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53
Numerical integration
Let the range of integration be divided into n
53.1 Introduction equalintervalseachof width d, suchthat nd = b-4,
b-a
Even with advancedmethods of integration there are n
many mathematicalfunctions which cannot be inte- The ordinates are labelled yr, )2, )b, . .. y'+r as
grated by analytical methods and thus aPProximale shown,
methodshave then to be used. Approxlmate meth- An approximationto the areaunderthe curve may
ods of definite irtegrals may be determined by what be deteiminedby joining the toPSof the ordinates
is termed numerical integration bv straishtlines, Eachintervalis thus a trapezium.
It may be show[ tbat determining the value of a unO,in"-" ttt" area of a trapezium is given by:
definiteirtegral is, in fact, finding the areabetweena
cu e. the horizontalaxis and the specifiedordinates, I
ursn = llsum of parallelsides)(perpendicular
Thrce methodsof linding approximateareasunder I
curvesare the trapezoidalrule, the mid-ordinaterule distancebetweenthem) then
and Simpson's rule, and these rules are used as a
basisfor numerical integration.
, o ' - l r t t +y z t a
l,,u
*)ro* rr,o
*)o*roto+ ")0,+t,,,)d
53.2 The trapezoidalrule
fl
xd + ) 2 + y 3+ y 4 + +)'
Let a requireddefiniteintegralbe denoledby i! ydt lrt
and be representedby the area under the gmph of
) = /(r) between the limits x : n and x
= b as * lr-']
s h o w ni n F i e . 5 3 . 1 .
i.e. the trapezoidalrule states:

v= tlx)
/widrhot\(t /Rrst+la5t\,/-*"l{ \l
/",* =(i,ii',illlil
P
1i t lil;#' ). \p;;i*7 ;
(1)
Problem l. (a) Use integration to evaluate,

13 1
Y2 correct lo 3 decimal 'places, I :- a"
Jt ,/x
(b) Use the tapezoidal rule with 4 intervals
to evaluatethe integml in Part (a)' corect to
3 decimal places
t t t l
Figure53.1
(a)L'fta'=l,'u-io'
440 ENCINEERINCMATHEMATICS
=F;l
fr"(])''
l'
L
r
: l4irI
rl3
J ]
with 8 interyals,the widrh of eachis ,; t
!]f 8-ivingordinatesat 1.00,
1.25,t.SO,
225, 2.50,2.75and3.00.Corresponding
,.".
t.l"S,Z.m,
valuesoi
are shownin the tablebelow:
: ql"Gl',= +[.n- A] .r4
:2.928, conect to 3 decimal
2
places,
t=
(b) The range of integration is the difference 1.00 2.0000

berweenlhe upperand lower limits, i.e.3_ t = t.25 1,7889
2. Using the trapezoidalrule with 4 inrervals LL50 1.6330
1.75 1.5119
gives an interval widrh d : 3 I : o.s *a 2.O0
I 1.4142
ordinatessituaredat 1.0, 1.5, 2fr, Z-S anaZ.O. 2.25 1.3333
- ) 2.50 t.2649
Corespondingvaluesof are shown in the
! 2.75 1.2060
table below, "u.h "orr""tIi 4 decimat ptaces 3.00 r.1547
(wh.ichis one more decimal place rhan required
rn the problem). From equation ( 1):
2 f3 2 rl
r yr 0 . 2 5 );{( 2 . 0 0 0 +r . r 5 4 ? ) +
t.7889
rL
t t. /d^ * (z
1.0 2.0000 + 1.6330

+ t.5lt9+ 1.4142
1.5 1.6330
2.0 1.4142 + 1.3333 .yt.zoaol
+ t.ze+e
2.5 r.2649 )
3.0 r.154"t = 2.932, conect to 3 decimal places
This problemdemonstrates rhatlhe greaterLhenum_

From equation (l):
ber ol rntervalschosen(j.e. the smallerthe interval
width) the more accuratewill be the value of the
13 i r|
r ! ( 0 . 5 ) I " ( 2 . 0 0+010. t 5 4 7 ) definite integml. The exact value is found when the
' |r t =
!,
dr lz number of interyals is infinite, which is what the
processol integrationis basedupon.
+ 1.6330+
r.otoz
* r.ruon)
)
= 2.945, corect to 3 decimal places. oot". ,r"rru." the trapezoidal
rule to
This problem demonstratesthat eve[ with just 4 dr using6 intervals'
:*'"'j' /, JJ;;;
intervalsa closeapproximationto lhe true valueof u"t*tt corect to 4 significant
LyzU (correcr.to 3 decimaJplaces)is obtainedusing 1;t;;;.:nt
the trapezoidalrule.
7T
Problem2. Usethe trapezoidal - -0
rule with g With 6 intervals, each will have u 1u1411
o6 2-
intervalsro "uulou* /t 4dx, conectto3 6 '
Jt 4x l.e. -' 1 4 rad (or l5') and the ordinatesoccur at 0,
decimalplaces J' lt n t 5 r 7 t
.
t 2 ' 6 ' +,r iJ . I^-Z and ;.2 Corresponding
' valuesof
NUMERICALINfiGRATION 44I
l F' /3 -
- zlr€shown in the table below: 3. \/sit9d0 (Use6 intervals)
I + Sln-r Jo
I
1 + ttt" (Use 7 intervals)
0 1.0000
(orr5") o:1s440
ff
30') 0.66667
| <or 53.3 The mid-ordinaterule
+5') 0.s8s79
| <or Let a requireddefinite integral be denotedagain by
[! ydx andrepresentedby the area under the graph
oo") 0.53590
I tor 6? y = f txt belweenthe limits x = a and x: b' as
shownin Fie. 53.2.
'-:
hr i5" \ 0.50867
1 2 '
so") 0.50000
| <or
From equation ( 1):
L .
l ' =I +=Sll on -,x* (*) {lrr.ooooo+osoooo,
J0 \tz/ \z
+ 0.79440+ 0.6666?
+ 0.53590
+ 0.58579
* o,tototl
)
: 1.006, conect to 4
significant figures Figue 53.2
Now try the following exercise With the mid-ordinaterule each interval of width
d is assumedto be replacedby a rectangleof height
Exercise 180 Further problems on the equal to the ordinate at the middle point of each
trapezoidal rule interval,shownas ll, )2, )5, .. y, in Fig. 53.2.
Evaluatethe following definite integralsusing
the trapezoidal rule, giving the answerscor- '+d!,
rect to 3 decimal places:
Thus ro"* dlt+dh+dy+
l,'
tl 7
x d(vr*Yz+Ytr"'tY")
l. | =i-" dx (Use8 intervals)
Jo t+x'
i.e. the mid-ordinate rule states:
Ll.569l
z. ,rnz*o* (Jse8 intervals) Ib / width of \ / sum of \ (2)

lrt ./
Jd -
(int.*t/ \ r n i d - o r d i n a t e s, /
16.979)
442 ENGINEERINGMATHEMATICS
Problem4. Use the mid-ordinarerule wilh Fromequation(2):

(a) 4 lnlervals.(b) 8 inlervals,to evaluale
132
corect to 3 decimal places ry (0.25)[.8856+ 1.7056
J, ,fror, J, "eO*
+ 1.5689
+ r.4606+ t.3720
ta) + interyals, each will bave a width of
|!t, + r.2978+ t.2344+ 1.17951
-l-, i.". 0.5 and the ordinates will occur
: 2.926,correctto 3
at
.1.0, 1.5, 2-0, ?.5 ad 3.0. Hence the mid- decimalplaces
As previously. the greaterthe numberof intervals
ConespondingvAues of are shown in the lne nearerlhe resultis to lhe rue value
{ of 2.92g,
\^ conectto 3 decimalplaces,
following table:
z
=
r.25 1.7889
t.75 l.5l19
2.25 1.3333
2,75 1.2060 With 6 intervalseachwill haveu *idth of 2.4;- 0,
From equation (2): i.e.^0.40_and,the
ordinares
will occurat 0, O.+0,B.gO,
I ?9, 1 9q, 2.O0and2.40 andthusmid-ordinates ai
1 3_ n2 d , 0.20,0.60,1.00,L40, 1.80and2.20.
| ! (0.5)[1.78+
8 9t . 5 l 1 9
- .Correspondingvaluesof e-,r/i areshownin the
rouowrng table:
+ 1.3333+ 1,20601
= 2.920,conectto 3
-l
decimalplaces x e 3
(b) With 8 intervals,eachwill have o.2o 0.986.t6

a width of
9.?: alg the ordinateswill occurat 1.00,1.25, 0.60 0.88692
1.19,-1''7l,..and tbusmid-ordinates at L125, 1.00 0.71653
1 . 3 7 51. . 6 2 51, . 8 7 .5. . . C o r r e s p o n dvi nagl u e s
' , - 1.40 0.52031
ot -/: areshownin rhefollowinstable:
J^ 1.80 0.33960
2.20 0]9922
2
.E
t.125 From equation (Z):

1.8856
1.375 ).7056 124 i
|,625 1.5689 e t dx ^! (0.40)10.98676
+ 0.88692
1.875 Jo
1.4606
?.125 1.3720 + 0.71653
+ 0.52031
2.375 L2978 + 0.33960
+ 0.199221
2.625 t.2344
2.875
: 1.460,corectto 4
1.1795
significant
figures.
NUMER1CALINTEGRATION 443
Thus the width of each of the two intervals is d.

Now try the following exercise The area enclosedby the parabola,the.x-axis and
ordinates.r : -d and x : d is given by:
Exercise 181 Further problems on the t d

, l b x z r r 3 l o
mid-ordinate rule + bx+ u") dx: + + T)_,
.J_,la L4r n
Evaluatethe following definite integralsusing
the mid-ordinai€ rule, giving the alswers bd2 . cdt\
: \ a/ d +, -r
correctto 3 decimal places. ) a )
bd2 - cd3\
- \ -/ - *
L l _,dr ( U s e8 i n t e r v a l s ) t 3 . 3 2 3 1 2 3 )
Jn t+t'
2
'rcd3
F/2 1 = zad +
Z. I _- ( U s e 6 i n r e r v a l s[ 0) , 9 9 7 1
Jo l+SlnY
1
ot
rl l"'
3- I :::dx (Usel0 intervals) 10.6051 ia6o+z"a\ 61
Jr x
Since y:albx*cx2,
rn/1 -
4. I t/cos3xdx (Use6 intervals) aI x:-d,y:a-bd+cd2
Jo
to.799l s1 ;:Q,)D=a
a n da t x:d,h--a+bd+cdz
Hence )r * ]: = 2a + 2cdz
53.4 Simpson'srule And y + 4tr+ yr:6a 42cdz (4)
The approxination made with the trapezoidal rule Thus the area under the parabola between x :
-d a\d x : d in Fig. 53.3 may be expressedas
is to join the tqp of two successiveordinatesby a
straightline, i.e. by using a linear approximationof \ d(y, + 4lz + y), from equations(3) ard (4), and
the form a * Dx. With Simpson's rule, the approxi- ihe result is seen to be independentof the position
mation made is to join the tops of three successive of the origin.
ordinatesby a parabola, i.e. by using-a quadratic Let a definite integal be denotedby I! ydx aaa
approximation of the form a + bx + cl . representedby the area under the graph of y : /("t)
Figure 53.3 shows a parabola y = a I bx I cxt between the limits x = a and x = r, as shown in
with ordinates)r, D and h at r: -d, x:0 and Fig. 53.4. The rangeof integmtior, b- a, is divided
x : d respectively. into an even number of intewals, say 2n, each of
width d.
Since an even number of interyals is specified,
an odd number of ordinates, 2n + I, exists. L€t
an approximation to the curye over the first two
interv;h be a parabolaof the form y: albx*cxz
which passesthrough the tops of the three ordinates
yl, y: and }j, Similarly.let an aPproximaljonto lhe
curve over lhe nexl lwo intervalsbe lhe parabola
which passesthrough the tops of the ordinates 15,
y4 e.ndy5, and so on, Then
a, * do,+ qv,+ vr)+] ri(x+ ar++ rs)

1.", I
Figure53,3
* ! 0 0 o r , -r,4 v - * n ^ + )
,T44 BNGINEERINGMATHEMAIICS
Thus, from equation (5);

tl 'l r
Y= t(xl :ia* -;(0.s) [(2.0000
|
Jt J
- + Lt547)
\/x
+4(r.6330+|.2649)
+ 2(t.ataDl
1
Y1
= + 11.s916
Y2 t3 3(0.s)[3.1s47
+ 2.82841
= 2.929, correct to 3 decimal
places.
1 t t r b ^ (b)
Yilh 8 inrervals,each will have a wjdlh ol-
3 - l
- ,i.., 0.25 and the ordinatesoccur at 1.00,
S
Figure 53.4 1 . 2 5 ,1 . 5 0 ,1 . 7 5 ,. . . , 3 . 0 .
Tbe valuesof the ordinatesare as shown in the
1 table in Problem 2, page 44e
* y z " + tI)4 ( y z * y +* . . . * y z , )
ad[(y,'l Thus, from equation (5);
.t 2(n * ys + . .. + t3 '; I
)b"_r)l
| :\/x- d * -
Jt
i3r o . z s l l ( z . o o oI .ot s++ z t
i.e. Simpson'srul€ states:
+ 4(1.7889
+ l.5l 19+ 1.3333
+ 1.2060)
+ 2(1.6330
I
- j \ / widrh of\ ,f/ first + Iasl\
fo u a, = + 1.4t42
+ l.?649)l
J"'^ i n t e r v a/t1 \ o r d i n a t e J
sum of even\ I
_L
' 4' / (s) : + 23.3604
\ordinates ) a(0.7s)13.rs47
r' ,- / sum of remaining1 1 + 8.62421
\ordinates )J = 2.928, correct to 3 decimal
places.
Note that Simpson's rule can only be applied when
an even number of intervals is chosen,i.e. an odd It is noted that the latter answer is exactly the
number of ordinates. same as that-obrainedby integration.In general,
.
Jrmpsons rule ts regardedas the mosl accurateof
the three approximatemethodsused in numerical
Problem6. UseSimpson'srule with (a) 4 integtation.
intervals,(b) 8 intervals,to evaluate
corect to 3 decimalplaces
l, J"or,
;l t"r rd6, correct
to 3 decimar
I"'t ,f
(a) lvith 4 intervals, each will have a width of places,using Simpson's rule with 6 interyals
3- l
- , i". 0.5 and the ordinateswill occur at
4
1.0, 1.5,2.0, 2.5 and 3.0. 0.
With 6 intervals,eachwill havea *idth of ; ,
The valuesof the ordinatesare as shown in the
. r o
table of Problem l(b), page 2140. r.e. rad (or 10"),andthe ordinateswill occurat
,;
NUMBRICALINTEGRATION 445
^ T n r 2ft 5ft ,Jt From equation(5):

" ' t 8' 9' 6 '9 'l 8 -"-3
lt2.o
Conesponding values of sinzg are Charse, s: I idt
Jo
shown in the table below:
1
- + 0) + 4(3.5+ 10.0
t(2.0)I(0
0 "
^ 7
r t
s
J f
t
1 t
a + 2.0)+ 2(8.2+'7.3)l
(or 10") (or 20") (or 30') :62mC
1.0000 0.9950 0.9803 0.9574 Now try the following exercise
Exercis€ 1E2 Furth€r pmblems on Simp-

son's rule
2tr 5tt 1f
e 9 l8 3 In Problems I to 5, evaluate the definite
(or 40') (or 50') (or 60') integmls using Simpson's rule, giving the
answersconect to J decimalplaces.
0.8969 0.8660
V--rr,'""0.9286 |, I
.tt/z
y'sin.td.r (Use6 intervals)
From equation(5): [1.187]
tl.6 1
z. I --L de (Use8 inlervals)
f5 tto
t - ! " i n ' ea e ro
Jo [r.o34l
I tffot (use8 intervals)
(ft) i,t.oooo + 4(o.ee5o
+ 0.8660) '
3 lr',o
+ 0.8969)
+ 0.9574 t0.7471
+ 2(0.9803
+ 0.e286)l 4. I xcosxclx (Use6 intervals)
Jo
I z r r
:. ( : ) [ r . 8 6 6+0 r L 3 9 7+2 3 . 8 1 7 8 1 [0.571]
J \16/
:0.994, conect to 3 decimal places. 5. I e'' sin2xdx (Use10 intervals)
ro
tl.260r
In Problems6 and7 evaluatethedeflniteinte-
Problem 8. ArI alternatingcurrent i has the gralsusing(a) integration,(b) tbe trapezoidal
following valuesat equal intervals of 2.0 rule, (c) the mid-ordinaterule, (d) Simpson's
milliseconds: rule.Giveanswers cofiectto 3 decimalplaces.
Time(msl | 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 u. (Jse6 inrervals)

