RSA. 1995. White Paper on the 55 Quoted in Gwede Mantashe. 2010. 2010: Integration, Coordination and
Transformation of the Public Inaugural Violet Seboni Lecture. Effective Service Delivery. Pretoria,
Serv ice. Pretoria: Government Johannesburg City Hall. April, 16. Government Printer, October, p.59.
Printers, para. 3.1.1. 56 Institute of Internal Auditors. 2015. 63 Public Service Commission. 2010.
50 RSA. 1995. White Paper on the Report for the Anti-Intimidation Assessment of the State of Human
Transformation of the Public Ser and Ethical Practices Forum. Resource Management in the Public
vice. Pretoria: Government Print- January 28, Johannesburg. Service. Pretoria: Government Print-
ers; Gumede, W.M. 2011. Driving 57 Special Investigation Unit. 2011. er, p.31.
change through institutional inno SIU Report and presentation to 64 Public Service Commission. 2009.
vation, Chapter 9, Development the Justice Committee, National State of the Public Service. Pretoria:
Report 2011 - Prospects for South Assembly, Cape Town, 12 October. PSC.
Africa's Future, Development 58 Makwetu, K. 2014. Comments at 65 Public Service Commission. 2010.
Bank of Southern Africa. Midrand: the Institute of Internal Auditors State of the Public Service Report
DBSA Publications. Forum. Emperors Palace, Johan 2010: Integration, Coordination
51 Naidoo, G. 2004. Leadership and nesburg, February 10. and Effective Service Delivery.
governance for a sustainable public 59 Hofmeyr, W. 2011. Responding Pretoria, Government Printer,
service: The case for selected questions following the SIU Report October, p.59.
South African public service and presentation to the Justice 66 Public Service Commission. 2013.
organizations. Unpublished PhD Committee, National Assembly, Building a capable, career-orien
thesis, University of Pretoria, p. 7. Cape Town, 12 October. ted and professional public
52 Michael Mann. 1984. The auton 60 See Auditor General Report. 2006. service to underpin a capable and
omous power of the state: Its origins, General Report of the Auditor developmental state in South Africa.
mechanisms and results. Archives General on Audit outcomes for the Discussion Document.
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185-213. Pretoria: Government Printer; Mak Fact Sheet on the State of the Pub
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Citizen and subject: Contemporary Institute of Internal Auditors Forum. Printer.
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54 Gwede Mantashe. 2010. Inaugural on consultants. 23 February. Printer.

Defining, Designing and Delivering Induction
Training in the South African Public Service
Thean Potgieter
National School of Government
Fran Greyling
National School of Government
Abstract of induction, as well as the function of ICTs

in facilitating learning and development
One of the tools for creating a professional across the public service.
South African public service, committed to
the values, principles and ethics of govern- Introduction
ment, is a compulsory, government-wide
and generic induction programme. The In life, first impressions count. This probably
Public Administration, Leadership and also applies to the workplace, as induction,
Management Academy (PALAMA)–now the and therefore induction and on-boarding
National School of Government (NSG)–was processes, for new employees are an impor-
tasked with the development and rollout of tant beginning to a career path. These
such a programme. Due to the size of the processes are specifically important in the
South African Public Service, geographic public service to acquaint new entrants
realities, the limitations of traditional induc- with the values, principles and ethics of the
tion programmes and the value of workplace workplace, as well as their responsibilities
learning, finding an innovative approach in the organisation and to the citizens whom
to learning and the development of new they will be serving. Induction training in
entrants was essential. The result was that the South African Public Service must ide-
conventional contact tuition evolved into a ally take place within the context of a dem-
blended learning approach, enabling partici- ocratic, developmental state. Based on the
pants to tap into the benefits of eLearning. annual intake into the South African Public
This research article focuses on induction Service (estimated at as many as 3 100 new
training in the South African Public Service entrants per month) more than 36 000 new
with emphasis on the rationale and context public servants might become eligible for

Defining, Designing and Delivering Induction Training in the South African Public Service
induction training per year.1 This training by a second comprehensive research project
demand requires new learning and develop- on induction during 2014 and 2015. The
ment approaches that transcend the borders significance of this project lies in its focus
of a face-to-face classroom. In addition, the on trends and patterns in government-wide,
potential target population for public ser- generic induction training programmes
vice training in national, provincial and local from 2004 to 2014. It is an interpretive
government could be as high as 1.7 million understanding of the philosophical under-
public servants.2,3 It would therefore be criti- pinnings of induction, the changing policy
cal to find an applicable learning and devel- environment and the associated training that
opment approach, which includes the use occurred over a period of time, and it might
of ICTs to tap into the benefits of eLearning inform future policy development.5
to roll out training to scale. This research
report emanates from two comprehensive, In the meantime, PALAMA was tasked by a
recent research projects on induction, vari- Ministerial Directive (November 2012) to
ous surveys and organisational reports, as develop and implement a new compulsory
well as monitoring and evaluation findings induction programme (government-wide
from the Public Administration, Leadership and generic) with the aim of promoting the
and Management Academy (PALAMA), now professionalisation of the South African
the National School of Government (NSG). Public Service.6 The primary intention of
Although literature on relevant theory was this programme was to "induct new recruits
utilised, the focus is rather on the applica- into the values and principles of the public
tion of theory in the context of public service service; instil the calling of the public ser-
induction in South Africa. Hence, primary vice as a profession that thrives on ethical
sources from PALAMA and the NSG were behaviour in the delivery of public goods,
heavily relied upon in an effort to provide an services and works to the citizens, and the
original picture of the issue at hand. protection of the financial resources and
assets of the State."7 The intention was to
The first broad research project on the move away from typical short interventions
induction and on-boarding processes in the to distributed practice in order to promote
South African Public Service commenced in the retention of learning and the implemen-
2012 and was completed by March 2013. tation of new knowledge, skills and values
The purpose of the research was to study in the workplace. This is in line with Ebb-
the policy imperatives regarding induction, inghaus' (1885) thinking, who, as early as
obtain views and perceptions of public serv- the nineteenth century, established that
ants and trainers on the broader formal and new learning materials need to be reviewed
informal induction processes, and provide over time in order to be stable in memory.8
useful guidelines for the further develop- A blended solution was proposed to harness
ment of induction and reorientation within the opportunities offered by ICTs to support
the public service.4 This project was followed and enhance contact tuition in the extended

induction programme spread over a year. to the public service? How can induction be
The development of the eLearning compo- conceptualised, and what should such pro-
nent of the blended solution was shaped by grammes include? How should induction
guidelines for effective practice and practi- programmes be designed and what is the
cal experience of eLearning implementation role of ICTs in their implementation? Which
in the South African Public Service. lessons can be shared and what is the con-
tribution of ICTs in the rollout of induction
Between November 2012 and May 2013, programmes?
a formative evaluation of the programme,
including the eLearning component, and Relevance of Induction
after the piloting phase of each module, Training to the South
consultations occurred with stakeholders African Public Service
(referred to as Indabas–from the Zulu word
meaning matter for discussion). Learners, In government's efforts to develop a public
facilitators, material developers and moni- service that cares, belongs, serves and
toring and evaluation practitioners reflected delivers on its developmental agenda, few
on programme performance and developed processes are as important as the initial
improvement plans. In addition, monitor- induction and orientation process. Since
ing and evaluation practitioners conducted many attitudes and behavioural patterns
site visits during contact tuition sessions that influence the way in which public serv-
and interviewed learners about their learn- ants go about their business are probably
ing experience. In March 2013, an online forged within the first few service months or
survey was distributed to the participants in year, much attention has recently focused on
the pilot programme, specifically to obtain induction. One of the requirements for South
their views of their online learning experi- Africa to be a successful developmental State
ence. This article then, reports on the inves- is for the public service to be committed to
tigations and practical experience regarding national values, principles and ethics. In addi-
public service induction. It contains infor- tion, the public service must display the zeal,
mation on the rationale for induction, the knowledge and skills necessary to diligently
nature and scope of induction, as well as a and with commitment serve the citizens
blended learning design approach to address of the country. Therefore, the Minister of
this training need. It is an attempt to share Public Service and Administration called for
research and experience-based insights on the professionalisation of the South African
induction and provide practical guidelines public service, which commenced with the
for developing, implementing and evaluat- implementation of a meaningful and relevant
ing induction training design. In order to compulsory induction programme (from late
accomplish the above, the following perti- 2013 onwards), aimed at instilling the values,
nent questions will be considered in the dis- ethos and commitment for implementing the
cussion: Why is induction training important developmental agenda of the State.

Research on Induction reorientation to public servants. It formed

Processes in Government a distinct part of the induction process in
government, aimed at acquainting new
Given that induction training is accepted public servants with the core values and
as important to the South African Public competencies that are generic to the public
Service, a crucial consideration is how to service, to develop their understanding of
then conceptualise induction. Orientation how the public service works and what it
and induction programmes in government means to be a public servant. It was rolled
departments usually aim at familiarising out for approximately 70 000 new public
new employees with the demands of their servants and did not replace department-
work environment and with the skills and specific orientation activities or "on board-
attitudes necessary to effectively execute ing", but was complementary and generic.
their responsibilities in line with the appro- Besides formal training, intangible or unique
priate values, within legislative and policy workplace socialisation impacts on any
frameworks.9 Induction programmes were induction process which, during the initial
not initially mainstreamed and did not work period, could substantially influence
always receive appropriate institutional attitudes and behaviour in the workplace.
support and/or resources. Moreover, little Due to the importance of the induction
attention was placed on the need to ensure process in government, it was evident that
that existing employees continue to uphold further research on the matter was neces-
values and principles emanating from policy sary and, early in 2012, the research unit at
frameworks. Public servants, who have been PALAMA commenced with a comprehensive
in the service for several years, seem to lack research project on the nature of induction,
a sound understanding of government and the induction policy environment and the
their role and value in providing services. PSIP. Later in the same year, in accordance
This also applies across levels of appoint- with a directive by the Minister of Public
ment. The consequence was that newly Service and Administration, the rollout of a
appointed public servants took time to settle compulsory year-long induction programme
into their jobs and to appreciate the philoso- commenced.
phy of service delivery associated with the
developmental state. Hence, the need to pro- The purpose of the research project on the
vide more depth as part of induction became induction and orientation in the South Afri-
evident.10,11 can Public Service (first project) was to study
the policy imperatives guiding induction,
The Public Service Induction Programme obtain views and perceptions of public serv-
(PSIP), rolled out between 2008 and 2012, ants and trainers specifically on the PSIP,
was developed as a mandatory two-day but also on the broader formal and infor-
training course in an effort to provide mal induction processes. The study aimed
a common response to induction and to come up with useful policy guidelines for