Current i Ir^ *0,
0 3.5 8.2 10.0 ?.3 2.O 0 [(a) I.87s (b)2.107'l
L(c) r.76s (d)r.9l6l
Charge,q, in millicoulombs, is given by
'7. (Use 8 jntervals)
n : J]'o t at- Usesimpson's
ruleto I --: dn
Jz J2x- |
determinethe approximatechargein the
12 ms period f ( a ) I . 5 8 5 ( b ) 1 . 5 8 8I
L(c)1.s83(d)1.s85I
446 ENGINEERINGMATHEMATICS
In Problems8 and 9 evaluate the definite The distanc-e- Lravelledin 8.0 secondsis
integralsusing (a) the rapezoidal rule, (b) the g i v e nb y f f ' u d r .
mid-ordinate rule, (c) Simpson's rule. Use 6
intervalsin eacbcaseand give answerscorrect E$imale.this-dislanceusing Simpson's
to 3 decimal places. rute. grvtnglhe answercorrectto 3 sig_
nificantRgures. t28.8;l
11. A pin moves along a straight guide so
8. | \,/l+x4dx
JO that its velocity r.' (m/s) when it is a dis-
tance x (m) from the beginning of the
(a) 10.194 (b) 10.007 (c) 10.0701 guide at time I (s) is given in the table
to.1 l below:
v. I
Jot \/l - y2
r (sJ 1,(rn/s)
l(a) 0.677 (b) 0.674 (c) 0.67s1
0 0
10. A vehiclestartsfrom rest and its yelocity 0.5 0.052
rs measuredevery secondfor 8 seconds, 1.0 0.082
with yalues as follows: 1.5 0.125
2.0 o.t62
time t (s) velocity u(ms-l) 2.5 0.175
3.0 0.186
0 0 3.5 0.160
t.0 0.4 4.0 0
2.O 1.0
3.0 1.7 Use Sinpson's rule with 8 intervals ro
4.0 2.9
5.0 determinethe approximatetolal distance
4.1
6.0 6.2 travelled by the pin in the 4.0 second
't.o 8.0 period.
8.0 9.4 [0.485 m]
NUMERICALINTEGRATION 447
ry
CD
ra l o --
L - ep t t(fr r , " " 6 T) -nA Tt 'f e J "-r\
t ' r ff ao( l .artt..lt l(o
n , t
rltt^ f"rr ct i o't o(e #''' i 'z "lest r ibe'l
lV t
(t^lru'tLorr la,rt'n) t tt^rrt ,s /"- foscm'bei V'lta<s
*, - - -- , X^ 4 \w J ef< ' n J .n t v o n h b { e ' x.,cort' eg-

'f ,* z-,
'rtJi n tl / u^d loa V q l a e J /C ^ ,, ,fc x ,-1 , -- - ' l c * n )
v
- r / ^4
&fe fl i v en ' f u J ^ n ' l L u 1 ;c o w ! { ri 3 o n a' ' oe-tri <
{**41o.^- orYs €Xarr^'Ptel 4 /^*et'\o'1J i ^ : [ " t e Uq r "
proceJt 4 P^t-
f r e - s < w t < J \ . , ^ . t * t b w U . v -l u r , < - 7 T E
9i".91 ctcki.ve fl"rr-+, 1r,|ke tl.rt"r psl'"ts-
| 0*tJ*'
*'. {o (c dti* y ''rt'r"n€ /'''tt;'-u-1 volt"..-.g"f
|
f o ,o t €X f l. ; c t ' 4y e tto u 0 r.r l . " tt p $ * 6 1 . i = c^l pJ
I
I r w t < Y F o d l o H ., l
I
I
I t- D,f{yu^ro 7,+/o 1
A- F*n Wq",,JD;/&v'!,?QslA)t s\fpos. tt"t q -t.^{,{e
I
a A e P o i r J t ' r - { ' , l u n , ' a b l pl c * ; 4 a ^ ^ i ^ J e F e ,
*!c^,ti,'r.6
l jr
I de'nt V a r , ' a b l p' X f , , ' v ez r b 2 "
(,' -:"
'"'"'"''x,''
l,
*, f lcx;j
lr ' - ' * :-------T--------
, -,Ii, ,: do
l{,'
I l" 5
,,.',
,
, r
I ' r 1i::
| *. lLtx-t xa lt.
"'5' '."
',,
t',
I I i I l\ .,,,
I f ' , t 1- ,1 , * - , x^lt- ' i
I oc,'/ tt*i= I' {;*, - X.' cx"n4l X-1{, 1X./ -- -/ X\
I oTfavc,'to7rJ J'"1[.r<^f"y f-r lLo i,v,a'^g [r'r'o-t'r'1f*^rt.'oqo'{
i/olue-8 cc*u1b e 'e5tubl,"s\eJ e94, Alo:
I f, * f o
e "' ' , . r r1- ) + { , = { - , * | r
@ ( J . g r , . . 1 P o Ln5" , , t a1 s ( . : i v & r , u, lbP
I
I P tn t. . t x i * bx ' - t. r - t J( i , ' " \ p " ' t ' | N ,! : LY*,- F''
I\ .,' I
Ge^.e"ô"l^ n[,' = F,.t,.t{.' (:o, t,.t,--tt4
A - f, ",1 $r, nrJ J if /pre,,z< t
- fnrfl'n7 hure l"tr
L* J;#ur.*u d\v-<gci",t an b< n-1,,/S
dW"J bJ uL,',ty <7t'a{:o,n-j,"-
Anl'= an-'(1,'*, *{,') t',.,t,tr--t4
.EJ, 4'lr = ^(a[1)_^(!L_Frl
t,i, =-4(4{") = A(l:_{o}
B - b*rk vt","J Dilfe", n c<\ ( VJ : rL" l;vs(, p ^cku,*v.xJil1.
-
r
Vt' = g,'* [,'-t r ' '= t , 2 , - - , ' 1
=Vn-t (1, -f,,_,)
f[, 1 , =t , 1 , - * , 1 1
D'.4S1:S::_E_A
- tl ('=o ft.^ J,.ll..(^bte( A , v)
]
_ fli orl, i
{.' I l" 8l
x,
'I {{,, -n --v B:lF,wi^'J
Dr$('a'^qr'v
a'l.o
xXz , l , . l |o i; ': ^ : ! , , { ; i r o
^
" ra
lt, I : ;?
A'lt
>o_-.--.-'---
x3 ll, I il,
; [' 2, -
F ']' f" '"n,\ :uJ (raa) , . , ,
ÂtI3t
xq I Jq | , b,fl
,
t.\ : -
r*t<r po I,td"o'''
t .
L- !;n-e,* I
' , / l
L- 1e:<'.AnJ lnt<r po1a;lp)

c n f Q,^-qJ rot'{: t Avr.) t u-
^ +-:::'(x-,v")
i,.. K
V * 1'tr2'r(on * Gref ory \-,.^.
|
!
|
\ ":: .I 1
"o^l^t 11. 5- n 1
'
\ - LoXto.fl I r*f, f-"r** \*
r l
' I t{T t l l 1
I r , t ^ t ' y- / ") +
*"t* | fo') r/ v,)*
.,fr xr * [, 4.,-
- * + fr h 1 / - )
tnttrpaLo.d-lo,^ ;ill \ tT3d'
ier''e' { x -d " )
1- {'ne-e,(- nt----
, l )
-11 . t
di#<re,,n-\ ct,fê h.a{vv,.aJlq afru,nT-d a4 S f.,,o-t^L
"r .l.,r -tl
/"rteuti11 4*bt i [<rw rd ".r.J )
3i' tr0
" Ittr,'t .A f t A f r a|,,
/r'
K1'*t e -.+ t Ll,'

it a+i
K . ' . *= f ^ a f ,, + , if.. L l o
f ( + t a- f .'-' ' E T
L l t
a f, ' + . Alcl+r
X t'+ 3 A i,'-i-.
a$i,;
l(r'-r,9 tr,'-d
IN --['"u4"* u-L\*r)uz:1'"
* t!\Ul-,^t) afo -f - - ^
3 i
Et , r'B*Lwnr.t Dtf/.rrn<"> /
fc*;) YI, \r
\/rt
X., cl<o)
X\ , f cf , ) vf, ?t'
V*z
X1
{c r..l vl" Vtz
'. r5
Y f,t
Y+ 3 .- ()
Xg 1 cr z t v'lq
vtzl
XLr {c t ,.> VIC
f(xi =f"
"l^b t \ n(
*f
,tE{z', ",tqf" tL" l, -. ,4e d,'ff.",*. t*bln ('\
fu.r
,. X = o(t)8 ulL.-.-,^
9oLujr-.,- s, ,r :
=a^^_-
1'a
6q \z tt zti 3\i 5rz
_ 3
= Ar'
&, A' y,'
0
I I
6
t t)
4 6 ('
3 t1
L.
i E
"1 1 t-t t r
7q 6
'
| t,) 2 n
tc
'zt 6 Q r 6
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(.-tzl(<+6J
+4f
I
f, - :;:
,,).+t -.t -+_
C.rsJl]
t- .. - , t " L L C< r z ) ( ( t ( ) - + q - l l -c I r ) + ( < r 4 ) f * f{c+D (<i5)+df<.+j)+
L(-* z) ( .- i-(,) -+4Jzf( < +t)(,: -r5).+ 4lz
'- \{-, C--L .ja f.., -= -'l c1.
W'kp.ri ) = 3
I
, \
t2
( i' -5
,)<:
)
d<' r ( . t.r)( t1z) -+l (< r-1,)+ .r
i'= ={
-I*-( .
- Ct <.,
\c f r-J)( c +V) + q J I
( < : 1 2 ) ( < +<t ) + 4 f [ ( + t) ( ir) ) ' rrLi l l
,4.ff(<+ t t7) J -! l L( ,'n -) ( c -F(j +qr l t ( . . r )
x LL \ €.+
< t lt ) ( ))
.l
a1l
L t +,,L.cr;)i c.llJa-ql ( .{
-_
Lt t + 3 1 1L \ 7 ) + q . f ' L
( c + z ) ( ( + . ( ) + Q l z L ( c + 1 1( ,I + 5 , + q l :
(t+t .+(e+()J -+ (1 (tt4)+4ll((r7 kt

+
L('tj)(z +7)t+lzf1 , +z)(c*6)+.rl2L(. t)(.*f)-f qlr
i-.,^ _ ll a.
lo3
:.
i
t l t 4
/)^.e,y,r qtJebfat C Qad,o a
<v?
//*e
r .. ,
y'ol/ou'i YL3 / i n e ^ - S'3S(en eg:unt,'. n
-f
@,,X, 'f ctrrzX- -1 Or,"l. + - - - + Q , ^* , ^ = t t
Q-u*.r Qz-{. Qz>dr* _ _ - - + a - , . { ^
=br-
+ t
i
I
n* =b,''..
+ Q u , 1N
Qr.r Xr -+ a"\-X-*Q^r/3+
t, 'r7 ^* r*r Geffic*^1

r,,Lr-re e,,s. --
-'r'..?',
'tn/ X. 2Xt 7 - -- '/"^ Y^rro-bft )
b, rbr, --,b^ xYe C*"s{"4
in lAe f",n' o"*
7-he cxbowz g1sle,n C.to b€ u'rr'y'/en
or,.z- -l *,
l-*,. 4zz i," | I = I-:' I =+A*=B
a4'zml
lon,,, I i- 1 I i" I
l@l^ , fri ' vLn z liu^l lr^J
o^"-lL
tla l"cnv"t*" L6ks "*
7; 5r"lve- '(La- c(bove 9"151en'r
,tzellpA t'
L- Z'z J;rect ,ze4uJs z
A-Tle wqtrr * l'tveriion uoe//'oJ
b - fL€ G<,^sg E li*,'n alio n rrzelL'l'

c -7/,-z 4.qwSS-T*rJanfl,w)nd,o- trte/LoI^
*-7Ze /n7;ror, /zel/""Js z'
A ^T"..c*b'"E ,aTgthoJ
^
lZ- Gcttê -S (u"!<:7 a'\gtl' d
'
c - Rtt*X^t;on /tc'//uPJ
i
A- TL.n lttta,tri X I ntttYg) on &e1qe! z-

t /\ -,
Y /l'x=11 lo x=4'.4
z - e / e v e 4 ' e oo * ( A J AU(A)
+ i'= ;lAl+"
EK, Ur. .+ke netlr,'X r'r.wevê,oa
-z<xjt/*JOI* s*l ve { 1^_e
?
t=\\s rS\w$ L'rz-es,tt- e?ota.tio,a
:*
2 K r " + + X . -_a X 3 = 6
.-K,^3X.
+dKs=4
5X, +7Xz ^.X_: =L4
So\ô,t{o..r
s
l' 4 - a I r'l X ' 6

-3 6 I lx" 4
l*/ I
^ z ' lI
L5 v lh. zLt
lAt 'l; -f t - 4l;'1zl I
! + (-R l
q l
5
--3J
=-2"1:lo
il
I,'r l -4-', 1.,,- po
|-,'.Ja-qJ <k^nXe ,{
7-c
*ta.4rr'f
Lr lB_J es /-r/o w s fo
f 2 4
^?
*8 I tl c' n'l
,-l
l-t - z . l [lo
r "l_*_> NenR,= &2
L 5 v t " oJ
It 2 - -ul l+ c' oJ
-e (
I-( - zI Jl . r 6 l N B .= A - + R .
L 5 7 Lo o,j,
[ r z -ql [+ o o I
I ' ^-3r 'zl
\ l i i +" , o l - - - - - & R+. :
l".o l-?n I l ' l
fr L -qI
|tt. 6 "
l a - t3 .il l-t- -t . i A/-€,--*4,+R._.(-z)
"-
Lc l8J NRz= Rs+R.rl)
f-s/z ., o-l
_-_--
c1l+ 2- oi
[t c
, , l l _ ;- , =
lc t
l o c
tz)l-q 't i l _ _i N R : #
f l
I
o c t t + 2 o I *I
- z \ \ - ; _ t e 1 - _ _ *R . = R . + R r ( . ) + a l A
r l - z _ , 1
\
L o o
" ,
r-l[-++ Tz)
c'l L ol
Il o oI [+
r- >r t, tl * Lb - 3' z J . l T V o z + ' , u tl - t e h L '
L" c) rJ t ! '+ i l
:-: r 7r,,4r'":';i*;;
/nfrv'e'im'#n'Kol
I x I' =Il - zr u/ , -z3 hov 6ll -l l/+[ I

l x .I ,,, - t4 tln 124) I
Lx,l [-
'- 9't 8 +o = lV
o %X , = Z x 6 +^ Zt'=ti 'r o 774
o ? X , =1 7 , Y r = ^ 3 ' X3=-l
^t I
,,/. r / t
.- L-rrr,tS' c,rntirt ct(,orl -/ltfhld
[ aii f b.l (.'=1.,2' " 2 \

-Y*n-^ the vz*/rt'/
i' \'"-' r h
V'lel0// 7r* crrlklJper-(''n*5"1o"'
n-.irt X,
jolut"on o/ iln ttuui1 st.f 4 u'*'usfqns"*\
EX l,:^J 4te
{'r G"tu5g t4'z'"nl'a' "tze//'CIJ work t+D
€/.utio,'tS t Lli'ty
1"y'(
2 - 3 7 X , + 3 , o 6Y - ' t r ' z { X 3 =
t"46dt -o'73{r43"75(3^4'6q r
* 3 - 6 * , + 5 ' t g * z * t ' o 6t 3 = 5 ' 7 +
fI , , . v 3-o6 _ 4,zs t"76
I
l o - 2. 69a d, 3s t u s .{ o r a
I + N&= R<-R=* 1:=-
L.
r ^z ' t z
1,81U.1 *5,6c4 8.Aaoz j a{zz-
I 3,c6 * 4,za 1.74