the further development of induction and training and curriculum. Data was collected
reorientation within the Public Service.12,13 in various provinces and participants were
from both national and provincial govern-
The research methodology was structured, ment departments. An important research
commencing with a contextualised desktop project, focusing on trends and patterns in
study on South Africa as a developmental the public service induction training pro-
state and the relevant concepts, practices, grammes over the period 2004 to 2014,
experiences and policy imperatives in the followed. It is a comprehensive review of
field of induction and orientation. Primary relevant sources, is aimed at drawing atten-
research included a survey of induction and tion to inadequacies in public service induc-
orientation attendees as well as a survey of tion programmes during the period, and
facilitators and trainers. Data collected was informs future induction policy development
validated and cross-referenced against mon- and implementation processes. The analysis
itoring and evaluation data, transcriptions focused on the changing policy landscape
of focus group discussions held across the and its effect on rolling out induction pro-
country and within the various government grammes, the discernible trends and pat-
clusters and interviews with key stakeholders terns over the ten-year period (2004 to
(including staff members directly involved 2014), as well as what should constitute an
in induction at the NSG and other depart- appropriate design model for generic induc-
ments). This research phase was followed by tion training in the public service.
the final analysis and formulation of findings
and recommendations. The experiences, per- The project is therefore an effort at interpre-
spectives and opinions of more than 2 000 tive understanding of generic public service
individuals across South Africa in national induction programmes within the philo-
and provincial departments were docu- sophical and political context. A qualitative
mented and analysed. The data provided a research design was used for gathering and
wealth of information relevant to the further analysing data, which was appropriate due
rollout and development of induction and to the predominantly narrative nature of the
orientation in South Africa.14,15 The research information contained in the large number
project was completed in March 2013. of sources utilised. This study focused on
both primary and secondary sources and
During 2013, a further brief (but systematic) the authenticity of the documents was deter-
review of induction training, and its asso- mined at inception with emphasis being
ciated requirements, occurred. A compre- placed on policy documents, documents
hensive competency framework for various of strategic importance, reports and evalu-
appointment levels in the public service was ations with official status, and approved
compiled and questionnaires as well as focus documents.16 Relevant data was extracted
group discussions, were used to obtain views per theme and analysis occurred in accord-
and perceptions from officials on induction ance with main themes and sub-themes,

ranging from the philosophical and policy and individuals and also extends to peers
underpinnings to planning, rollout, imple- and non-attendees. Although the initial two-
mentation and monitoring and evaluation. day PSIP was short, it was evident from the
The document analysis provided the "lenses" respondents' reaction to a number of ques-
to rigorously and systematically conduct tions that, through participation, most of
a comparative analysis of key categories them gained a far better understanding of
across the different types of documents and how government functions and their role
made it possible to identify emerging trends in it.20 It also became evident that the con-
and patterns that could inform future induc- tent covered in the PSIP and in the depart-
tion design.17 The process followed, thereby, mental-specific orientation often overlapped.
enhances the credibility and trustworthiness This was taken as an indication that greater
of the findings. coordination and integration in distinguish-
ing between departmental orientation pro-
Research Findings on cesses and the wider induction training in
Induction Processes in government is required.
Government
Not only was the principle of induction
A clear distinction was made between training strongly supported, the timing of
`"induction" and "orientation", which is con- the training also seemed important. Most
sistent with the interpretations reflected in respondents were of the opinion that it
available literature, local and international would be most beneficial if it occurs as early
experience and the views reflected in the as possible in the working career: 51 per-
surveys and focus groups.18 Whereas "ori- cent of the respondents supported induction
entation" reflects the initial welcoming and training occurring within the first month, 22
familiarisation with the workplace, "induc- percent before starting work in a new posi-
tion" is the longer process that conveys core tion and 20 percent suggested it in the first
values, objectives and ethos of an organisa- six months.21 The above was corroborated
tion. Both, however, are linked to "sociali- by the interviews conducted in 2013 on
sation", which is a longer process that over induction training. Induction was regarded
time adjusts the newcomer to the responsi- as important and had to occur as early as
bilities, values and norms of the group and possible in the working career. In terms
the organisation.19 of the duration of such training, indica-
tions were that induction training for junior
Respondents, including both new employ- officials should be longer in duration than
ees and long serving members, were very induction for senior staff and management.
emphatic in their view that both formal and
informal orientation and induction processes Research on induction also provided infor-
are of considerable value in the public ser- mation on how public servants learn, what
vice. In their view, it benefits the organisation the main sources of learning are, and the

significance of informal learning processes socialisation and the importance of learning

as well as workplace socialisation. Formal from colleagues. Informal socialisation and
induction training was regarded as the most workplace learning is therefore significant,
important with regard to the functioning but it can have both positive and negative
of government, but not for understanding effects. The nature and effect of socialisation
a specific department or learning and must be monitored to limit negative pro-
coping with work responsibilities and the cesses and ensure that the positive effects
work environment. Whereas the role of are encouraged and strengthened through
human resources staff was seen as crucial emphasising to existing staff that they need
for understanding how departments work, to assist and support new employees.25
supervisors and colleagues were identified Since many skills are learned from supervi-
as key sources of learning and for under- sors, and such learning is usually informal,
standing specific responsibilities.22 This it can be formalised through mentorship.
places much emphasis on the notion that Mentoring can be used effectively to encour-
interaction with other people in the work age positive interaction in the workplace.
environment plays a crucial role in the Mentor-mentee relationships tend to be
induction and development of new employ- more informal than induction training and
ees. Induction and orientation is therefore although not as informal as socialisation,
a process of socialisation, an aspect that mentoring can support informal socialisa-
is evident in the literature and was clearly tion. If done correctly, it can establish and
illustrated in the research project. In their entrench a sound value system, a good work
investigation into the socialisation of new culture and ethos, and good practices.26
employees and their engagement during
induction, Lewis, Thomas and Bradley It is evident from the research on the induc-
found that knowledge transfer is positively tion processes in government that multiple
influenced by interaction with colleagues.23 approaches to learning are required (includ-
Managers can play a key role in the induc- ing eLearning, face-to-face tuition, and
tion process and, if managers do not encour- mentoring and coaching in the workplace).
age socialisation or correctly introduce Learning materials should be available in
new employees into an organisation, it may various formats, as respondents generally
result in disengagement. However, if they supported the notion that various modes of
do encourage new employees, the benefits delivery be utilised for induction training
can include the employee becoming more and even suggested that participants should
cognitively, emotionally and affectively be able to choose the medium of delivery
engaged. Proper socialisation is important to achieve learning and development.27
for positively integrating new employees.24 Though the notion of a blended approach
to induction training and a greater use of
Public service respondents recognised ICTs is a consistent result of research on
induction and orientation as a process of the topic, the levels and capacity of the

specific group undergoing training must be policy frameworks underpinning induction.

taken into consideration during the delivery As a result, future programmes should build
process. more on the "belief set" of the Batho Pele
White Paper: namely, "We Belong, We Care,
Despite the wider acceptance that a greater We Serve". Furthermore, evidence-based
reliance on ICTs in induction training is policy formulation is a government strategy
inevitable, implementing such an approach that should also be applied to the sphere of
across the board poses some challenges. induction programmes, and greater consid-
Major disadvantages include inadequate eration needs to be given to the implications
literacy levels among some staff members of intended policy provisions. Conceptually
on the more junior occupational levels (one eLearning needs to remain an inherent part
to five) and irregular access to computers of future induction programmes, as well as
and the Internet. Most staff members on on executive and senior management level.
these occupational levels indicated that they Conceptual frameworks on executive induc-
are not adequately ICT literate to use com- tion emphasise a teaching and learning
puters for learning, even if regular access approach aimed at engaging participants
could be provided. The experience of gath- and stimulating learning through a focus on
ering data for the induction research project theory and practice. Learning from peers is
is a pertinent example of these and other crucial as insight and understanding must
challenges to be overcome. Of the 12 546 be enhanced through practical applica-
persons invited by email and through SMS tions.29 Learning should continue during
messages to complete the research ques- the informal discussions, networking and
tionnaire (attached to the email or acces- coaching, while eLearning support must be
sible through a web link provided) around a constant feature before, during and after
1 500 emails were blocked by firewalls or the rollout of executive induction.
marked as spam. Some departmental email
servers blocked access to the web link and Induction into the public service needs to
some respondents could not complete the be a seamless process that facilitates entry.
survey due to restricted access to the Inter- For this to occur, the design and delivery
net. These issues have significant implica- modalities are important. Induction should
tions for eLearning in the public service.28 take place as soon as possible after appoint-
ment. Due to the expected effect of socialisa-
The findings, above, were in essence recon- tion processes, mentorship is an important
firmed by the research project on trends tool to assist newcomers in the induction
and patterns in the public service induction process. In addition, a blended learning
training programmes from 2004 to 2014. approach should be implemented that con-
A few unique issues came to the fore, such sists of classroom instruction, frequent dis-
as the lack of indigenous values and knowl- cussions with direct managers, as well as
edge systems within the philosophical and eLearning.30

Overview of the National are designed with the aim to professionalise

School of Government the public service in order to meet service
Compulsory Induction delivery expectations. The outcomes of the
Programme CIP are aligned with the National Develop-
ment Plan 2030,33 which aims to eradicate
Section 11(2) of the Public Administration poverty and inequality through building a
Management Act (South Africa 2014) man- `"capable, developmental, professional and
dates the NSG to "promote the progressive responsive State", with the public service as
realisation of the values and principles gov- the engine for growth and development.34
erning public administration and enhance This vision is, in turn, aligned with the global
the quality, extent and impact of the devel- initiative against poverty, disease and ine-
opment of human resource capacity in insti- quality captured by the International Millen-
tutions".31 In addition, in terms of Clause 4 of nium Development Goals for 2015.35 The CIP
the Public Service Co-ordinating Bargaining facilitates an understanding of the intents
Council Resolution 1/2012, the qualifying of the South African Constitution, govern-
period for new entrants into the public ser- ment's mandate, as well as service delivery
vice for pay progression is extended from and the public administration process. In
12 to 24 months.32 The aim of this exten- addition, it aims to develop norms, values
sion period is to ensure the development and and attitudes that contribute to building a
professionalisation of public officials. This professional, honest and considerate public
section provides a snapshot of the design service. The CIP also introduces participants
and implementation of a compulsory induc- to human resources and financial manage-
tion programme (for appointment levels one ment processes of government.36 Table 1
to twelve) piloted by the National School of provides a high level overview of the modu-
Government in 2012 and 2013. This brief lar programme of study.37The themes out-
overview of the induction programme is fol- lined in Table 1 are relevant for all levels
lowed by a discussion of the potential role of appointment. However, it is important to
of Information and Communication Tech- ensure that the focus and the depth, as well
nologies (ICTs) to support participation in as the complexity, of discussion are level
an extended induction programme for public appropriate. Notably, the programme forms
officials who are geographically dispersed. the foundation for the professionalisation of
the public service. Once participants have
The purpose of the CIP is to integrate new successfully completed the CIP, they are
entrants into the public service by social- then capacitated as public servants working
ising them and equipping them with the within their various specialist areas, such as
knowledge, skills and values to effectively leadership, strategic management, finance
and efficiently carry out the State agenda. and human resource management and
Therefore, the instructional materials, activ- development. The CIP is designed with the
ity structures, and instructional strategies view that successful completion of the five

modules provides access to further study in the authentic learning approach followed
public management and administration.38 throughout the programme. In addition,
The design of materials and activities for the taking into consideration the NSG's target
CIP, outlined in Table 1, is underpinned by audience, the design and implementation
the principles of active learning. MacDonald of the CIP curriculum are grounded in the
provides a useful definition of what makes principles of adult learning.
learning active, explaining that it is "a pro-
cess whereby learners are actively engaged In order to help participants achieve the
in constructing knowledge in a meaningful, outcomes of the comprehensive programme,
realistic context through exploration, reflec- implemented over a year, learning is sup-
tion and social discourse with others, rather ported in a variety of environments: in-class
than passively receiving information".39 Par- learning is facilitated by an instructor, fol-
ticipants in the CIP are required to do more lowed by the practical application of knowl-
than listen. They are also required to read, edge, skills and values in the workplace,
write, discuss and solve problems. Moreover, with the support of a supervisor. In-class
participants are required to solve real-life and workplace-based learning are comple-
problems to reflect the way knowledge, skills mented by an online learning environment
and values will be used in the workplace. where participants can access information
to prepare for in-class sessions, interact,
To illustrate the active learning approach, share resources, submit evidence of their
an example is used from Module 1 of the workplace learning and have access to on-
programme: Participants are required to demand support. Figure 1 (see page 612),
engage with the principles underlying the outlines the intended design, and explains
Constitution and Batho Pele framework. how participants navigate the blended learn-
Participants must, firstly, demonstrate that ing landscape.
they know these principles by defining their
meaning and purpose. Participants must The next section provides a brief rationale for
then demonstrate that they can apply rel- integrating ICTs in NSG offerings and drills
evant Constitutional and Batho Pele values down into the use of ICTs to support and
and/or principles to solve typical workplace enhance learning in the CIP.
challenges, which are presented in the form
of case studies. Finally, participants must The Role of Information and
demonstrate their ability to transfer their Communication Technologies
learning to the workplace by using practical in the Implementation of
examples to illustrate how these principles the Compulsory Induction
are applied in their departmental context.40 Programme
The above-mentioned example, typical of eLearning at the NSG is defined as the opti-
the course-related activities, also illustrates mal integration of ICTs in materials and