I -2.66q 6,gBts I
t o 3.6e57
I o tS,laTz
I
L @ 2i.8{v6)
o3(3 = 2t" 7(7(

= t'2677 ; X, -€ 'ddss-6,3s(5xl.zafl)/-z't
/eJ"?t
,,?x=__ t,sqlz
€ X t - ( t " z t^ 3 , o (
4 / , 5 * / z- ( * 4 . z r )x t , 2 o 7 f l / 2 . 3 1= o , ? 3 1 7
C- Gatr.SS-. J"*rJ",, F1,,,^;r^q,ti.r*lta.l/*d Z_

'- Ftrw /Le mcln'x
Iltsl, anJ fu 9q,_e e.fi^,ir<1{1o,
)ttp5 "l,aaf t/"e u.,r.,/n,X
to lr.tBJ e
EK, Se[ve //"r, /attout/'n1 L,rt.ni.* 9 LLJ,,.S Gcrct1r
-/aatrbn
T. rJ .t ,, rrz{,ly'rr"d ,
2K,tTtz *ye:l
4 { , ' + + f L - } f t =t l
-zKt +3/L * K3 = -t
5-1.,'di o .a
3 - r
l 2 -:
[ i l I
lq 4 ,+ | ---+
Ii ,o /YeittK, = R, =
---* /yeitt r<'
L - z e - r l! - r _i , 1
qll o'
', ',u '': t 4= a'' K,a.--4R1
Rs-
f 4 - l :I i li, *n .
14 -t NR=@
lz 3 I
-
l
l , t.5 -c-5 '-'l v
I
l a -z -5 NR--
R,4
I
- l
-2 10 J
I ot.zz- "- z
Lo b
i .
l l 1,5 *6-5 ,.fl N R ,= R r G .r z R l = R ,
- l'5 Ra
I
l o -t- ri -5 "7 Nir' 8.,*1r-&r--R.- { 8'
t 6 - L I o_l
Lo
['
o ^ t'L5 t,7;1 P" K,<
I c ^5 , tl Nflz'- -=-q31 a
b e - 5 S , o J
_ t,25 1,7;l a,sRs --R . +1 . 2 5R s
f.r N R , = R r orr?'
-
I
ln
,
o'5 , " uI N/..' R'- t R". , - o - 5K :
I o I r J
Lo
T
l r
t o 3 1
{ t'
I o 2 l
I
.i./,=3 ; /'.a2 J{3=t-
ict
I I
L o 6 I t,J
2-77u' 'l^Jirect ft'l/"/t rt('bn :'

r,",rL;,,s*r1,""i,,1!" :f ,
r&"'
/r, a 9ol,.r.t.o''r to b :&;".,)rt"rfiui,:
t'
^'o ,
tI a.Jt '| t \'/ t- 'l a ; ; l ' ^ ( _: | ,2, - -2 4
7,
J+(
A -Tuc,bis /fiel/''{ t - €{'ta'{"ott (^\;-Y

c'f Lrntctl'
ft, 9.1,t< 't/'e /"/1ou't'^1 ,Snt
tL' {6.tob,'t YtztlheJ'
5/, -z{, *{= = q

11 I4Nz -'LKs =J
Xr 42Yz t4Xt '1-7
9ot^,,,t,.o"r l-
l s l l l - z l + l r . l= + 5 > 3
l 4 l > l t l + l - z l + 4 >3
t 4 l> I i l * l z t : > + > 3
9o U.te lroVn.
F-rt
, ( + * t { , - i * : )- - - O
tl*= k k
x , .= ( ? - * , r i * ! { ; ) - - - @
*"*'=(_ l l * * , :^ * x ! I _ _ - e
- ,t gi -f u, r-a"z' e" ' ,/A1\ ro =
C G o
-* ., ot j X =2 ==o- xX s= = o an{ grtbsfnti,-ot
,i i
;rhrr v"t(yr,er za
//,e fLrt c-/-ua io,,7 y'/e, f,,e u,7't
l/,12* (7.urrf
hlr,ar. ,tL) x,- ; {:tu ;.' t \
X3 aatt/ 9o or'r
.
K
K, ;t; i:
, t t
I r t '1o
1 3 4 5 6 7 '8 i9
,,(, 6.8 7e,z{s I'14 l,24 l,6L ('12 , t,lg L a L, L a .l , '1?
o.71 2 ' ( t 2,5\ t ' 3 q l . 7 E t , q q /,6v 2.62 l ,9l m
x 4'rs 2,68 2.t5 2 , / c L4 ' qt lG 3 . t b . 9,a2 L " I / 2 . 1 8 ,01
Accqyart 9*tr sf'eJ lae acc t+y6t1g (6,a J i(i 6 ",

i LLte lt4ust
K t ,
I
IX,
l<+t
N,| < e , ( = lr?r3, - *
l) ./'
J;i - C>crr.,tss-- 9e iJe/
//ef/rrJ ,_
FX. Scrv€ lk /at/ouiry 9n( Lrteay V_"ulh'l ta$"tg (h
._f
,
Go.tdJg- Se, J-et nzelA.oJ
5Xt ^2XotXs =4
Kr + +X, -z-{s = \
X r a z X , * 4 X s= t T
-
tf 7,=l tlu (-2-e1wJS * s.€i'J<(
tl 6{7LI 14 /: C:r.11eJ uYrJeY Yeloxo{"o

- t
dver (e laxat io
tf |< \ 1 2 U i r colle/
E{-
A*ve .t/@ lr/o*t,'n+ S*f o/ /rnoor €-fu-atianS ^rJi'i3
ovef fe lq X,+1io,< L.',y'L ?.=lt
/aX, -tXz * X3=ta
{,+loxz+X3=/2
X r+ X z + l o X s = t z
Qte. bejirt o-{^k -!oiLr,tio,a by l.sl eL'"k'^J l'L e
Jr'a1orr^/Ge/h'.i e'ls'
l) I tl + )t-l '-;\ /o/ z
I P
L
l t o l> 1 ! / + l r l + / o >
2 l t l +1' ( / = + l D'-> z
')l-'i:
Itol
5.o v)e h,qvc ,,, " 'l''E - t' ' I f5)
(,B+r)x ( Frt) (1.)
Xt, =aX, +(t_7)K,
,
. lz-+t (l-+t) * ( *l
o + " t dX . __t,z_(o.{)Xr _(o.j-)(:
(E+t1 9 (lz-+t) ./<-
x_' _x x. + . ( t - 7 ) . (t-tt)*
{
( 4t,)
(l.tr)
aLse {3 - /^L - (a ' t) (( - (o-{) f.
( l-+r) * 1k+r') o ( t (r )
XB = l/s -?) X3
ar v(T)wJo^n 'i,',!'"! = d3: u
ltlouo
tc - 7 i ,,,:^::
' . - r - ( _#.
l - / ) ,r{'
,( t{) '+, ' ' : 1 . " ; / , {,
X ! = ( t , l) ( t . r / + ( i ^ t . t )b ) : l - 3 2 -
9'{,otlort
: Nx bqi,t € cty Sc.lta{;.,"
by cl-ea*t'ng
/5/> /-z/-+/// => 5>3
l + l > | + t l +l - z l - > 4 > 3
l l r l >l t l + l z l = > 4 > 3
k+t
( = u k K
k+t t
x " * .3_
-7
F+l
, F
n 3 =
t,
O.99\t,nte
(t)
X, '= o ,3 su bsl, /'n eZ-- (z)
(tI
- { -e ' = - o - 5 5
Kz-' = e'75 - o-L (o.a) 9ut, i" ef, 1r;
( { )
- =4 , 2 5- o . z 5 G . 8 ) * o , S ( s , t , 5=) 3 . + 7 6
X;
6-utd s o ot2 ttrty';L I X5" _ {,,o I Z. e
t | $'
'5..... Lu( 'ut|/ t
tL4yU
,/l
(Iê /1
y'of.treS
/a7/AUrt,rct
.)
/ q ) {
+
xr o.J 6."(5 1 , 7u o o , q td l,mL / , o o( 6'9?{
X a.'55 O
L-5fl
'---.
t , 9 & 7 2âa8 2 - & 3 | ,9q1 2-d6t't
v 3 +75 2 " 8 73 L.?qk 3.6oT 5.Obf 3,ooo 3.oocr
C- P, /^ K.,-/,,o,r "/{r/LoJ t*
'
I //". eo.,l^ rlt ttt y'aLrte 4 (X) tJ C*,^p,nteJ u[i....^,
Gûl, -SeriJe[ 'i+zt/Lrr^J r,/q{i,tets wuuJ;{>J Lg
/A*f
heut) * lneu) "rJ
x,, =7 X , , - + ( t - 7 )( .
6,.,Lc)-e($ l's terrecleJ (nnr- tls Valr,te o<1< 2
-
0)
/Ub'td {. = l-L -1o'-tJ( t , 3 z ) - [ o - { - )( o ) = l , a dt
(o )
( t) * ( i ) r , 4
{' = 7 / ' - +( / - r ) X r
( l - t ' t )
G ) = 1"t748
=|t't) 0'"(s) +
(l ,l
- ( t ' 3L) . glbdUz
(
A/pd {s = /.2 * (o -7) / , t r 4 i l
b'D
(c, )
ct)N. U)
ts -2& -( r - - 7 )X 3
+ (/ * t't) (") : l , o 4E 7 z
'= (/' t) ( c " 7 5 o 5 z )
( r )*
72",J uz firt N, = I'gz
(r)*
{. - l, t743
(J)*
X3 : 1, o 4 5 |
' q l ,
/ lt<r*(;.,^ I L
t'9q( t,"oocr
X1 1'32 cr'f S6 l.,oa5
\.eoer
l. I 'lT{8 o , Y l 3/ lr6O0 t ' ool
t,o4s4 l,oo{ o "? Q 1 l 1'oo1 \.S8.Cr

d3
*l !';uor €{'ttofi'on bY
Q, r Setve tLe lor/o"'i,.1 91sttw<
:'
G..uu5 2/i''"2)n'(io- 't uzt&oJ
K, -Xe'+3*" =lt: i X:=4

=t4
A * t , X ,= l ; X " 3
2-K,i3X.i{s
tl(, +z- x. ^ ts ^ (
9vs(e^ e'l L'near ez. bY a
6 -
Qz Br5" lv6 fl^. forrowi't-5 z- ktatxa'+i"l w-eflu! ('l = l-z)

I-- (-q*es- seiJle( (11=r )
w l f h a l & = l'7) -
3- l<"lal.'tio^
rn
\r-
x-sg +zz -* 1
-t-
2,K _7y - t.z

k=F2-
9 ' d^ * -+7
- ' z x + f u < t t t -_ Li1
=
@ toX,+ Xzt7K, +4
/,{, '+ lo Xz* ds - c I
X, -+z-{..+/o\s = 1 r
4>: S-S.(vs ,(1,,oSqstr"^4 e-taq.t'b, e,EM,

f - 9 - + 7 - z w ' =- L
-zX+zJ-V+z-w = 3
3X -SJ *zZ -2. td = -(
- 4 X + q y - 1 7 + ( v t =5
Qq L* ),tte n
jo//ouing
t!ê 9y1dp*t E F/i.tc4t'r'o.-1 by Gqvtrs
eeiJe( llernl)", wxt./L,o/ tttcr/4natr4- e =6"o6o1
/ o . 2 ra l - I ' L g A . z -a - a , 6 7 d s = 4 , z Z
2 , ? qa l - - t z . ( g A . - + / , t 3 A = l . z a
z
1 , 7 ?& t + ? , 6 1 a z + t 5 ,1 1 _ _ / ? , H
6s
Arg, I r = o , 3 C ?3
A. =o,a(o5
,A: = d,7KVg
--
sJe/csfi/Wt* k
Nc'tes
Suloleroentaqr Matheroatioe
Matrlx'.1Llgg$g
and the
Iheorv of ll:rsar Equati sns
1. EloentorY Matri:t 'rJgebra

onnrical]3^|o.::i,::i*:"'llt"u**
Motrix alsebral-s dlrectlv
and has norSro"n"loliiil-"st$orL theoryr
sinultaneous linoor equatlons svstesa' er
;t*;;";i" of vlbrcting nachanical
geosetry, statistlca '
1.1 Basic lefioltlong:

"::J' of rncreleoents
;$ s x n g3!4I is a rectangull"
n rovls s'nil n colurns '
(usually nulbers ) o**ttoa in
f: |*?i:a-lv-a cepltal lot!-"t' -'--
ConventlonslSl o Batrl:(
,,t];ff#1r]"Hi;i:"J""ii$#::#:"l;igh
t:;ft
:;fi;;ii-;; t'ttti*' the first of thesB'surrlrs ttre elcnent is tha
tlas d'onolc
colurm [e'g'
ro$. the sccond to tno ril'
;l'";;-r;; Jrd colurn of natrix
/,,tvpioal'
:'ffiri""iiffilry*Y;i:1"'ii:'ffit1ltf*:'o'
eleuent jn ths ith row
\
/, .l 2 ,\
@@@@@@@@l]s:
l' I
lI t - 1 2 ' 5I
J
\ + 1 0 ' l
ale = 2' asa = !' etc'
is a J x l+ natrlx nith
I;"Ji-n::ffi #a::l{H:i#"}:'f::'*i:f
::."#',lii""ff ..
iiil-"o,' l" "P1"1',: St&il:":l
arr atJ'
iilo"l'"-"ot
;"?"t1":
cosparable
aij = bij for
t.e idaition of, MettrEg'g

"iololilo,o*t?tf
If i' onits aro bot{ rox n nalr}oot *
G = A + a - f , y - t [ . - e q * d ' o nde1 ; * a l J + o i J ' oif l" 1r..n
z j\i /z o i'\
Exanp l" e :
, ,l
; l
j ':,,t'
i , , i-l t
' t,
\
I a a
t 1 ) = )
. t
iV : t q./
bctneen lrtriccs of th* sant: sj'6c '

,i,b. .LJqi.tion is cn1.y define'f
r::r thc algcbr:ric lisicd bcion

l'::crn ihc oefiniti P:fcpD?tirs
atrll be quick1Y ProYod.
(1) -+B:B+-r.
( 2 ) . ' . + ( . o+ c ) = i ; + B ) + c
e l-r)1:!{}1t'
(l) ".+ 0 = * whc?e 0 j-s thc n x n mat:'ix havi::5 *rory
z oi'ti .
is a natrix -; stlc'\'t]\'r't
(4) Givcn eny m x:: maL::j:r 'l' therc
;.1 (-,;) = 0'
Spc ci.nan Prcof, :

nc'jD!iscr:'/ :i'
TD lrwe any. ctr thc abovc prc per hi c: it is
i"act
i:stabl-lsh J thines (al ilni cacir si'ho if thr cqu:ti-on riocs i:i
obtained on tach sirio ;rl'o ci' lJrc sa{i*
""r."t (l)-tiot Ihe':uttri.ccs ''l'l.:ifati
er-rrresporlrlirr; rci '"s ':ri"
:ize n.rrf hcrce co;npanzr"i"- il i tt 't ihe
-*r thcsr.: -..1.i,:"iccs e:'c c f ill "
'o lrovc ( 1l :
i , c t a + 3 = C , 3 + - = ) '
il x n ry:tricas - + i is dcfilcd arrl is ar'

Since ,,.3 arc loth
il x n natrix,
il x n natrix. ilul ce il rLn'jD
Si-dl'c.rriy 3 + i is a ircl-f dcfinc'}
both cri s+. anid lrc conpirra'sic"
= urj * bi, = bij * ut.i = dij for chl 1,"i

cij
hencc finallY C-'0.
t.) hq$-c&!.iqt rs-e-tsslll

Lcrt ; be .xn m x n matrix anrl I be a scaler (or r'u0b'rr) -un
i"i'
Ll<n motriy- F -- l,- is tl"""'coiil.'.i ty th'- cqr"rticns br, = l3j j fcr Lil
; ' " i ? I l \ Li= ix lr r'\

i i
\1 3 1/ \r. r^ nl
- 5 -
'1-n
!a rti cul-ar tolcilg I = 2 trc havc ZiL =
1 1 +n nj
\.2 S lt/
tr'mm thc dcfinition thc follodng alge.braic propcrtics ean