Table 1: Overview of the modular programme of study
Modules Focus Workplace application

Module 1: Application of Constitutional Participants are guided to reflect
Understanding the values and Batho Pele1 on their departments’ mandate
Constitution and your principles to service delivery. and their role in achieving it.
mandate
Module 2: The operation of the system of Participants are guided to define

Working the service government and democracy. their role in rendering the
delivery system and services their departments are
public administration responsible for. They are
process required to reflect on the
regulations and processes that
frame their projects and reports.
Module 3: The norms, values and attitudes, Participants are guided to

Being an ethical, which contribute to building a consider their departments’
honest and professional, honest, equitable professional requirements and the
considerate public and considerate public service. benefits of working professionally,
servant ethically and honestly.
Module 4: Managing and building good Participants are guided to

Building people working relationships. understand their departments’
relationships human resources policies,
processes and management
systems. They are required to
determine how these affect them
and others in their department.
Module 5: Responsible and efficient Participants are guided to

Understanding the management of finances and understand how financial and
financial processes supply chain processes. supply chain management and
of government processes affect their work and
how they account in relation to
their day-to-day work.
Source: Authors
1
Batho Pele means "people first". The eight principles were developed as a guide to improve customer
relations and service and to promote the government as a quality organisation.

activities to support and enhance learning. learners for service delivery. Furthermore,
eLearning, applied in the right way to appro- participation in eLearning interventions
priate capacity building needs, can deliver builds literacies and competencies that are
significant gains to the NSG, as well as the required to perform effectively in an infor-
overall public sector and, ultimately, the citi- mation society.
zens of South Africa. What follows is a brief
rationale for integrating eLearning in NSG As mentioned previously, the CIP brings
offerings. The implementation of eLearn- together in-class and workplace based learn-
ing enables the NSG and its client depart- ing complemented by anytime, anywhere
ments to use capacity building resources access to an online learning environment.
optimally. Significant cost savings can be The online learning environment is designed
experienced when comparing traditional to provide access to materials, information,
instructor-led programmes with technology- interaction and on-demand support to large
mediated learning and development, simply numbers of participants in different loca-
because ancillary costs are cut out. Using tions. The use of online learning tools, as
ICTs to facilitate distance learning saves outlined below, is described in the CIP pro-
on travel and accommodation, catering and gramme strategy. The design of the online
duplication of course materials. Moreover, learning environment is grounded in prac-
eLearning can be rolled out quickly to any tical experience and underpinned by the
number of learners. Speed and competence research findings and recommendations of
are therefore improved, while learners are eLearning experts.41,42,43,44
not required to be away from home or the
workplace for extended periods of time. As Induction into the public service is com-
a result, productivity lost from staff being pulsory; learners are required to complete
away from the workplace is significantly the induction programme successfully and
lower. therefore learner support is critical. The
eLearning component of the CIP is designed
ICTs, when implemented correctly, can sup- with a view to prepare learners for in-class
port learners through interactive course sessions and keep them engaged in the time
design and regular feedback. Likewise, between contact sessions. In addition, the
tracking of and reporting on learner per- online learning environment provides a
formance throughout the learning process space for continuous, as well as on-demand,
permits the flagging of at-risk learners and learner support. The online space aims to
timeous intervention. Furthermore, learning provide a rich learning environment, com-
analytics will assist the NSG to understand prised of eLearning tools that provide any-
learners and the context of their learning. time, anywhere access to learning materials,
The collection, analysis and reporting of learner-facilitator and learner-learner inter-
user data aim to continually improve learn- action, as well as assessment opportunities
ing experiences in order to better prepare with feedback.

Figure 1: Navigating the blended learning landscape
Step 1: Attend an in-class orientation to the programme

Gain an understanding of:
What the programme is about;
How the programme is presented;
Roles and responsibilities of participants in the programme;
Where to find help; and
Criteria for success in the programme.
Step 2: Log onto the eLearning platform Learners attend five

Read the key learning materials for the contact days per module
module. spread over a year.
Complete the knowledge check (quiz). Learning is applied and
Get automated feedback. supported in the
workplace.
The online learning
platform enables the
Step 3: Attend an in-class session NSG to provide anytime,
Apply learning in group and individual anywhere access to
activities. materials, information,
Submit compulsory activities for interaction and
assessment. support.
Get in-class feedback from the
module instructor.
Step 5: Log onto the eLearning

platform
Step 4: Go back to the work place
Submit the signed supervisor
Apply learning in work related
checklist to confirm that
activities.
workplace activities are
Discuss work with the supervisor and
complete.
get feedback.
Submit the compulsory work
Get confirmation from the supervisor
related activity for assessment
that workplace activities are complete.
by the module instructor.
Access feedback submitted by
the module instructor.
Source: Authors