'rc casily rJqrified :
(t) 16+3)=M+r'3
(2) (r + p).,1= L: + tL:.
(:) o.,r= o
(+) r(u..i) = {\r)r..
B are n x n roatriccs ]', ;r are
[it- is assuned.throughout thet * antl
scalaTs t .
'Ipo lle.triccs
1-J* Thc Product of
Tire definitions 6ivcn for e qr,ality, aAdition anil scalar

nultiplication of natricci rti11 appcar to be clemcntary and obvious"
ft ioight sccm neturll to dcfine the pro d.uct of f,no natriccs in a
"i"iri" vay [i.e. ]y nultipiying toBettrcr corrospondlng lnirs-of .
elencnts] "- unfortuiiatol5in- although this vou].d' offer the sinlrle st
definition it rlo u.1d be of'very linited practical application arrcl a
definition sulted to the practS'ca1 application of matr:cr's as nrel'4rroc'
\ai y1, yP, llai ztt zz r*lated

Suppose we llave variabl-es 4t
':y
thc folLovi"ng linea:: €quatlonsI
11 = altyl + dtzl[z + 413y3 = b11 z1 + btz6z
x{) = a:'21y1 + a.azyz + e23yg - bzt zl + bzzz7
= ber zr * bazzz
where aij, oi; ,to constants for all i'j"
I (".\ ,.na ,/vr\

Then clearl"y the rel-ationship between the va::iablcrs X \ 'y3,
Jt*i
\ra,/
1; doterr:lned by the 2 x J rnatrix /,.
Thc relationship between Y ard the variablcs Z - /,r\ t.
,leterninc<l by tho J x 2 natrix B.
This could bo erpressed nore brief$ by writing:
X = ;'rYr Y = 82.
?hcrc is ::r inpi"ic it rclationship between the vn.riablcs xr :re ena the
vari,rbl-cs :1rrl2i suPpose this is e:qrressel in teiris of o tit.i* C as X = 62.
- 4 -
It voulcl be convenlcnt if thc r,atrix p::oduct nas d.efiled

in such a vay that C =.:r3.
Carrying out the t1ecessar:I lilear substitutions to erq:ress X

in terms of Z suggcsts thc nethod of d.afining a rntrix prod.uct.
Su}stituting for y1. Jrr ys into the exprcssione for

Xr r :(Z glves:
x1 = aa1(b1121 + htzza) + a 1 z( I n n 1 + bzz4) + ara(bcrzr + bl":a)
3, = a*a(.h112t 'Y b*zz) + azz(bztz+ + bzlzzJ + rl"3(b31:ri * b""t;o )
these can be sinplified. and re-arranged to glvc:
:q = (a11brr + a12b21. + a1sbsl)4 +.(a11b1s + treb:a'i ar *bsn )""
"n = (o"tbt, + a22b21 -t an2sbrt)zt + (a"nb't + -'r"p}r e r ao otX* )ze
fhese equlti ons should bc cornpared- li.th:
x'Lacalz'L+clzzz
&=c?lzL+c22,22
:irrina f .r ovrm]a.
C12 -- a11b12 + atzbzz + arsbea
Czz = Aethl.z + Aeebzz + Asgbsz
Fron thi- r., ve cbtaj"n the norc gcneral relationship:
ci; = ai"bt5 + 3izbe, + eisb:. i=Ip?.

for t - 1 c
In this vav ne define the protlnct cf thc 2 x J n:trir ,1.

: n 4 i h e - 1x 2 r n a t r i x 3 t o g i v e t h e 2 x 2 n a t r i x t = ,,n"
l'glli} Dr:finitiq4 of }lat:'jx Prqd.uct
Let i, be an til x n natrix and. 3 bc en n x g, natrix thc

'^..
l:'cdult i = . - B i s t j r c n : : n r - r x p n a i , r i x d e f i n c d u . y !ui -: r u^ v^ q- . .u J^ tu. i1 w^j-1 o - .
r
I-'l
= alrbr; + arzba; * '.. f1

cil * airrbrr; = ) r.i uor i
f o r i = 1 . . . u r j = 1 " . . 1 .
ltl':te. Thc ulomcnt c.' ', in tirc i th ror aild j th colur:n of thc product
--B i.: Ll.rt;ri-:r,r'lLy r:.uJ.tlIlyi:rg to8othor in peirs :nCL .".Jd-ir*; tlrc cluncnts
r l' tlru i Llr r'r,;r crf - arr,f thc oLenonts of tho j16 coLuu of D, c i i c..r.::.
l,o crJnsidc:-r:Lirs thc rprod.uct t of tho i th row-L'f -, .)..trti;hc j th- "colrr:r
t
- 5 -
i +h ^'l R
I
I
'rJi i l
I t . . . - .. , . 1
I
I
-..j
t
I
lile product "'B is only defincd if the m:.rbcr of colurnns of

,, is eq'.r:l to tho nunber of rofis of 3. If this condition is eatisfied'
.lB has thc samenunber of rons ag,! arrd the sene nr::nbcr of colums
as B.
t l t
I
I
j
.
r*\
l
u l
B=
ti - t' z, I\ t -5
f
i : a 5 I
*rn\
t
I I I i l
\ o -51 3l
!
) 1 i l-5
>',
i3 r\ {" 5J
:
I i 2l
i i l
5/
1l+ \e
i2 9t
t 1
\z u,l
(iij-) n = Jz 3 -1 T - o o\ t : u = 1 . J -1j
i /1 I
l, 4 ai
t
, oJ l
ti ', 4 5 1
io
\.0 o 1l
1", Pronerbics of l,f:trix Products
(t) (; r)c =.'(e c), trhere .iLis :ny n x n :ratrix, B any n x p

natrix a:rd C any p x q r(latrl"x.
(2) ;(r + c) = JE + ,',Cvhere .i i6 any E x n n4trix, B, anii c

&rcnxpmatri.cos.
(r) (n * l),i = D,l,{ F,l rhere DiB aro 1 x rn oatrices and.i is

annxnnatrix.
- C -
(+) Ir*- - -r jJr, =,1, vhelc.; is an n x n natrixn I- is the

j
;.1 1, r:, .ientity mei;rix
r- - n r . r o- . ' . . .t . . . " 0i\

i c t r . ' " , . . . " 0l
i : l
\ . !
\0.."..""..01/
^h/i r ,:^ +h^ h - - ;.r^,itity natrj.x.
(5) ,i."0 = 0 !'Ihcre - is an m x n natrix thc zcro on thc lcft

i; thc n x p tcro natlix enil thc zcxo on the r;81'J is thl r:t x p zcl:o
natrix"
(- 6) ."(l.a) = l'(,,s) = ()'-)B for iriy scalar I.
Spcci.:e!'l,ProgCs"
thcse pzrcpertles can be provcd d.irr:ctly from the d.cfj'nitj"on

^f +l..1 r--.rilni- r\{' +i:r^ o"r,triccs. In cach C:rse thc Cxistcnce 3-IId the
equality of thc twc sidcs nust be separately establishcd.
(2) Suppo.';c .. is an: r:r x n natrix, E and. C are 11 x p natriccs"
Then B + C = l is a pe11 defin':d" n x p netrix ald ;(3 "i- 0) = ,'!

is a veil d.cfincd n x p natrix.
Sini1,:r1y 3 = F-" -iC = G a.re well defined. n x p nat:'ioes arrf,

1i = F .t. G is also &n n x p r:iatrixo
Ience ihc fulo sid-cs of thc cqu.:tion a.]:e coroparable"
I-et ;(3 + C) =nn : .i!"

'i-\ n
\-1
ihr': "i_i- ) otft.i ) aik( bk.i + ck j /
- L l
LJ
v-.1 v--1
r.i n
f- \_1
- all*bt; * oit"ti = fij +.tij [from..
) ) -
L) /--J -,ljr -Û I
k=1 i<=l
= h r -' l : ;I' s i n c e H = ! ' + 3 j .

. - ! - ^ \
ncncc 5= d J:" r!i!J+r,Ji=-J)+r.u.
t/-/ -Lc Prove r:fj. = 4"
Ilr is properly defincd. as 15 = [6i.i], tite rn x m natrix whoge

tJ4icaL clcncnt is Eii. 6i; [ttrc Kronc 6ker Delta] trcing defi:recl as:
"i .r. J -- . l
' i f . ; - . i
.t /
"4l ,. J. -- "n -; L+ ' r i
n.
-
- 7 -
Si-nce Is i.s an n x n matrix and.i ig an n x n matrix I1n* is e vreli

iaf:i-ned. n x n natrjJ"
I^] T t -- E
e
lsu fm.r
nL^- L. . -
[sincc 6i1 =-0 exooPt foz'
k=iwhenbik=1t.
Thus B = .'' or la.i' = .ri.
Siollarly .lJtt = i'.
It is usual to drop the suffices n, n to give tho equatlons LL = A, ".

,11 = i it being understoot! that the appropriate sized idontity natri
is chosen i-n oach case.
llxcentioncl Prrcperties of lt'latrlces
TId s is to say that in genorol r.B w111 not be egr:a1 to B;i,'

Unless .irD are both squaro roatricos of {tho &ane size ,iB an<13'i'.wi11
(i)ll
noi lo "itp-able [tho]y noed not even both exiot, see exanple
In the spccial case of ri a.ndB both being n x n Eltrices .
it is still not general"ly true thst .'.3 = 3,i. I' cor.rnter cxamplc to thls
is providcd by exanple (ii).
If 1n fact .LB = &!r this is a speclal property of the pair

cf natrlces which ls expressod by saylng that .rl' anit S gg$.
In particular all square matri ces comnutc vlih thc idflnti' 1i!"
natrix and. vl"ith the n x n zero roatrlx.
Sinoo natrLcee do not il 6eroraL comute a gre'at d'eal of

care nust be takon nhen na.nipulat ing raatrix lrodusts to kcoF f,hP
notric:e in tho correct orrLcr.
(.'. + C)s = i2 +,3 + B.l +33 f !3 + zr'A + Bz
lr; /,fn
..:l = o.rf .i = o or g = o
Reel nurnbers havo tho olenentory proporty that if a, b are
n u m b c r ss u c h t h a t a . b = 0 t h e n e L t h o r a = 0 a n V o r b = O" Thls is
expressed. synbolically os ab = 0 =}.a = 0 or b = 0.
It i5 cortairrly true for matrices that n.0 = 0 oncl 0.3 = 0

but as the cxaatple belon shotrg it ls also possiblc to have,',-B= 0
with ". i.'nd ]) |oth non zcro.
nsampic :
Leti =."1 t ,\ u =
i-,
t ,\
! i |
E z l i I - 2 - ,1l i
i z
r -6
l
-ti
t /
\-: \-t 2 1.i
Ther: ."8 = 0. [brrt notc tbst B]. f c in this casel.

'.s e conscguencc cf this propcrcty -t is not .!l'r;eys possible
t o ccnchidc that ii' ,'r3 = -;C then B = C.
-
[-.3 = -iC =,i..)'(ts C) = O lut t]ris lray be possiblc vith 3 - A I'Jl.
t.6 Nr.n Qi nfiulg"r Me!ri!e!
.l souare n x n m,rlrix -i for vhic h it ig possibl:.to'.; t!r"J

:n !n14q1'c t.qtr: I .;'1 liith thc l.rspcrties -LA-r = I, .l.^- = I is
saiElT6-i,iT6il:ilneurag.
If :l' is a non singular iltI,td.x tho cancclla,tion Lav
.3 = iC =)' B = C is -ra11il sincc we have:
. - .\ - 1 r , ^ , : .-1r ^r
=/ \.:D/ r\ \.r.v/
, .-1 .,,* , .-1 ,r^
=l \.r A/b = \.r 4/u [by prcperi,y (t)i
[ty propcrty (r+)i.
Srss,fs:
Lct ii = i2 4 .l \, z = f-z -1 Il
I
i
! t 1 l t )
I
0 - t II
i 1
I| , 7 1 ) \*1 2 -2i
J
?hen .]ts = I and" B-r = 1-
Hcnce both .h and B are non singular rith B =;-1 a"'ra,i = B-1.
By na ncsns al-l squarc glatd"cos havc inverses for cxa":ap1e

C = 1 2 can havc no invcrso,
2 l +
2i l-z z\ ia 0 \ ')i'ol
, l =l , '
since ;1
\z +j i, -r;r=\o \e 4, io al
- 9 -
and the exlstencc of an j:rvcrso for C would 5i,npl-y that
i-2 z\ oi
i = llor o t
t
\, -r
. i o l
/ \ l
which is c1oarly false.
There are a nunber of methods for Aetorninfurg whethor a given

matrix is non singular e,nd if so fi:rrding the inver se but those lrll-l
be considorsd after the thoory of 1lne.ur equatlons.
1./ the Tlansposo of a Matrix
Defn. Let ^ be a.n n x n natrix tho transposo of .i., donoted At, J-s
ii5 x to matrix obtained. from,l, by i.nterchangilg the rons and co1unn5'
r{nl.o nlorlieatw if n... ir the eleaoont ln the i th row end j th co1'mn
-f
of .'.' then cir J i = a Jii{ or aL1 i, j.
; squarc Dotrix r", such that .y = .r! i s said to be gymnslric "
.. squ*e r'ra.trr'x F srrah thrt B/ = -B L,g saitl to be €l!q!tj-

synrnetrlq.
Exanoleg
. r l . - ,i r 1 2\ ;1' /s z\
t
I ,
l
' i i
\?. 1 Lt l t , l
t t+!
/
\2
B \ =/ 1 2 -rJ 1
I
I is skovr-
i s s;,nmotri c 1- r 0 1 1
i'"i
\-1 5 4l
I
-3
sy'uootric
Properties of the Tranjno se
(t) (,. + n)' = 1i/ +Br
(z) (,r)' = 3,1'

- {n
Edercises on Elemonta::r lllatri:c r'Jgobra
(r) ;.=iz -1 z\ E=lr rj c= /z .r\

f
u 't l i
' !
t i| -1+' J
2,'
r\ z t zi
l\ - ro - t !
Calculate ,iB and BC and vorif}' thet (.x))c = A(sc).
(Z) By assr:ning thc exl-stcncc of arl inverse cf l;he form

i" v;
\z r/
/
where xryrzrt are to bc determi-ned., find. thc inverse of ihe EhTix
jr = , 1l
\
12
\l ' -a )i
-J
Hence solve the equations 2a + b = J, .]a + 2b - 4,.

and find c matrix X such that Xi-/1 Z\
i ,
\I A.1
(-f ) nxpanrl the f o3"lowlng crprnssi.ons'rlherr: ,L and 3 a-r'e n :< n ryrtrJces

whi..h d-o not commrrte"
(i) (.,'.+ e)(,1 * a)

(ri) (; - s)"
/ : : ':. \r , , /r " f 4r/ \ 3
\ .t \r
(+) If .i is anlr rn x n natri x and B is eny n x p natrix prcvo that

(.,8), = s,;,, .
(") ,i:::rtri:r P is s:id to bo crthoglonal- if it satj.sfios thc equn.tion

!l' . I " Shfi? that the tTratrix
P = i ' 1
' t
fr - u
t \
irt
t \
I t '782 ô l is orthosonal'
i lg 1
\l r ' t l 1 i
\fr re ^Tzi
- l t _
(5) ^ = -2 -6\
(r-
t-' 2 tl
0 -tl
\ ,
f i.:nd the val ueeg cf .As an<1rf .
Dndnee thc viri.i.r.rrr of Ar1 snd ril?e