The same design pattern is followed for every the eLearning platform to quickly and easily
module. Firstly, learners complete a knowl- share feedback with individual learners. In
edge check presented in the form of an online addition, through tracking and reporting,
quiz, based on the key learning materials of administrative and support staff can identify
the unit, which are accessible in the online learners who miss deadlines and who are at
learning environment, the purpose of which risk of not fulfilling the requirements of the
is to ensure that leaners are familiar with key CIP.
concepts. This optimises face-to-face contact
time, which can be used for discussion to col- Due to the large number of potential learn-
laboratively solve real-life problems. Quiz- ers, the bulk of assessment and feedback is
zes are automatically graded and feedback is workplace based, utilising the knowledge,
provided on submission of learners' answers. skills and experiences of learners' supervi-
This is a handy tool to engage learners with sors for assistance with, and feedback on,
learning materials and gauge their under- work-related activities. Supervisor-learner
standing of the topics at hand through the interaction is recorded in a workbook and
collection, analysis and reporting of quiz data. submitted online as evidence of learning. In
Learning analytics can be used to plan appro- addition, space is created to submit a docu-
priate interventions for learners who are fall- ment, signed by the supervisor, declaring that
ing behind in the achievement of learning learners met the workplace requirements of
outcomes. The automated nature of the quiz, the programme. This streamlines the involve-
and reporting tools, simplifies the collection ment of multiple role-players, as learner evi-
of large volumes of learner evidence and the dence is collected and managed centrally.
management of assessment processes.
The perceived contribution of ICTs in the CIP
Learners complete a variety of activities in was one of the elements monitored and eval-
class, but are also expected to demonstrate uated through a number of activities. These
their implementation of newly acquired activities are discussed below.
knowledge, skills and values in the work-
place. Providing an online "post-box" for the Process of Evaluating the
submission of compulsory workplace-based Role of Information and
activities serves a dual purpose. Learners Communication Technologies
who are geographically dispersed can com- of the Compulsory Induction
plete activities in their workplace and submit Programme
evidence of their learning online. In addition,
this functionality facilitates the manage- Feedback on the performance of the
ment of learner evidence: submissions are intended integration and use of online learn-
date-stamped and recorded in the system. ing tools in the CIP was gathered throughout
Assessors have anytime, anywhere access to the pilot phase, with a view to improving the
the submitted learner evidence and can use programme design and implementation for

future rollout. A reaction evaluation ques- relevant to the perceived role of ICTs in the
tionnaire (REQ) completed by learners at the CIP are recorded in the next section.
end of an in-class session, as well as a feed-
back form completed by the instructor, were Findings and
used to collect data on the five face-to-face Recommendations with
contact sessions. On-site evaluations were Regard to the Contribution
conducted to collect data from a convenient of ICTs in the CIP
sample of participants regarding their pro-
file and interaction, the quality of learning This section provides insight into the imple-
materials, the quality of instruction as well mentation of the intended design in real-life
as the logistical arrangements for face-to- public sector contexts. The first part reports
face training. To augment the data gener- on how participants responded to the inte-
ated by the questionnaires and observation, gration of ICTs in the induction programme.
semi-structured interviews were conducted Secondly, we report on the performance of
with a convenient sample of facilitators and the intended design, that is, to make materials
learners by using interview schedules.45 available, provide channels for communica-
tion and learner support, and facilitate the
In addition to the above-mentioned monitor- submission and management of learner evi-
ing and evaluation activities, post-module dence. With regard to the integration of ICTs
Indabas were held during which key role- in the induction programme, the orientation
players reflected on the programme per- to the programme aimed at explaining the
formance to develop improvement plans.46 purpose of the online learning environment
Finally, on completion of Module 4, a self- and to capacitate learners to use the online
completion survey was distributed electroni- tools to maximise learning. The observer's
cally to all learners in order to determine perception was that learners, especially levels
their perceptions specifically about the one to five, found it difficult to use computers
eLearning component of the CIP47. Learn- and follow instructions; this observation was
ers received a link to the survey via email. confirmed in an interview with the facilita-
Although the survey was completed anon- tor. The facilitator added that some learners
ymously, a unique link was automatically indicated that they did not have access to
generated for each learner and completion computers at work for learning. However, in
of the survey could be tracked. Learners con- the REQ, all learners on levels one to five and
tinuously received reminder emails to submit 96 percent of learners on levels six to twelve,
their feedback, and all learners responded. indicated that they understand how to use
the online platform. The majority of learners
The data gathered during these processes also indicated that they knew where to find
enabled the assessment of the quality of the assistance when needed. To strengthen par-
CIP and provided answers in terms of its effi- ticipation in the online learning environment,
ciency and effectiveness. The key findings learners have access to telephonic assistance

during office hours and unlimited access to incorporates ICTs) is that an in-depth analysis
email support. Learners typically feel unsure of the context of implementation is critical in
in a new learning environment.48 This con- order to appreciate the real extent of access
firms the importance of preparing learners to technology. In addition, change manage-
to function in a new learning environment, ment and eLearning awareness needs to be
especially if learners are new to technology- addressed in departments–in the same way
mediated learning and the need to provide that learners cannot be expected to attend
ongoing learner support. face-to-face training in their own time, it
is critical to provide time to participate in
The discussions during the post-module eLearning activities during the work day.
Indabas reinforced the concern that not all
learners have access to computers in the The lack of access to computers and the
workplace. However, all the respondents Internet in the workplace naturally compro-
in the electronic survey indicated that they mised the design of the CIP as a blended solu-
could access a computer in the workplace, tion. One of the main challenges discussed,
but to some, computers were not accessible at the majority of post-module Indabas, was
for learning. The learners who indicated that that the full potential of ICTs could not be
they were not allowed to use computers and utilised. This was not only ascribed to limited
the Internet for eLearning activities cited access. Other systemic and procedural fac-
the following reasons. They have a heavy tors include the following:
workload and are expected to complete CIP-
related activities during their lunch time or ●● Materials are not always available in
work from home. According to the learners, time to upload to the online learning
time allocated to CIP activities was not nego- environment in preparation for in-class
tiated with their supervisors.49 The learners' sessions.
responses have implications for workplace- ●● Learners do not have the opportunity
based and online induction training, as well to complete quizzes before an in-class
as capacity building of supervisors to support session.
participants in the workplace. Even though ●● Few learners submit workplace activities
the CIP directive instructed heads of depart- and supervisor checklists online.
ments to provide access to technology and ●● Manual administrative processes restrict
the Internet for CIP participants and time the ability to establish an online link
to engage with CIP activities, this was not between learners and the instructor who
always feasible, especially for participants facilitates the in-class learning.
outside PALAMA. This experience shows
that the availability of guidelines, policies The under-utilisation of ICTs compromised
and other regulatory documents does not quality learner support in between contact
guarantee implementation. The implication sessions as well as preparations for in-
for the design of induction training (which class sessions. In addition, the fragmented

submission of learner evidence made it dif- slow systems and limited time to access
ficult to keep a reliable and accessible record the online materials, the perceived benefits
of submitted learner evidence and the pro- reported here merit the use of ICTs to dis-
visioning of feedback to learners. Capac- tribute learner materials, use the online envi-
ity, planning and accountability internal to ronment to prepare learners for face-to-face
the training organisation, as well as in the sessions and provide communication tools.
context of delivery, is equally important to
ensure the effective and efficient implemen- Ninety-eight percent of learners indicated
tation of technology-mediated learning. that they prefer to have access to learn-
ing materials online in future programmes.
For the modules where materials were Learners indicated that the online learning
received in time for online access before environment is convenient, because peers,
in-class sessions, learners benefited. Eighty- the facilitator and resources can be accessed
eight percent of the learners who responded irrespective of time and distance. They also
to the electronic survey indicated this, and felt that the online learning environment
pointed out the following benefits: exposed them to the Internet and equipped
them with useful ICT skills. Learners also
●● Materials, once loaded onto the system, rated the availability of technical support
are accessible at any time. and regular feedback on their progress as
●● The guidelines for utilising online priority areas for successful participation
learning materials are clear, simple and in the online learning environment.51 These
straightforward. responses make it clear that ICTs have an
●● Learners are able to print or review important role to play in the support of
documents, prior to the training, in extended face-to-face programmes, such as
order to understand what the training the CIP, and support research findings on
is all about. induction processes in government that indi-
●● Interaction with the content, prior to cated a need for blended solutions.
the contact session, helps learners to
be better prepared. The experience, with the rollout of eLearn-
●● Learners can be informed about what is ing for induction, illustrated a number of
needed for an in-class session. tacit lessons. These lessons could be used to
make some recommendations, which follow.
In addition, learners pointed out that they
don't want to spend a lot of time on the Inter- Concluding Remarks
net (in the online classroom); they just do
what is necessary and log out.50 Although As the government department mandated to
learners experienced challenges, which address the training and capacity-building
included materials not being available on needs of the South African Public Service, the
time, as well as sporadic Internet access, National School of Government is responsible

for compulsory training programmes, such as bear in mind the limitations posed by the par-
induction training. Due to the sheer potential ticipants and the context of implementation.
size of the target population on national, pro-
vincial and local government level (it could Exposure to a new learning and development
be as many as 1.7 million officials), the use of approach, such as implementing a blended
ICTs has become important in enabling the solution in a traditionally face-to-face tuition
NSG to also tap into the benefits of eLearning. environment, requires a clear understanding
of the context of implementation and change
The mandate of the NSG is closely associ- management. It is critical that all involved
ated with developing a responsible and (learners, instructors, supervisors, as well
productive corps of public servants who as designers, implementers and managers
would serve the country with zeal and dis- of training) fully comprehend the role of
play the attributes and values required for technology in the learning process. Such
enhanced service delivery. Induction train- an understanding can enhance the optimal
ing is regarded as the first step, because it use of ICTs to support and enhance learning.
introduces public servants to the working Moreover, the infrastructure, integrated sys-
environment and acquaints them with rel- tems and effective and efficient procedures
evant normative aspects. It is also a process need to be in place prior to the rollout of
of socialisation for new entrants into the eLearning to scale–both internally to the
public service and, together with workplace training organisation as well as in the context
experiences, enables public servants to be of implementation.
prepared to be functional in the workplace.
As a result, induction training must occur The findings contained in this paper are
as soon as possible after appointment into grounded in research and practical experi-
the public service, and contribute towards ence, with due appreciation of the dynamic
making the integration of new staff members and complex public service context. Though
as seamless as possible. it is difficult to predict the likely influence
of the research findings and lessons learned,
A noteworthy aspect to be mindful of is that it might inform future policy formulation
induction is a foundational opportunity for on induction, indicate gaps in the broader
further training and development, rather induction and orientation process in govern-
than a training programme in its own right. ment and inform further developments of
Research findings illustrated the limitations induction training. As no baseline on induc-
of traditional induction programmes, the tion in the public service existed when the
value of workplace learning and the fact that research commenced, these findings address
innovative learning strategies are required. issues that are crucial for future research
Although different ways of delivering induc- projects on induction and are part of ongoing
tion programmes and materials should be research aimed at reinforcing the capacity to
explored and encouraged, it is important to evaluate public service training.

Thean Potgieter is a Professor and Head of Training Policy and Planning at the National School
of Government in South Africa. He is an Associate of the University of the Witwatersrand’s School
of Governance. He has been a Director of the Centre for Military Studies at the University of
Stellenbosch, Secretary General of the South African Military History Commission, Chair and Non-
Executive Director of Westcoast Aquaculture, and Chief Director of Research and Innovation at
the Public Administration Leadership and Management Academy (PALAMA), now the National
School of Government.
Fran Greyling is Chief Director at the National School of Government, responsible for planning
and organising the rollout of eLearning initiatives in the public sector. She worked as an instructional
designer at the Tshwane University of Technology and the University of Johannesburg, and eLearning
Manager at the University of the Witwatersrand. Her areas of research interest are eLearning and
professional development.