- 12-
2. T:reor.v of Linear Equati ons
T?re systcm I
Attxl + Al2l(r + ... {' ord(n = c1
= qt
8at4 + 1azY.a * o.. * 8apX11
:
qD,.lk + alD3:cz * .o. + A$nXn = Cn
equati ons in n u::l*rrotns can tre wrltteu irr !'&L!ix fe,r-o

of m lirrear
of coefficlents X is ttre rr :z -1
Ls ,iX = C nhoie .. is the m x n matrix
cohj'nn vector
nat::i-:x of, co }'rnn vecto? / x1 \ aJrd. C is thc const:rrrt
i\\r, l
,'ci \
i . I
i ' l
\"m 1
The soJ.utions cf tho above qfstell arc closely ffulea !9 iitg

is establirhad
relatcd. honogeneoussJsten ,'J( = 0. Tiris rolationship
i:r the first two theorerns bclow.
2.1 Thocren 1
ff x = f = i {t \ is any solution to thc homogeneousset of

t : i tho equations '''r = o' then X = xY is elso
\ot/ a solution for any vaLuc of thc constant 1""
It X = Z is a further solution so is X ='t + Z"
Pre of
Since X = Y is a solution we have 'i'Y = 0'
Subotituting X = l,Y into tha equation gives
,iJt = jIIY = tr.r'Y= I.0 = 0
shoring that trY is e sol-utlon for all valuos of l'"

s 0 and
Since X = Y and X = Z lro both solutions L?ehavc''lU
J = 0 substituting X = Y +L 8:ives:
. l X = . i ( Y + Z ) = ' ; Y+ r J = 0 + 0 = 0
hencc X = Y + Z, is a solution.
Note ITte equati on ,iE = 0 ie a}ga{s solublo since X = 0 is a solutj'on'

Tif" is "Jr"i irt" trivial soluti on-, any Bolution other than X = 0
is carrea a non trivial solution, ,in j-rorooaizrtoconseErorrcc of the
= 0 have a nsn
obov" thcoreol ls that if the horaogeneouscquatlons 'J(
trivia].solutionthenthoyhavoanl.nflnitcnulberofdistinctsolutions"
-1r-
2.2 Theoren 2
honogeneous
If X - Y ls ar5r parti culEr solution of the non
equations .N( = C ancl ti X'=- Z ls a non trivlal eolutton of ths related
of the non
}r.Tog""uo". equations ,lUl = o than a nof,e ganeral solution
ii"t"i"""o"" e{uations Ls X = Y + M for any va3'ue of )r'
Proof
Since X = Y l"s e Eolution of AX = C then AI = C
S1nooX c Z Is asolution of .AI = 0 then by th I so ls X =M'
Subgtltutlns I, = Y + ?r'Zinto the equtiono Slves 'AJ(= E(Y + l'Z )
=lY+e(rZ)=C+0=C'
Hence Y + M is a nore SenoraL solution'
converso to Qreorem 2.
then
If the equatlons AX = C have two dXstlnct solutions
trivial solutlon'
corresponding homdgoneousegratlons have a non
.p'osg
Let X. = Y anif X = Z be tno di ati'nct soLutl'ons 16 i3 = C'
L , e t X = Y - Z t h e n q i n c e t h e s E g o L u t i o n ea r o t l l s t i n c t Y ' 4 1 O '
= Y - Z
-AJ(= A(Y' V) = LY' M = O - Q : 01 velif,ytng that X
ls tho required non-trlvlal solutl'on.
Deductiong from Theoroms 1-aptl 2.
Consliler the cquatton AX = C where A is an E x n matri:c'

d'istlnot
As a. conoequonceof ttreor'emsI and 2 there are I outually
for tho sxlstance of eolutiong to these equations:
lot.itliititu
* hag
(i) N( : C hae a unlquo aolutlon, ln this ooeo'Ax 0
nrr'l.rr+hn trivial
v..-J Y.-Y v--' solution.
( ) iI = C has no solutlon or the oqrratlons ole inmnpatlblo
(ili) Ai( = C has an inflrrlte number of solutlons and IX = 0 hag

a non-trlvial soLutlon.
!rot0 thIB lt catr b€ soon t,,hat lt ls of cr{tlcal importanco to

baor whether or not "A.X= 0 has a non trirdaL solutlon'
e.5 @-J
= 0
Iho sot of, !0 ho ogonoous aquations in n unknowns AX
alweys has a non triviaL solut ion lf ro < n'
_ 14_
Itrro o{
The i,rt:of i s by ildi:cti Jl cn r!,
li/]rr-.rrn = l tho ge-! Df rquatior,s is:
al i li::L + are4a + r1s + &11:r;1 :Q
i:: this c;:se s c,tn essute all :acf,ficicrts are non r{rro {ctherrri sc
tlie cof:rc$-rc,rlciing ve:'i abie wouf 11.no.r ap!cr].r,) &
Let rc1= a,1r, xz = -alt, : . ' l )* . . . = x).0,
Tris gives a n.:n trlyial soiutii,on,
Si:ppose tho thccren is true foy ":iI sc.ls of ra -, 1 e : q i ; a f , i ; : r s

in a greatcr n::nbc:. ol' u:rli:rotyrs.
Consid.er th{l ccu.-r"'}jicns

: iiXl.l-l + 412f-i + a". + ,}tnX,l
'r7.bel.e irpj:f:1 + il2-?xt + .rr + fu1x1

n > i1
:
arttxl * &]nax? 'r .r{ + ai,]jtxn
in at Leest o.ricof thcsc cqu;:tions x' rnust :p]rcil... viih 3 nor: zcao
rlc nry supposo.q* l0 Totire:.r,is'c thc ordcr rf rjl: rqur:itiong
:::-:ali"1:lt,
. c . - \b
' c &!lGred rs necc.isary l.
r , c t q =- - l (a11x1+ 4m2
x2 +... + as6-141.-1).
oru:
," ".lilrf{."iff :,:i,,*;"t;r;.;,,}T"

j::.i#i :T=fi#.
j:;iI ;l;1",
('r' - -.,.'i*\ -
L,:r\) '\L o i , o , ,- . ] " x 1 *
\--
o*o )/ ' *x 2 + " . o , ( r r , , - , - , , , . r ,H- i :). "r1r/ . _ 1 = o
\.
\ , :
( dro-11 - a11r*{n
- j xa + "." ' r /t u -^r - - a n- - 1 )n T \ ,
\ " f ; n /
)\,,1 =0
a s e t of m - 1 oquaLians i,n n - i u-.t-loro.n::.s.
lut m < n -:ln-J < n*j atia :ro by the j,rror:ction irl,pothesi.s th,3sq
-
cquations havc a nori triyi.rl soLution.
Substitutic,n of thj; into thc expression f,or
triviaL so]ution of ihc cr j-ginai n cquatiins. 5 Bives r, non
Hence by ind.uction the theorsrs is prr:vcd,
9orqlle1g
The set AX : C c t ' m n o u hono$eneous eo.ua.Lionsin n r::.i!morms
nevor have e uniquo sol"uti.on il' m < tlc car,.
- " 5 -
2.4
'?}:.j:""
In this casothc honoseneous
: non triv-lal "l
gx"; ""i*'
31lT
sol-ution
;J
:.s'*ti:T--Tf="3";F{"i:"H1
upon thc. tr;atrl:x
depcnding :: ::::::';;;;* ll' t
**l#i.l*knrlifu{:#in{:**;
*t,;; orr}1l thc trlqiaa sofutiin is possible'
shoc th'r't on occasions n
A oi-np1e exanpl'c lri1l suffice to
can have a non trj'viaI soLution'
honogeneousequotions i"""'i*tt'too*u
Ixanple s
Eguations
_:aa=o havo onlY tht. trivial
XL +:ra=0 sol-ution
lquations x1 - 2x2= 0 have the non trivial

- Zxr + 4'r<z= 0 sol"ution xL = 2i ['a = 1'
cquations {to hsve:

Considering rclatod non honogcncous c', ' a"
soluticni *t =9i9 ' C A :
2
X1 ' ]l€ =Ol
x;L+:X2=az
rrhich is ':nigu () for af1 valucs of ct sJIc' c2 '
xt-2:r.2=5
afe insolubl-e
-2xt+\xz=6
have sol"utions l ;a"=!+?.

xt-Zxz-2
-Zxa+laxn='14 :(3:1+,\
tetrtecn no soluticns a;''d'an

Hcncc in this ca'se the distirction on.tho right hand side cf i-ht
- stants.
infi-nitc mlnbor dopend'uipi"'Ift"-"o" ts- in^tho 2nd' o quniaon r-;":
oquation. lIn ttris u*ttiil"trt" " ocfficior
constants
liecisely -2 x coefficioiti" i" tbc fir st -equation unlcss the
a"- incornpatiblc] '
are sini)arly rcLatcd' "n'"""qi"t.r"""-id11
unloolzns it is a rclativelX *;:"c;r
In the casc of 2 equations Ln 2 nurbcr of cquaticns ;Ju
tlrt-as-trre
rn3tter to spot iaconpattirlt"i*ii""s a svstematicnr:tirod'
ud{vronns jrcroasos t*" iil"*ll-i91;-arrr1gl,.yo""" i ir':irr
iiloroqaJiblc oquati'ons tnd ol.:t'a
ls uscd. Suoh a loothod "i-*"og"isi"s ba1ofi'
""ftii""" of compatiblc equatlons 1! outflnod
2.5 t;sc cf Auqgntcd=Matl+T ?rd Roy opffi

TiffiLinoar Equatitns "
m e {r'rati c'ns ln :;:
sol-utions of tha. set 'lX = C of
thc valucs of thc""JJiii
unlmcwns dopends ,oot' ti'" "i"tt " and tho constants "t-. -"'^::^ g ':1o"
"'tiloi" u"ua fr:r thc ur:lcronne cre iri'cie";"ni"
tho right hand sido, tnl"""i*r
- 1 6 '
siep in the ce.lcul ation the atlplcqted' natqix i-a introduced"

As a first
This is the n x (n + 1) natrix
, O r . r ia1A ..r a1n

t
j u"" aza aan c . a l
1 4 =
l .
I
\ntt
This augrnented-lcatrix contains all- the inf ormation ncccssary to solve

the equations.
is
In eLcnentary ncthods of solvirg lirteer cqu:ti ons it l:y}.."
mor€ cr
sono of the unlarorms by mc aris of ono or
to attcnpt to clininlic
the follorring oPeratl-ons :
(i) Rearra:rgi.n6 the order of thc equations "
(ii) tuuitlplying (or iLivi&ing) arry equation by A non zero con stant.
(iii) Adding (or subtracting) ar11rnultiplo of one cqueti on froro another "
ag
In the auS$entecl matrix tho rows corresponc to thc equations'
31snentary Ron Operatlons
uperatr-ons a:'o
a nethod of conputation thc follolrin6;
introd.uced.:
(r) Intorchange tno rors.
(ff) MuJ-tiply any ro!? by a rron zero constent "
(In) irdil to ar:y ror a nultiple of another'

opcnatkls
If Br is obteincd from .,r by a soquencc of clcmcntary ron
we say 81 is ror-equivalent to ,lc ox more simply B1 i-s oquivalent to Al'
Sincc the rov opcrations are revcrsibfe 'Lr is also cquivalcnt to 3r'
scts
Equ-lvalent aupcntod' rnatrices ri1I correspond to cquLvalent
of eqratlcns havilg procisely tho sanc sot of solutions'
the
the basis of the mcthotl ls to usc row opcrations to reduco
peticularly sampro x'ol'n'
augncnted. natrix rit to an oquivalent rcatrix of a an ilrclcasing
callod the rofi echolon io.t'i" vhich succcssivc r6ws c ontair
nr-ber of zeros in the 3-
ead'5:r6positions. !'or an augroentoil matr:lx. in
or to
echelon fonn l-t i.e 8,n e1elxcntiry oatter tc obtail thc soluti ons
fho mothod is bost iLLustrated
doternlne tbat tho "q,:rriiot u ar-e inconpatible'
by oxarnples.
3s&.::
(t) Solve, 1f possible, the equatlons:
x1 +Zta -;ts =4
2 x 1+ J y * - x " = 2
-xt + lqz + Jxg = -1 .
- 1 7 -
Corre spond.ing aupcnted riatri? is
,, 1 u\,
; ) 1 ,1 1 l
1 -. 1 . t 4 - 1 /I
Thc object is to roduce this matrji to row echclon forro by the use of
-ottrow ppcrations.
ef craeniarXr This is done systenatical"ly by first obtaining
zeros j-n po.itiot" lolcr than thc first in tho first colunn, then
cbtaining zer6s in the rcquisite placos in the seconc c ol-r'um,etc' it -
er.ch *l,a!e of the caLculoiion a n-otc ls nade of tho rov oporotions usecl.
./ 1 , -4 l* \' {1 4 \I
I - 1
t
n € -2 x 4i 0
l
- .b ; l
! 2 3 2l- I
j l ,, ,
: R3+ R1 1,..,
l-r I -
t v
2 -1 4 l
(: -1 1 + )
P€+JRz \0 o 5 -151
filaL natrix obtai::ed cortesponds to the equati ons:
:xL+zjr e-'xa- ) ,
- :!s +X3 =-6
5xs = _ 1 5 "
tr':'on this the solution is3 xa = -5, xa = 3, xt =-9'
Note ris far as possiblc the first rolr is used is an cpct:rtor nlren
TiFrorlucing zeros into tho 1'lrst colunn, the second rolr for tho secon'l
colunn, otc. If at any stcgc there is a zryo ln thc e!'1tloa"'l positi,rn
it is necossary to lrte"cha:rge the ordor of the ro;zs bcfore continuinS.
Oporati.ons using tho sanc ro may bc carricd cut simuJ-tancously.
(z) So1vc, if possiblc, thc cqr.rations
x4-x2+2*-Y+ = 1
2x1 - 2x2 +x" +2x4 = 3
1xt.-Zw-3h+4xe=-,|.
.'.ugns] tcd. natrix is:
t1 - 1 9 - 1 1 \ i l -1 t\
I i i
,*-42 - 2 1 2 J l- Rz- ZRr i 0 -3 )+ 1 l
-2 -J -.r. 'i, r(:r- JKr I n- -9 -]*r
t+ \ 1 7
r O
' 4 -a 2 -1 1 \
I
* Re-Rs io 1 -e 7
i ^ -)
\ U U +
-Jxs + lxE = l'

In tiris casc the final rort correspond's to thc c qr:ati cn
= 1 ( trl-itrarv constant) sives
thir has no ',ni-pe ,":."ti"","i"i;;;;-;
1+. 1
"o =3n-3 i-,. u
. . e- !J: !r. u
l t isr E into thc eqr.rations
cci'rcsponding to thc flrst antl scccnd' ro'i7s glves:
tz=9*'7x+ -t+ = 5I-7
rir =x: - 2* +xa + 1 = t^'t?'
for onc value of k'

(i) Shor ii]|,t tnc eqrjati onc bclow arc only coinlatib]c
Fcr tl:is vrJ.uc of k fi:rcl tltc solution'
xr+Jxe+zY.s a J
-l:r"
Jx1 + + Jx" = J
2'xa + \sa + Jxs = k
..ug,rcntcC. r';trix is 2
t a 1 2 l 3 \ t 2\ l)
i1
7 5 \ 5 l- ll€-rKl. io - 2 - 1i - L l
'.o
4 1 ' ki
fu-2I"r \ o -z -t lx-e1'
11 3 2 5 \
lo -2 -1 -+l
1l
n n
tLg-nz
\
v
^ n n k-21
to tho equati on
Since thc 1:et ron of ttrc cchclon mo,trlx corrcspond's k. = 2'
0x1 + 0x, .r O:rs = k- 2 thc cquotions orc inconpatibto *t1oss
r q g= t r r x o = 2 - | , xn=-3 -*'
I'o:'k ; 2 tho solutions aro:
nlioro aLL tho .lirgcncl cLcmcnts brr, bao, ...1 b;14 arc-non uorc a-u1lquo
valucs ot c'
:r'-luticlr to thc ot}nt1cns ,J( = G can bc 6btainc'l for afl
If,, on thc ot'hrcr hand, 'f is rovr cquivalcnt to &n n x n
ii;;i;,U"g c = ol.
_1,9_
natrix lrith zero -finaJ- ror thc existencc of a solutlon ti11 dopend upon
not be rrrigue "
the vafues of c1 . cs. rrrl cn Bnd wiIL in cury casc
-tfiis - r
,lX = 0 riJ-l in 6ase-iono o tott trivial solution 6inco it ls cquivalent
to a sct of n - 1 bomogencous equati ors in n uru<norms '
z.6rhc@
j"n n, h?n?g:n::lrs
It has prcvicusly becn notcd- that for o systcn
s l"r'too"iuto""" or: othornisc of n' non trivia"l solution
crlurti,ns i-n n r.rnlatol;n
motrix
cnds upon thc cocfficicnt matrix. Tho dctorninant of an n x n
rlo^p
is-" ,r.rnlcr so dcfincd thot it is zerc if thc corrcspond"ing hcmo6oneous
o.1.rrA ott" have a non trivial solution and' j's non zcrs othcrnige'
1x 1 Dotcrmi-nant
solution only if all = 0
Thc equation a11x1 = 0 has a non trivial
hcncc dcfino la11l = arr .
2 x 2 Determinant
Consider thc cquations &!1x{ + a12p = O
azLxL+a23rQ=0
Tor ttresc to have a non trivial- solution the natrix " = (;li :::)
must be rolr cquivalcnt to a mctrix vith zcro final rov
f att *,
\ i*, dtz
\ (provido& nrt y' o\
\ ""t' aaz
,i \ 0
".r-ff|
,J = 0 has a non trivjal soLutj-on only i-f