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O. Employee socialization: a plat 2012. National Development Plan 46 PALAMA 2012d. Compulsory
form for employee engagement? 2030 Our Future – make it work. induction programme indaba:
International Journal of Emerging Pretoria: The Presidency. Orientation and Module 1.
Sciences, 20(1). 34 National Planning Commission Notes. Curriculum Design Chief
24 Ibid. 2012. National Development Plan Directorate. November 2012.
25 PALAMA 2013a: An investigation 2030 Our Future – make it work. 47 PALAMA. 2013e. Compulsory
of the induction and orientation Pretoria: The Presidency, pp. 407- induction survey report. Perception
processes and initiatives in the South 443. Report. E-Learning Chief Direct
African public service. Research 35 United Nations. 2002. Millennium orate. May 2013.
Report. Research and Innovation Development Goals and Beyond 48 PALAMA 2012c. Composite
Chief Directorate. March 2013, p. 63. 2015. United Nations Millennium evaluation report for the orientation
26 PALAMA 2013a. An investigation Campaign. [Online] Available from: module of the new induction
of the induction and orientation http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ programme. Monitoring and
processes and initiatives in the South [Downloaded: 2015-04-15]. Evaluation Report. Monitoring
African public service. Research 36 PALAMA 2012a. Programme and Evaluation Chief Directorate.
Report. Research and Innovation strategy: New induction programme. September 2012.
Chief Directorate. March 2013 pp. Concept document. August 2012. 49 PALAMA. 2013e. Compulsory
57, 117-118, 158. 37 PALAMA 2013c. Compulsory induction survey report. Perception
27 PALAMA 2013a. An investigation induction programme orientation Report. E-Learning Chief Direct
of the induction and orientation guide. Pretoria: PALAMA. orate. May 2013.
processes and initiatives in the South 38 PALAMA 2012a. Programme 50 PALAMA. 2013e. Compulsory
African public service. Research strategy: New induction programme. induction survey report. Perception
Report. Research and Innovation Concept document. August 2012. Report. E-Learning Chief Direct
Chief Directorate. March 2013, pp. 39 MacDonald, J. 2005. Rules of orate. May 2013.
84-85. engagement: Fostering active 51 PALAMA. 2013e. Compulsory
28 PALAMA 2013a. An investigation learning for performance induction survey report. Perception
of the induction and orientation improvement. Paper presented at Report. E-Learning Chief Direct
processes and initiatives in the South the Inter-service/Industry Training, orate. May 2013.

CONTRIBUTIONS
Contributions to the Journal of Public Administration are invited from academics, experts,
and practitioners in the field of Public Administration and Management. Before publication,
contributions will be subject to adjudication. Contributions must be accompanied by a
certificate that the language editing had been done by a suitably qualified person.
The Journal is intended to provide the widest possible coverage of the various aspects of the
comprehensive field of Public Administration and Management. Public officials of all grades
and specialities, academics, as well as others, are invited to submit articles for publication to
the Chief Editor.
A variety of contributions may be made to the Journal. These include full articles, review
articles, viewpoints, and research results. It should be noted, however, that these articles are
weighed differently for the purposes of publication.
MANUSCRIPTS MUST BE SUBMITTED TO:

Professor M H Maserumule
Chief Editor
Tel: (012) 382 9769
E-mail Address: SAAPAM@tut.ac.za
Postal Address: PO Box 14257
Hatfield
0028
COMMENTS
Comments on the Journal are invited from readers who may address these to the
Chief Editor or to the office of SAAPAM at the same address.
Design, Layout, Typesetting & Printing: Beta Products cc

Website: www.betaproducts.co.za
CONTENTS
420 Editorial
Building a Humanitarian Public Service Imbued with Strong Ethics and Values:
In Honour of Great Leaders of Our Time
Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo
423 Exemplar Profile

In Conversation with Professor Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo, Recipient of the South African
Association of Public Administration and Management’s Highest Honour
439 Science of Public Administration:

Critiquing the Past, Recognising the Present and Imagining the Future
466 Indigenous Africa’s Governance Architecture:

A Need for African Public Administration Theory?
Benon C Basheka
485 Meaning and Significance of Conscience and Consciousness in Public Leadership

in the Post-1994 South Africa
Kwandiwe Kondlo
496 Leadership and Good Governance in the Public Service:

Lessons from African Philosophy
505 Martin and Mandela:

Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal
Leland Ware
522 The Transformation of Violence to Peace:

532 World Affairs and South Africa:

Country Rankings
Jonathan Story
549 Class Dynamics and State Transformation in South Africa

Joel Netshitenzhe
562 State Attributes:

South Africa as a Declaratory Developmental State Through Diktat?
Chris Landsberg
578 Public Service By, Of and For the Public

Barry Gilder
589 Administrative Culture of the South African Public Service:

A Finity of Transformation
William Gumede
600 Defining, Designing and Delivering Induction Training in the South African Public Service
PO Box 14257
Hatfield
0028
South Africa
Tel: +27 12 382 9769
Fax: +27 12 382 9042

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1. The Journal of Public Administration is a quarterly scholarly publication issued on behalf

6. Warning: Infringement of copyright exposes offenders to criminal proceedings

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015

423 Exemplar Profile

439 Science of Public Administration:

466 Indigenous Africa’s Governance Architecture:

485 Meaning and Significance of Conscience and Consciousness

496 Leadership and Good Governance in the Public Service:

505 Martin and Mandela:

522 The Transformation of Violence to Peace:

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015

549 Class Dynamics and State Transformation in South Africa

562 State Attributes:

578 Public Service By, Of and For the Public

589 Administrative Culture of the South African Public Service:

600 Defining, Designing and Delivering Induction Training in the

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 420

421 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015

The lack of understanding of how the public

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 422

Introduction shapes the evolution of the discipline, both

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425 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015

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These internal challenges can become the

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unstable transformation? I am introducing future and problem solve through effective

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which is paraphrased as follows: It is an I have, over many years of our democracy,

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follows: `"Transdisciplinarity is an attempt at in Public Administration is concerned. But

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Vil-Nkomo: We contributed to the end of South Africans. The international colleagues

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Abstract The reconsideration of the science of Public

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of genuine materialism, which sees not other undermines their epistemological

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mainstream scholarship in public administra- of Public Administration. Science of Public

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Administration? This question is inevitable, their cognitive outputs as primitive myths of

Administration is not a science, because it rior epistemological foundation".85 Humani-