I{encc in the case "t, I 0
A1L aaz ' a'tz tuzt = A.
If all = 0 ,; i3 ror equivalglt to a Il'atrix lTith zer! roTT only

&t:,a': 2 - 412&21 = 0
if asa = 0 or a21 - o thich orr"u'-tore iooc's lo fte cond"ition
T h e 2 x 2 deterninant tI ali aL2 is th cn deflned as aj.l.&ae - &l'ea€1.
I
lazt &zz
rs Rule for Sol-ution of 2
Considcr &1rX1 * a12yg ol-
a21ay * oaz* AP sc l;l I o.

suppo
TlTc eugnentod. natrix of thls sct of eq:atlons 13:
&tz c r l &L2 C ' t \i

: ull
*l
i I I
' t ^
\ '2L aez
l n urr-ffi cz '?
"11
c:-!
I
- 2 0 -
Sivin6 solution xg =""-#", a , . ^

JAricg---.-=a:--v.r
adLAZZ'ALZ
- A ^ .
eZA
*z-fiaa,,
tuLL "r
I
. t a oa c'l
OI X"a intelchanging xr and lQ enables iho sulutj"cn
a*1,
ltr r
lurt Uz!
icr as1
j
tca aaz
X1 to be writ len rlovrn.
,&tt Ltz
i
iezL &z
These so1uti. one are usually put in the foru :
= )r€
lr--T1
t^
fvl,
^
*24
I
l"nt
Iu",. "l l.:::l
this resu1t bein6 a special case of Cramers RuLe.
3 x J Pgt ermj-nant
Suppose the equations ar1f,r. + a,1exp + als$€ 0

aatt+&patce+aps:q9 0
agL]KL + a3€Xt + &ij8xo 0
have a non trlvlal soluti on.
The s€ccnd and third eqletions can be re-written ;
aaLxL + 82 4 = - 4Pg*s
asrLl + et.bs]l2 = - &aexs
Using Crarncrr e LuIe tho soLutlon of those is :
- x r
l-*" *"1 _b._ -uo"l

i".r
----Je-
It aot aa.zl
l
j-&sg a.$e
t - a 3 o 'l I q 3 sI I
ia8!.
l*t
_Xz
I,eaa
i
aAO E;i-rl
I
I
XB
*'i
i"a" asg ag' urr"I laor &s2 I
-21 -
Substitu+.ing Urese values for x1 19, xs in the first eqr.ration givos

a cond"ition for the existence of'a non trivial soluLlon r
&tt 2 *1 lzt *ul * atg
I
agz a"al 491 alr e I a€,. a1z
This then g'ives the definition of the J v J d.eterminant lAl "
I'lote The coefflci ent of anr i.s the 2 x 2 determinant obtained' by

ifriTit8 the fir st row and fi-rst colunn r:om |al . The ccefficient of a1s
is - the 2x2 detomina.nt obtaj.nerl by cmltting the first ror end seooncL
colunn frcc l;l ,, ?lrr c,-refficient of a15 is t\o 2x2 4otcrn'Lj:rar:t ob Laine<Lby
;,nittt:r6 tho ffu.st ro"J end thl.rd. coLulin frcn l."l
A cornp,rrison vrithathe erpresslon for the 2 x 2 cle'.erminant showl

that it coulL have been expressetl in a similar: va.y, the coefficients r:f
a1 1 &rd. als being 1y1 determinants.
n x n _! et ersrinqn-ry
The abo're defjlitions ccn be Sanerr.iised. to define an r' x rr

de terninant a.s :
t a l n- _ il a'22 ...o..".. iLzn

itr
1.. :a"ni asa
t42!
I
t . I
I l = el1
I
i
rt-n1 ^ i afii, enn
&zt &gs "...". a€n i

I
I
I
+ ar:aj
i
i
'&ni artn !
etc.
This iefit-ition i s ! - n t e n : s o f n(n-1) x (n-t) d.eterrrinents the co eff icimt

o l - 3 1 j b e l n g ( - 1 J " , t i n e s t h c deternirrani obtained frcm lal by on-ltting
the 1st rovr an,f j th oolrrmn:.
2.J Prn pelti e !_gl_.Det elginant s
tr'ron the d.efinition of an n x n determinant the follouilg

propertics ca-r be established. Proofs of tttese cre cmitted. but they
can be found in cny suitabJ.e Algebra text*book.
(t) i-ll = lll whcre A/ denotes the transpose of A. fThis resutt

neof,r$ tllat any property of thc rows of a d.eter:linant rrill be i"tr.redJ.ate1y
epplic ebl-e to the coh:rnrisi.
- 2 2 -
(Z) If B ls oltained. frori A b.y interchanging trlo rors (or mh:nns)

tlen lrl =- lel.
(l) If L ie.s two id.or:tical rows (or cotrl:lrra) then l.A'l = 0. flhls
is a direct conscquenccof (Z)ll
(i-) If B is obtaincd. frm Jr by nultipiylng.,3fl thc clomcnts i-n one

row (or columr) by a constant c then lBl = cl.tl .
(f) If B is obtained. from A.by addi4g to onc roe (or colr:nn) k tiraes
anothsr ron (o:. colunn) then lBl = lrtl "
(6) rf a andB are any n x n natrices then la3l = l*l .lnl .
2,8 Nrr,nerj.c3l .Eygllgli on of Deteriliged!
The n x n iieterrairant lgl h"s bea'r defined in tonms of the

elements of tho first row and. certain smaller detornluants; this 19
usually referred. to as erpanding the cleterninant by it$ first row.
In practice this fuJ'l erpansion can be very laborlous and the abovs
propcriie:s offer sono short-cuts in this process. ,Ar:irnrnc&iate conoequonce
of property (i) is tirat Lha expansion could Just as [e1]. havo been
definod" in tclus of tho elencnts of thc first mlum (or as'wilL bo socn
later of any rorz or col"umn!. Propor-bios (+) *a (5) are p artic ularly
useful since thcy cnable constant factors to bo removod ancl thc rons
and. col-r.:nnsto be manipulatecl to obtain zero clerocnts in ccrtail
posiiions of the dcterrninant. If this is done systernatically the
Cotcrrnjn:nt cu be rcpid-1y e-raluote<l.
Ixamnle :
^l
Evaluate 1 5 7 - 2 i i r 5 7 I
t - - ! . l
2 t+ J 1i - I R z - 2 R rI l0 -6 -11
I
-r z I ri L R o + RJ 1 i o 7 j5 -1i
I
o 1 t+' lo 1 3 ' l
i +i
1 a 7 -2'. 7 -?
0 1 3 , i
+l 0 1 5 4
i rLs- 1113 i
0. 7 1q - t l
= { -
I ilr+ole
i
I 0 0 -6 -29
I
-6 -11 - l
0 0 7 29
Erpa.nding by tha first col-unn this givos :
1 5 r+i
^ - o/ - 1^^l
>l = -i l-e '291
u
I ' -7 'Al
0 7 29t i'
2.! Minols ql:!d Cofaotgrs
?he n-1 x n-1 ilotcrminant obtcl-nod, by rourovlng thc lth ron and
i th colunn from an n x n detcrmlncnt lAl is oaLl.ed.tho giEI of a1;r
it is usually clonotodM1;
-25-
The cocffi-cient of ci; in thc fufl er'lansion of the detemi:rant

is cclled the gk!g: of al5, it is denotcd Ai;"
Ihe roinors and. cofactors ere relatod by thc rulo at; = (-f )i+fui;.
tr'rom the d.efinition of thc dcteminant thls rule clearly holtls

i'or clernents in thc first rcrr of A. lt can be dcduccd for elements in
t.hr i th rorz, r h c l ' c i y ' l, Uy r"pr"t"d applic ticn of propcrty (2)
a
(i-ntcrch:-r:gc of rolrs). By a :uitable i.ntcrchnngc of ro:zs 3r\y rotr cln
l,- irrou6hl ir:to i,ho first ro; posi',ion, crp."nding in tcms of thls
rcr gives :
l;ll - ai1A11 +:12Ai2 + ... + ainiinr
thi; is thc fornrlla for thc o{p&r.iion of l,'.1 by thc i tii rotr.
.lpplication of this :csult to fu)c i -'1. rr:n of A/ giYcs thu

cxpansion by the j th col,u:lur of (r) :
lAl = c"1;;1, + a2 lt21+ .." + a : rj , , n j "
Co:rsider ncxt thc .:xp'rnsio,r of an n x n iletcntirrrrt vith uqual

'-'. 'l +h -J 1 '-.
i l- l th.l i * l.r rn":: ^nt . J . un- 1u 5i . .J uJ rLl:"r ^( ,
J {,rl
,''
U-Vu3 i
at1 ALZ "."'." O1n
3.i { ai€ .."""" ain
i sil:\jl * ai2r";e + ."" + ainija

i + h - r
ar,!
[Thc coflctors
.l
are e qu.r,1 to those in l,,l sinco apart from thc elemonts
,,-1 +;^ i h F^-' +1.^ +-- nr+Fi u ri /ul u- nL + i .q. r, !1. ia r (.
,.pplicrtiu:r of this to l;l give: a :inri"Irr rosult for colunns :
0 = a1i.,:),,I + aat,q j + ".. + ani,ln j ,,'rhere i I i
ihesc + properties of cofactors can be surnnari sed by the equations:

n
\- "ik;51 = si;i..1 (1)
)
L-t
v-1
n
r) a6.,p; = 61;l.:.1 (2\
1,-
v-'1
Drp:'esicd in rio-rd.s this is ,The ii iJn of the produots of tft e clements

cl one rcvt. (o:: column rith tho colrespond ing ccfactors of another row
(o;' coftllm) is zero. The slm of tbc lnoducts of the eler"rents of one :.orr
l'Iith thair orm cofactors is equal to the d.eternina::t; i
- cl, -
2.10 9:"=:"--["]9
Tho ;:re gencral versicr:. of Crrrneri s rrrl-e for thc solutlon of n
propilrties
linerr equations is n unlc:orms can be d.erivod fr:om tha above
of cofactor".
Ccnsiler thc eqr.retions I
a11gr 'r &tzXz * .." 'h alnxn . v t
a21xl + tiLzK2 + ... + 9'2nxn
Ontrr * ana Xz + o.. + o1xlxn - cn
equ:r.ti-onb y - r i , sccond LY ."c1 ctc., and

Multiplying thc first
addi:rg Sirre s :
n __g rr
/ \.
/ : a '. \ \ *r...,ki) *"
{ ola-.l3 lxr + ".. +1 ) eki-.ki J v-i + " . " . (
\l__-, / \Lr /
v-1
K;1 I€1
= c1.,r,r1' C?.?i +. .. " + cn;'ni
Us:i.ng prrcperties of cof'actors t:'-is reduces to :
l-;l*i larr , ". ar.{*1 ()1 at1a1 '.. alr-t

i
I
|&2r %i+1 'n" a"Yt
qni- 1 vn qrd+1 ... rim I

,&nl
or (provid.ecll;l I o)
--:L
'4. = lql
+F
l,ii
obtaincd. frr:n ., by replac i:rg thc i tht coluutrt
where B," is the no,trix
b-v ;c,r t
| - \
ii " : -i j
\ C n r
\ _ _
!hj- s result is usualiY exprcssed os :
t-iT
t,rl
Crarocrr s rulo trnovldos a conve,isrt IiEthod of llriting dolrn- lrffnod'late1"y tha

sohutions of a sst of l-ine ar equations, but gi-ncc thcso solublons includc
n x n cleterninants they are not in a very practical fona'
-25-
-3.
ri't" i""urq9-!qg..lg.}3jjigil!I
zJlnx!lmotrix;issaidtobenorrdngularlfthcrclsa-
rrttl* ;ar "i"'ii il.iîtj1-= ;i; =-r, ';1 is cittca thc, inverse of ;'
It r11l- be shorm t*a .l iu-ttotl litts"i* if and' only if | ^ll I 0 '
J " 1 Cal-culation of inversc -!91gg-'.!Li9lg!-&!gI

adjoint of -, i.s thcn Cefin'-'L'
iet .; be any -ofn x n mi.rtrix, '!dj", the o f l - " 1"
as thc tratrspouo tho matrix wboso e]ements aro t h e c o f a c t o r s
= J'
i.o. if ,.ai.', = B, thcn rr, - 'L;i for all- li
Consider L'..di.!
L'et,'..id-j.,,. = C
Then by dt;fn" of matrix product and of adj'!'
n
cij =
r aik4jk = sijlrl usine (t)
)
L)
b1
Hence -..i.d j.C = l,.l.r (r)

Sinilarly if D =.,Idj.r.i
n
\-. = oi;l;l uslng (2)
*ii - ),'kiakj
1)
k=1
or a;'.: = l;l .r (t')

/'\ = 0'
$quf,lr,ons \ r,/ "nd (q) are val-icl vrhcthcr or not [-l
by the scalar l,,l]
Tf n^? ^^rrnr
l..l / O the equations n:y tn divid'ad
to givc:
( E i - . " . 1 - . = ! = "j ! ./\, +t . ; t.. r_u i-- r/)

t 1 ., ..\ r -
\
t 4
j-nvcrsc ;-'= j';'
sholring that ,. is non singnlar if l-;l I 0 vith 1t".d
If, orr the othcr h:nd., l:l = O then the equations'T ; 9,l"llo l a^-n
a nor:-trivia] s o l g t i o n X = X 1 0 , b u t i f v e 3 s s L r n ot h c c x l . s t ' c n c o
;";;;";-;;;;L--''1 , .r ='o =;':-1(-;r) = ';10
-/ tL - v
which is a contrad.icti on.
Hcnce lrhon l.il = O ; can have no inverso.

- 2 5 -
'Jr'; formula f t= "d'j,' r'111

It will bc appreci-etccl that fl
-a
is-non singular b:* il- '-^*
alnays anabl e ,^ to bo calculated' hen 'r
l r g c t i c o t h i s c a l c u ] . a t i o t t - U o " o * o " v c r y l a b o r i o invo]'vcs
i : s P h e l : ' l it s J5' cxr g1c detcminant
rtnan
3 x 3. [!or c J * f totr.J irt"-cercJ'aao" calculation
anc. 9 2 x 2 dctcrminamt;; Tt;"; e-" + n'=t":x thc sa:nc
detcrnrinants]'
involves 1 l- x f. aotntrn:-ioot-oid' rc I x J
O
J.2 Cafculati on of Inversc Using nlemcntary Rofi
For tho sofutlon of n linear equations r.n n unlcrolrns,ll"^y'

":
"t .t"ilitJ"" ;-;;;";r";"-;; ""t1t1 t:l:::l
ih" e'ugr'rcntcd
*
Iol't io" ": -'"'fu':'1i-::'
;:;i;;i ""'ii tr'ornucn
:l t:'#;l;:'i "1; "rzork h e c : s c :"'i1} " :?"il.
F":
involvcd' bcj'rts
lo:og,"t"t css :n
]rcss :{
d.etcnninants, the ""
"ralucs
".r,rnc n ; ; - " ; ; ' ; ; : pc:]l]
s i m i l . I r ; ; ;ncthod to thc ca'1culnti??-:l
be :'ppl-f,c(r ro
ofr 'n.
r - -^. simi}ir plicd
: - - - ^ - ^ ^ -n3.tr-Lx.
jxversc -+-1v tThi
t . s" ncthod'
.";;;;i-;" i s a"torr"t"ot*d b clov, thc thcoretical
justification being 5i.vcn lctcr'
IlYr,nple
tr'ind thc i-nvcrsc of thc natrix - 1 t r
l t
:
0 '!
-2 1 ;
a 3 * 6 matrilc (}onsisting
Tbe aim of the nethod' is to begin by foruing arc
'',}ren
of tr-ro ? x J matriccs ,' and I' Elcrocntary row orcrations
I' thc
ocrfornod on th.is to,"o*'lntii ; iu "uau""e to tie rnit-nat:-ix
olr r l:r J '
i"t"ix nUt"i"od by lorforrning thc s3ne opcrations
I
i1 1 1 0 0
! c ? 0 '1 0
0
-2 0 1r
lz 1 0
i1 I 1 I 0 0 \
l
I -2 -2 1 o j
R€- 2 R 1 i0 0
R3- t D i '.0
-1, -2 o t/
1
I 0 1 n - : 0\
Kr + ;l!z
. ;_
l'
{ 0
1
: 1 \
0 l
vL\a
Rs- 2l-z
\ 0 0 2 - 2 ,l
R1+ R3 0 2
{:,
1 1
-Rr -2
\o 0
A cbeok shor?s lrhat ,/z-l r\ /1 r]
tl r -,, i , ) i2 0 ,l
, -r,t \, -? 1i
l r o o \
= i. , o)
o 1l
\o
veri-fying that the rnatrix obtai:red is indeed A-1.
J.J lheoreti-cal Justificat ion
To justify the above nretbod j-t is necessary to irrtlc;4rr" e t'lle

(rpsnrtion matrices.i "
so-cai-led elementary-lqE!99q- [or elernentary t'Qr,?
An n x n el ernentary matrix n is a natrj:c ob tained from the 1r x Il

identity natrix I by pmforn::ing a single elernentary row operation upon it'
ihe elementary row operations and. corr'esponding efenentary rcdtrlces E are
such that if A is ony n x q natrix and I is an n x n elenentary n&trin
EA is thc matrix obtcined by perfomi:rg the correspondilg operation on A.
This is proved. by considering separateiy ttie throe typcs ci o:l{rtnent'ary role
op erati on ancl their correspond.ing ele:nentary rnatrices.
T-vpe I. Interchangc the order of 2 rots.
Suppose the :'th and. s tlt rorl3 arg intr:rchange4"
L,ot thc corespondlng elenentary l:ra-t"i.v 1lc n-
Thon eij =6i;- .for iy'ror:s"
erj=6ejresj-6::j
LetnA=B
T h e n f o rj = 1 , " . n w eh a v c :
n
r"'1
b;i= \ 6 *- t - ' i=
r o o"" aij forif rors
L,'
v-4
n
v'1
brj = - asj
) 6skarj
L)
v-4
n
. \-"
Dc.i = \ OY'Laki = a".i
L-r
]el
-28-
by i:rterchanging the r th arrd 5 th rrws 'i A'

llence B is t5e ns.trix obtained
l.lultiply ar\y ro;I by non-zero cons ta.nt "
Suppose the :' th rov is nrultiplied by l. Thcn if tilc ccrcspon'Iinc

olementa{ natrj-x is E and. EA = Br
e ' i. Ji = 6 r;J ; I'or 1 F !',
eri = \E- I a . n df c r , 1= 1 " ' . 6 .
n
r) Sikakj - arj fr,'r i. y' r.
1--t
n
. \--"
L.i - \ ),5r"L.avi l' alj
= )..1p;"
,
1 r
k=1
i'ielce B ls the natrjJc obtained frorn A by nrultiplyin6 thc r th rovt by l"
;.,.po III rVlcl to any rov a constant multiple of a.nother rcn.
q,rn-^..^ ,. *j--c - th rou is added to s th rorl1"
ih,n if 3 is corrcspondir.rg elena-rtary natrix :::d- 3-t = !
c;r=6;i for i/s. e.i = 6"i + u6-r

a .l
r v^r- ;
.,
-- m,
n
r) 6ipr.i = "ij forils,
1,'
L-i
n
' l a . -
(651 + pbi-1)akj = asj + Farj
L)
v-1
Hense B is the matrix obtained. by eclding p ti::res the r th row of A to the

s th ro\-I of A.
SuDposenou that frt1fr2, ... E1 are the eJ-timenta:yrnatrices

ocrrespond.:-ngto rov operations vhich taken 6n ordcr 1li1l red.uce a.n n x n
natrix -4.to thc id.ontity natri:<.
Since the application of theso oporations corrosponds to pre-nultiplyi.ng

r-r'ltr.r-ccs;re have: I = Er{f\- 1 ... l,elri.
j-s thc ratxix obta-ined by

ir:v:iscl;r
eic:cntary r'ov cpcrations to I, in tnc
a!'-i. :a . fL ^ )
UI U '-.-4i 6
.-+ u
Lr
i -'i.1 L6lf ^1' +ha - {,
[, ci:ii:i]"|lr
lll1i,,? iI6 ti'-rt ..8

- 3n-
/.\
(rJ LI' A is a,non singufar natrix ihe matrix equation .AX = 3 he's r:riique
solution X = rt-rg a.rd. the matrix equation Y.rt = C has rxri. que solution
Proof
Consider J = B
Pre-multiplying 1(.-f
ly i-1 6,ive " -f ) = ;-1n = fx
-1
,:.'8.
If JrXl = B antl .,.J2 = B.
Then -J1 = -J(" and pre-rnult iplytn g by . - l ',1)X2

gives (-^ .l)X1 = .'.
= Xr =)b
Showing that the solution i6 w:ique.
Sireilarly po st-nult iply:ng by -;1 sholcs that y = C-.-1 iu tb"

unique solu;ion of Y.:, = C fnote ilrless C and,l-1 connute y = .i-]C is
not a solution].
Nq J,q. The above property sholfs tha t the inverse natrix provides a
further rethodotf cnlcu].aLig ttre solution of a set of n linear equations
in n ur.r"lc'rormsyrhen the Ltatrix of coefficients is non-singular. This
xoethod. althou6h rather laborious for one set of equations is very useful
for obtai:ring the solutions of a nunber of, sets of rclated equations wi-th
the sane coeffici,ents. this situation is likely to ari_se vhen thc natrix
of coefficj-ents represents :1 lj-near s.rsien and inpute hsve f:o bc aaicu.Lated.
fr-:l :r -rirn'irr-r'cf ;l-ii\fleron-t o)1+Dr1+f,"
/
Exercl ses
1,. SoLve tha equations
x" +2xp -xs = +

1x" + 6- +Es = 11
2\ + jxz +2xs = J
(e) By using Cranerrs Ruls
(t) By invorting the na trix of coeffl cients
( ") By trnrformlng row opeations on the arrgrrurrtnd. rna{:ri,r4
o 2" SoLve, if possible, tho follolrlng sgts of equations:

(") x1+yr+zl = 1 (l) 2e-yzlz2el
2xs + tsYr- 3zt =9 ]xa+ys-5zz=13
Jx1 + Jyt -,221 = ll y,a+y2+22-.J
'F:i
nd the val-ues of tr f or nhich the equations
ylL+zye+Jr3=l.t(1
2x1 +xo +:rs =l.r@
xr+xc+2xg=l,r<3
havc a non trlvjal solution. For one of 'these vs1ues of tr gl-ve the
most gener&l solution.
4" Fjnd tho "'rost general fo:u of solution of tho aquations:
r < 1- l Q + a { 3 - x * =1
zxt" -:r.g + Jrqe- Lx4 =2
--.xL + 1-ve - :<a - :r+ : -1
/.) Sbou that 1 1 1

a b c = (* - r)(r - c)(c - a).
"' b? c"
(b) Shon that t' * f + r? ia e factor of
f *r' * yz
zx antl hence factorise
z'+* f this tleterminant
f *y' * rqy c onp1ete1y.
U . Shor: lhrt tiro e quoti ons:
xt+2xa-)xs=0
24- xa + ZxB -0
\. + 7& - '11:k = 0
have a non trivi 'r..1solution. Ffurd a soluti6n ohich el so s;tisfiesr
x+2 + wa + r'.rz = 1"
Iind tho lnvoTscs of l,he nrtricos
i t 1 l l
I , .
. l
; = i 2 4 1 i
B =
I
1
\ t 4 1/
Henco find a rntrix X such that
I t o 1 l
B ) L ;= ',0
I O)
8. tr'lnd the ]"nvoflasc of the natr:i:t:
2 o , \
1 1 -1
l-1 , o
3 o o !l
\ r ll. -1
\1 5,,
a hcnce solve:
X! +Zxr+xa=2
-^1 -xz +Xs = 1
2!. + Jxe =5
+ )'rx2 - xi + 5xt
; 1 i t 1 r il
I i
, t-1 2 1 l i o 3 , l
I -1 I \t I 1,i
show that /-1 0 0\

P ',).P =
_l
I o z o i
\o o 1.,'
llsi-ng this result find. thc valucs of f ona.f,1.

-33-
10 li.ncl thc i.nv;rsr:r; of thc matrice
,! 1 J.\
I
rt, i 1 3 t t l
I
\ r .L
::niL
2 J 4\
I
)+ 3 1j
]i = I
1 2 1 + '
\
l'inr1 X if .,;UX= I I
i 0
l 1l
/ $how that the rratrix A, * { Z p -Z\
{ ' , ' r \
\r z - 1/
satisf,iee the matrix equation. .A" * JA, .i 2I ", U, iisfi thls
result to i'ind the value of Alt,
I{6nce sol-ve Lhe equations

4 + 2 4 - 4 : { -
x!+'xE-za.s = 1
xc +2xz- xs = 1
?:q + x" ! .l
4"+
zxr+txz+2xs = 2
-?x, - Zxr - x, = 3,
- 4 -
su'lra:r}'. i,,latrix .r-lgcbra
.in n x n natrAx.,. is a rectangular arr:,y of mn elernents arranged

in :1 rolvs :nd n col-urnns. o.i i is thc clcncnt in tho i th ro;l and j th
c ol"r.aanof -.
:g of tro matriccs: If -i,and 3 arc nr x n natriccs G =-.+3 is antnxn

:rctrix rrith ci i = ai4 d i * bi4 J i.
lcqlar koductr k. = D is an m x n natrix d-th dr, - kaij.
Pqqdust oi' llro M+-lr+Ses: If * is an m x n ntltri:c anci B is {rn n x p niatrix

C = -"B is an Dt x p notrix ri th
"r; =
['ioou,
v-4
Fropertj.cr:_ .;(BC) = (,.8)c, ,;(l + C) = .J +.:C.
l i I = - ^ r i h c r cI = [ 6 i j ] 6ij=tif i= j
and l.i=i 6:.j=oiti/i"
But in Bencral ,IB I &1.
,i. is said. to be non sinqular if i is &n n x n natrix anrl thcre

:riists 1 n+Lrix --' such that ,;: -l = .-1; = I " ;1.-I is ctllcJ ti,c i-rvcrs
"'l-e.:. -lr :s given as rjr--i1j,. cr by thc :.pplicabion of cie:cnterfr5i-
l-al
opcretions to (-;lr) to givc (il;-1).
jfl!:_ = transoosc of no.trix of cofaetors of l-,1 .
D.'icr-oi n:.nt s
-'.cr3lLyt
l-"i = ol,,.o. * aa2|t1s * * a139.1n or Incrc
n
| , t \ l'-1
t-l = ) a i - lc:rk = ) ar'' +.1-"i
L---t L-.t
tF.l
Sgfi:!:::,gt Aij ls tho cofactor of all ln l.;l rt i" glvon by
(-r)1*fui;.
it i rI:,L5, ld11, thcr nlinor of si j is tr-\ (n-f )x(*,f )actorninant obtaincri"

by onitting thc i th row and. j th c olunn from l-l .
- 35-
t ?heory of Lineer nquations
The solutions of the set ii( = C of m li:rcar equations j:r n uLimowns

are relatetl to tllosc of thc corrcsponillng homogencoussystem i,X = 0;
if X = Y is any solution of .,!X = C ald if X = Z is a solution of the
honogcncous equations fi = 0 thenr for ary k, X = Y + ld is olso a solution
of-X=C.
If the equations.i)( = C are compatiblc {i.e. havc a solutloni" this

solution is uni que onLy if .'J = 0 has only thc trivial solution I = 0
If m < n.l'Jt = 0 aLways has c non-tri-vial sol-ution and. ccnsequentl.y

the solution of .fi = C can never be unique,
If rn = n f i.c. n cflrations i:r n unlcrormsl. ,Jc = 0 has a non-trivial

solution only ii l;l = O.- rr l.;l / O. ..x = c tr.lr s r unlque solution for
any v:rluo of C, namcly X =,i1C. If l,'.1 = 0 then, dapcndingupon the
v:lues cf C, ,'J = C w1]1 eithcr be insoluble or have c"n i:nfj nitc number
of sol-uti ons.
So l"'4lo^ gl CrJi,"ony 'fi;// x"-e"wf,..1
1rlv,,^zri <:or-/
EVu*4i*, (( trt-s{- &'rJer st :-
prt*'nt {t^^/ c J,l/er€,t1r"c..( 3gw",1,'o' .f '{tê /'rtf
Wr
o+Je',r' t oV /A,. 1r-". Ftx,y ,!') =o e*/ c//ev r'/
t/.til/ bc /por/'J/€ /e k,r7'/e /Le etu*./,an /,/? /ilo ex7/,'<,(
' va-L*e ftûtr,le,n (-nsis(s
forrn g' : .{C x,y ) A n iU}ha-(
at J;//e- 'aq cetzd r'1r'o vr 4t f ,'c/1
al my','^-l e fzcuf, *mJ ,a
tk Solr+t,'on umr,yt 9ra4is/y 6o,r S1-vp y-czl coadT,ir6w 3
f.l"m'rzg ./c (Lu *<-a-ze rzro./atec"f e/ttq-{i't,"t
G) tl lee
is 4 erJe+-).
fu:7'l^-e-+- \* {u,.s LDq sf^-ot(\ ca,osiJeu-
t'tu'/,'d/ ya.l,te f r,oLleu,t s *+ 4L. for*. t
l n
J =lcx,1) , y(x*)-to
\ffe- t\"'-*l) &t s1ulS tnu/l"alS /.", 6a*e/uh'nJ t?.L,ut4ert'c^-(
Volrr:'eg 4 //te Jnlu.{r'sn 77"e-4-- *t//ro;t a're s{eF
b3 ,{4 n-rel/r'rJs , /A"/ tJ u'te e/'trl /+-'r- !-=!Cx.)
a-/4/ //azee/ s/<7r,-,ise - Aq fi't-e .,Lfs/ "/tf ute G*f,,,te
chl c-L/pr,eKinoo/r ru,L;Lte(,J,) "/ f/re so/zt/i.,, 7gS ./
(l) a/4 ,X= X, = X".,+h tn lle 9e.o4 J S/ef a-<e co.'fwlg
cI n at/PtoX,' t*-^/ e ya l,tr,t ( !, ) */ ( Ite !" {11'op1 'rt
X = 'X- : Xe + 2l^ ztc. Loy. tLl t't o /"tr* J n,owb<-
L ^ ecê L, 5/ef I tê Cor-t p*|.t|,'ou g ctl€ J-,oe b_14ae
9"a-*te /'ernt.i"tla' S-,+-k {or'u^qlo! czfe guJJ<>4tJ
'UJ
fr." Ti3l"r eene-J2*
V ( x+ h )= ! c x )+ l ^ y ' ( r )* E t " r T) - + ' -^ - +# y \ t
f/' f:^J -il"e /Lc.u"z
gsr1's*/ ^ 1,rLf
S,.,lu4 ia -t 4 4/re AUr --,
by t'rsl,?J 7-aXlor genbz zze/lud:-
(rr))
Id-r = K+3 Ycx"l = Y* = -L ) |-- X=-o(o.L).-L
9 o t . a t , ' o ' e. - W c a ' L r _ o r _ r i e\ ^ = o . i - , 4,=.:.J_ .r X . = o

| -, ///
Y t x , ) =J c x o )+ Y ' ( x " ) " 1* ^ + y ' t x q+ h, y C X o ) +- - _
3 1
a<n/ I
I
J ^ /+3 + J ( ( " ) - X o t J o : o - 1 I : -L
, 4 1 ' = = ,* l * ' r V '
. t -3/'{ to) : L *Y'(xo = L+ r t 2 _
! "\V' = - * y " 4 y t " { r r 1 = y " ( K . . ). ,
Y ( x " "=1 Y. /// '+ yttc^-D : y!"u"1 = 2-
TLen r)
Jto'L) = i*+ *'.1 -41(o.i)'+
=ir_!,,i
2- 4
+ * (".4) :
4 *J+z*L
!r'.g* L + : c . ' l _ +o . " r I + o , o o o J ! 1 6r odo oo 8 = 1.l\o:\\
tl.w.
tr n -- 'l
t t t
ftus*4u 4 / ' L , €a l 2 o V s t r * a w f l e f",/.e 1,1=oôL,
@ Enlar's n"el/al s
d - x - , 4 ' - - / (x;',y,.)
cLX
/s 3^
> t l t
/Ze t6ner4'/' /-rnzuau 4 tulerc //.eftuJ
"l . =Jt
u .l 1
uL /{ r,',y,"S a,uh .('= t, --)n
u t +
I
{,' tl Je/i'"nJ eh l"t/trv,.t a<XLb ;

\ 4
*t, = a + r'l o+^ X.r'= Ko+th
d.:r4 , , t , - - X . + h ; /.u = Xr +1.. j X3 ,- {ra i^ o.r-r
X, = /*+ h -; X o - . / o + 2 1 ^ j X s - / o + 3 1 r
$e^) -- < ; 1". ts t/'e s 4 -2 p e ,' z e .
t". -- t--g- 6+- L,,= --71--- X " ' . -X "
m
I
Etl.rotve I t
= Xfo t J,^rt-? €l-lh,r"s rz-ello d /-*,,. 1{ = I
cvK
1 .' * = 2 -: fi .= o .t -l tu ,' { l r T .V . !ga1*1
5. L,rt tlo.z J*
9 . . -=. ,J " " o L ( d 7 * ! r ^ )

V ,= U ,n k ( t r i + 9 " ) ; { " = t , Y , - l f ^ . - t L *f,i*os/,an
y , : " =L + o , L { U l - - r L f +/.r
lo=1J,o
, . l -( K l * ! , )
= i.2- + d "!-L (/,t)z+ /-z) = l.qql
. L L 1 r . z f + t , e q ) a= t . Y z - i
L = /.+4/ .+'
I tr.tlf . I
vr
J lt + ,l = 1-
Y
,d t -
l
+ I h' \ (\
/.{
2
'\1 ^+J-)A'" K=2'
t-Y -= :l- o Z X 4s.{

(t5 3(6) r' L. =.5.c?z
9"{'
v , = v o + t I ( { " , j u )= !
\ . - = G - g I + o - e ? - x 1 : l ' : G - 18 + o ^ o e - e
ôz--cs.'Y8
* o.'lfaE
f ,+9, t5-cra+e98
t/,e,-
6,o2_ e.ol( o.o6 e-.o I "s 'L
-=18 a.gdo8 a"\2t19 o ''?o3o
v I a-\e2.6
11zt)
f,"trun'r tzp,/,ne/ *t-zl/r" J
Z7.e e+,-&l.s ),tfracJwcd b3 /fu uJe "l {U slr<i1\r+ {"r*wJ
tr"Wi n4ellÊJo,C #e jailJ ^( 4 //,e1" e,M,.6r'a! @h.e
/roced s ca,n bj kdu-re-J bl fte Uu 4 /LB E te,is
,n-"J,fra7 /L,41/aJ , ftr w+/*J o/fa ca/./,- z-Ze -Tmft_
V'iJb fl4f,fl.eJ '
-7/ê ,.ozflod t+/e.SzV"e f'rlp'& ,.z.fl,oJ aLJ afredi<:-4v;
y1
(*',J) *- 6
J..o,=3,'* lnd
"7y6rpe-7*.8*| qL Carf<c:fur z.
o'*J btL<- oL{ Lt "-.....-
q n o ' .-- _JLy . * L f L- / r * ; t J ; )+ { { t . * , , V

,J^
r | * ^ (Y; '- /,
,, \
.J ^ 2_ c -t ! -.-\
r -Fl
E/' lh- F""Ltr'r *+//aJ 6 n"'"J;/)N) +, %rf* {; u.ri .<

J'= /'*! / * ' YL . t - , . r =
f t \ {
I
.
-,.
1
tL-
-4
o "!- , L1 XLz
.+
Uilko oucuv'ctc tl € :=/c
)oL"t)o^ : {u =l_ ,Yo = 4

\' = Y
'J. vd ^ * [ f {rt+5,) = _ l t_ o " r ( r ' * L ) = L - z
/y's+v, ,.tge y'/te /ort^',/^ 4 frrley- unalr/,",J ( €L 2 ))
. K,, XutL= I4o,'L=4.'-!-

+ o : a L Q ' n l ) - +( l , l ) ' + l - . ' l -
lo = 1a l2LoL
9t i t - ? J
t - ',f - o ' L r ( f t+ It )t t- +- - t (- L ,tf
\ rr L) -Y tn l . y z . ,- 2t/ ) J1 ,- / ", z- ' z - t 5 \ , ^ , - t 4L .
1 t-r
Z I r,
l/'KnJ ..t--
3 "/
- t t - f (' f+ r) * (^{'tl+/-zz/5f
Y: - L *o! ' l'zztl <J.3ree'u'"{r".
&* conSr,JpkR
ô'uvva('J '
N,e4^) y^c/e*t flre #<ralru-t /,er a,,zep K:
X , = 1 -t- , 5t = / , z z _t6
{.- = X,+L ef lo+z\ = I'Fo^z:- :t^'z-
rz)
t{
v L : t'22/(+o.\f ft.7)-+ t,zz/6 \ =.!.4tt,76
{'
u.- = / , z z r /+ : { f C f , f f + t , z z t ( + ( c , . " f + t , Q ( 2 q 7 6 ) l = t . t E
gL 'j
I
a2- - t.r2/ * LA.U' + | .22/6+-(1t,21'-+ /,fplae )f = r,+t15T7"^w
tr3
1 = t'2Lt/ + u-:! f(r"11\1,22tt*(O.i*1,+a7s711= t,qsTF )
U.L
f,i.l
tVtzt, hef-*r/ t/r.e t'/e,',"y','o n ur'd,'L fe-^cl, (X = e)
e =rl? t I
r 3 , , 2 r " i
dr I J"^J; 1 t-zt'tL be oVH, bJ a4 e4r,E
S {.-g .
x t .1_.
i* l - )
C-"-7/4e 4 * Lti,'o4
) 1 I'L2-t L 1 .4 8 q 5 7 r" ,. ', v, |! r' ,L r
lfeaL2q
I
X=_L
" \
@ R**J*.- k^tI'n Ae/L'/
/ " r l t /
\ qtL -4'dq
)
fre e4unt,"oz,'t tl6eJ lf
trr, = J,. .* fu, +,Lk,+zk-+ K3\
)*
ko t l^ | ( K;,,J,,)
k, k.{'((.+\,!,n l<o i
2 t
kr=
.t | ({.,'*\ , J,* l<r r
2 _ )
t .
F:= h ,{ <y,,
*Li y; nt,, l
Ef. Afflg /1lL*rJtv^ t\*l' - k+,tt* 4c sa('rc- 4l*e {''11a"tia*j

VoLtr (rtblenu Z
, , | h
5-=X'+1 f-- k=o.t,3(r):l o*J L1X<Z

9o t^r,ti o -, 3-
for X"zL tJo-=L ,'.e ('=.

k " = k / ( r , " , ! s )= k { k - , J - ) : o.L(r"* 11 - o-p_
aJlr
F,' l,.fu." b,J".* o- t..t, f r / t t +
?)=",1_f(+ + ' . - , r -i: o'>'Lo25
( 3))
I U.*L,1,*E ) = o.tf(t- *f+ Cr*yL"'-')]=d.zzr
k'= 1,..
k = =L l & ; _ L , j S t < t ) ' " - L P t ' ' 1 ) ' + ( t * . ' ' 2 z t z 6 2 5 =
) ]" ' 7 4 3 1
, rf k,+L(kt+k)+k=f
J''* i- L
&J.'*,=
q. r t : , 4 * L I* k o * 2 ( k , + k ' ) * / < s l
Uo 6
1- l = | + ) f . , 2 - 1 2 ( - ' r r u z 5 + 6 ' L 2 - 1 2( " s ) - t - o , z q : r z 6 z ]

6
f " \ . = 1 .2 2/oL5 2-
f*+- (r = Xooh = )-+o,[ - !-,L,J,=l,zt_lo2_52 6^f/eh lk fut,{qa

k" . Lr(ly,,!,)= " ,t
fct,pL+l,2zlezs:] ,= e,2-4gl0z5
k,= L.l({.,*!,j,* Yl =o,LL(.,r*'*f*d.,
40252*".r{,,
k,: o-z#So
k- = l^ { cx, -o!.,5,* {t ) = o.r[r.'"*"]* (t.zzJazsz+"$
k = .- -e . z 6 7 l 7 V
k s ' h " f ( d , + l n, ! , * l < , ) = o . l [ f . t + o " r i t ( l . t z l o z s zon' 2 6 7 / r 4 \
l < 3= o ^ 2 2 D 7 / V 7
" : J ==3 ,* V I O "+ 4 + z k - * k {
2^
;.-5, = ).4E6'3q3
(amtt'Y1 &Q. 6at " , ' ( L( X = z )
X t 1,{ t'z ,.3 I ,tl

2,o
u
rJ
4 l.zzt"z5. l,qg(31

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6J' t = !" + ut A$" -. t^--c"-ut"t. -t-

crl J.y J.u

; , " I - ; A ' : l . r ( u t - l t ' )A

SPec.rcr€ i&iel I u/l-t'. * --1. f7'eu L L* F = - K ' 3 = c . t

ou{ f,> K,: => t,( = X * - = X .

"t) =- I r vq + z$ir .* ?ulrl::3 t't,.] - {*

Vc^i = lo1o * L,U, t L . $ . -- t * - - - + L nX , , .

f, x. f, n J lfL,, l,,rl I r n ' , yr , ( ,' v e c/ I t,

{o,.'1,.t\.,.t" .i bt\ o*: o.{ tt.r floi-.{ ( i ' a)

cJi {,Xr- X,cl(X.*1.. (o -1.) (-- o*-.)

Jl= * ?-{-i:--\ = ?cl-3) - |'L-i'5

LX, /t"" e loci*. ct"nJ Q?ft v^ollvv.tlt y'*lrt," * |

7-O l ! . . 3 c/ l2,lto( L'sst-

= Ll f, L5 5 ( etP?ra X,''n-..'otf,r1 ,lo.,t-t*e

V':tt(z_sl = \ 8 - z33 'e{e, e,I V,tu\r^\.

Ylcr) := -t I^f; E -' o5,1 <_ ' 9 f- ?

vlkort {t* ru,-{er v u - (( a - - L ) t s 9 u b - . J ; i/ J € J

E/. It^re 4tt1y-eZ*iJ"t( f,rte 4"., dete ytLltvtt 4L,u t.,.t*,Jrt d

El'EvoL*o+le 'tLz ,J:J'(

a.:L, I.rn-t-e.r{at.(. X = ( f .5 -; 3 -,r) (\.,/\J L1* ( c.'-z 4 "-6)

\--) ILXtJ)an = | J*']

= l - l L ' . , ' k o + \ ( 5 , . . 2 7 t. g , L ' \ d Z+)2 ( 6 . t 5 2 2 ) a t , Z q f b

2 - E vc.t ,,.,re{.:{Lt V.r.l.1"tq"+ {L.r hof{ \.,<trr3%r{lo4 by

4 , Et.+l*<ut t'v-e f o tto u: i^rj !\!, LtI S , vtt1"5'. n 5 {a rr.ut t ! 't^=,t

b r,l L-e \-z

i.e. the trapezoidalrule states:

Problem l. (a) Use integration to evaluate,

(b) The range of integration is the difference 1.00 2.0000

1.0 2.0000 + 1.6330

This problemdemonstrates rhatlhe greaterLhenum_

z. ,rnz*o* (Jse8 intervals) Ib / width of \ / sum of \ (2)

Problem4. Use the mid-ordinarerule wilh Fromequation(2):

(b) With 8 intervals,eachwill have o.2o 0.986.t6

t.125 From equation (Z):

Thus the width of each of the two intervals is d.

Exercise 181 Further problems on the t d

a, * do,+ qv,+ vr)+] ri(x+ ar++ rs)

Thus, from equation (5);

^ T n r 2ft 5ft ,Jt From equation(5):

1.0000 0.9950 0.9803 0.9574 Now try the following exercise

Exercis€ 1E2 Furth€r pmblems on Simp-

Time(msl | 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 u. (Jse6 inrervals)

*, - - -- , X^ 4 \w J ef< ' n J .n t v o n h b { e ' x.,cort' eg-

L- 1e:<'.AnJ lnt<r po1a;lp)

/"rteuti11 4*bt i [<rw rd ".r.J )

K1'*t e -.+ t Ll,'

XLr {c t ,.> VIC

\,tqLu-e4 lv( 6, [ove E{ '

Gt'v ",t w4<' f^d r"cl,' x" ,

g- A-Ne,,tolr^ 9regu"v ]oyvlqnJ '$' V o l S n a ' " t i * (; l ' - t u ^ - e t

+ YLr-r) t{ " ",

Tir, --, ;'- tx +17

: rI .' # l f "{ ' ' -r . , - l v.Lnti {.^}

P ^ t X ) "= Z - l(Xv) L o 3 L c r t t ' r '+ L l l ...-'"'-u.

P,t ut = (1:\X.4:r! ,*", ( {-x-)(x-i'/ ( *,, +

L o . f l ( x - t , ' ) ./' L/\ ' : <r,

El , .1,1s*{." : . 2 - , Kt = z^t),, {.= (/,e g.,wn J

2-{ L J ( t )- = .t ' . . , 1 ( " . t= t 5 . , Y ( 5 ) ' . z ' ; n , r J i ( t l = s o l , ' - , ! 4 L *

o'q?3 a'(st, (,e7 l,rtV

) i a I ttr t 7? zrz | 62.

2- N <.,r 9 ' , t . 1t , ( o r P ' i , t l - ( P o ( X q = n ) [ l , " r b n : , ] g n e t L o l l

S c c=x:" (tlr ;== .? c , , , x W i ! ) ' nt v't-- -', \- >' ! ' s I.

cJi {,Xr- X,cl(X.1.. (o -1.) (-- o-.)

LX, /t"" e loci. ct"nJ Q?ft v^ollvv.tlt y'lrt," * |

E/. It^re 4tt1y-eZiJ"t( f,rte 4"., dete ytLltvtt 4L,u t.,.t,Jrt d

z. ,rnzo (Jse8 intervals) Ib / width of \ / sum of \ (2)

P,t ut = (1:\X.4:r! ,", ( {-x-)(x-i'/ ( ,, +

Ju'5,= E o _ . , ) ' + c r = { a r . X ) = qo+qil larl'+e;,xJ

t, 'r7 ^* rr Geffic^1

C- Gatr.SS-. J"rJ",, F1,,,^;r^q,ti.rlta.l/*d Z_

3, = aa(.h112t 'Y bzz) + azz(bztz+ + bzlzzJ + rl"3(b31:ri * b""t;o )