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Cretaceous anoxic events: from continents to oceans

Article  in  Journal of the Geological Society · April 1980

DOI: 10.1144/gsjgs.137.2.0171

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J. geol. Soc. London, Vol. 137, 1980, pp. 171-188, 6 figs. Printed in Northern Ireland.

Cretaceous anoxic events: from continents to oceans

H. C.Jenkyns

SUMMARY: PelagicCretaceoussediments,deposited in a range of palaeotectonicand

palaeogeographicsettings,fromcontinents to oceans,arecommonlyblackandbituminous.
3 particular time-envelopes definethe major occurrencesof such facies:late Barremian-Aptian-
Albian, the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary and, to a lesser extent, the Coniacian-Santonian.
These intervals define the duration of so-calledOceanicAnoxicEventsduringwhichglobal
marine waters were relatively depleted in oxygen, and deposition of organic matter, derived
frombothterrestrialandplanktonicsources, was widespread.CretaceousOAEscorrelate
closely with transgressions, and such a correlation exists throughout the stratigraphical column.
Flooding of land-masses is thought to havetransportedmuchterrestrialplantmaterialsea-
wards; the progressive increase in shelf-sea area is thought to have stimulated production of
marine plankton. Bacterial consumption of this organicmatterfavoured the development of
poorly oxygenated mid- to late Cretaceous waters in which many of the characteristic faciesof
the Period, including glauconitic sandstones and phosphatic chalks, were deposited.

Cretaceous bituminous facies have a significant record raphy similar to that of Liguria may be reconstructed
in all major oceans and are widespread in a variety of (Lemoine 1971, 1972). Here, however, the rocks have
pelagic successions exposed on land. As with examples suffered Alpine metamorphism and have been trans-
from extant deep-sea basins the outcrop record also muted into graphitic micaceous phyllites (part of the
shows a variety of organic-rich lithologies whose de- Schistes lustrks). The Bundnerschiefer of the Piemont
signation by the sack term ‘black shales’ is commonly and Valais Zones, Switzerland, and the Austro-Alpine
misleading. Major occurrences of dark-coloured nappes of the Eastern Alps include
comparable
organic-richdepositsaccessible lithologies; in the Swiss examples, at least, foraminif-
to the field geologist
are described and their significance assessed in terms era1 and palynogicaldatinghasestablishedprobable
of environmentandtheprevailingpalaeo-oceano- Barremian-Aptian and
definite
Cenomanianand
graphic
conditions. The classification of major Turonian levels (PantiC & Gansser1977; PantiC &
pelagic environments usedfollows Jenkyns(1978). Isler1978).
These blackshalesandbituminouslevelsareinter- These Tethyan examples generally contain little ter-
preted as the sedimentary record of very low oxygen rigenous admixture; however, many sections that are
concentrations in much of the world’s oceans at cer- rich in clastics (e.g. the Flysch and Argille Scagliose of
tain times and bear witness to the impact the Alpine-Apennine-Sicilian areas) are locally black
of oceanic
anoxic events (Schlanger & Jenkyns 1976). and/orbituminous. Sincetheserocks arenot truly
pelagic, they are excluded from Fig. 1. Examples are
Pelagic oceanic facies known from the Pre-Alps (Haute Savoie), where cal-
careous carbonaceous flysch, locally manganiferous, is
Pelagic rocks of oceanic provenance are recognized by dated as
Cenomanian-Turonian (Guillaume et al.
theirstratigraphicrelationship with ophioliticrocks. 1962)andfrom
the
Helminthoid Flysch of the
Good examplesareexposed in the LigurianApen- MaritimeAlps,where coeval clastic facies are also
nines, NW Italy, where the Albian to Cenomanian is partly manganoan (Lantaume & Haccard 1962). One
developed as 100-1000 m of dark grey to black shales of thebestdescribedsections is fromthePeloritani
known locally as the Scisti di Val Lavagna (Decandia Mountains, Sicily, where ophiolites are in fact missing
& Elter 1972). Dating of this formation, on the basis although the rocks are generally interpreted as oceanic
of fewpoorlypreservedglobigerinidforaminifera, is (Wezel 1970). The Cenomanian in this region is partly
inevitably inexact. The lower partof this unit typically represented by millimetre-laminated black shales, rich
comprises beds (c. 2 m) of dark grey marly argillites, in fish skeleta, overlain by black carbonaceous
commonly millimetre-laminated,
interspersed
with radiolariancherts,laminatedonthesamescale,and
thinner (6-20 cm)calcilutites. The upper part of the capped by more massivegreymarls, locally sideritic
Scisti di Val Lavagna containsa sizeable quartzose and and chamositic. These latter contain small radiolarian-
micaceouscomponentthatincreasesverticallyand sized concretions and several 10 cm thick beds of iron-
laterally astheformation passes into flysch. Locally manganesecarbonatesthatare superfically oxidized
olistoliths of ophioliticrocks are included in these (Campisi1977).
black shales (Elter & Raggi 1965). In the above examples the paucity of carbonate and
Inparts of theWesternAlps a Mesozoic stratig- the local presence of terrigenousturbiditesindicates

4 Geological
0016-7649/80/0300-0171$02.00 @ 1980 The
Society
172 H. C. Jenkyns
Oceanic Continental- Epeiric
Facies Margin Facies Facies

MAASTRICHTIAN

CAMPANIAN

SANTONIAN

CONlAClAN

TURONIAN

CENOMANIAN

ALBIAN

APTIAN

BARREMIAN

HAUTERIVIAN

VALANGINIAN

BERRlASlAN

FIG. 1. Stratigraphical distribution of Cretaceous pelagic black shales exposed on land, North Sea excepted. Flysch
facies are excluded. Samples show a strong numerical bias towards the Alpine-Mediterranean region and correlate
best with coeval sediments from the central Atlantic.
 Cretaceous anoxic events: from continents to oceans
deposition in deepoceanic
a basin
whose
sediment/waterinterface was just abovethe calcite
compensation depth. This basin, part of the Tethyan
Ocean lying between Africa and Europe, was appar-
entlyinfluenced by thesame anoxicconditionsthat
pertained in the central and South Atlantic at this time
(Bernoulli & Jenkyns1974;Thiede & van Andel
1977; Arthur & Natland 1979).
In
western
California belts
2 of discontinuous
ophiolitic and associated sedimentary rocks arejux-
taposed, the Franciscan lying to the W of and being
overthrust by the Coast Range Ophiolite which floors
the Great Valley Sequence (e.g. Blake & Jones 1974).
Cretaceous facies of the Great Valley Sequenceare
partlyrepresented by blackshales (ToroFormation)
containing the bivalve Buchia and ammonites, giving
dates of Berriasianand Valanginian(Bailey et al.
1964; Jones et al. 1969). Particularly interesting is one
exposure of the Franciscan where a pelagic limestone
(Calera Limestone) contains a 50 m thick bituminous
section
(Wachs & Hein 1974, 1975).
This
dark-
coloured faciescontainsradiolariaandrecrystallized
nannofossils,butlacksforaminifera. Organicmatter
(unspecified) attains values of 2%and is presentas
bed-parallel lenticles of tens of microns to centimetre
scale. Overlying this so-called Black Calera Limestone
is a white planktonic foraminiferal nannofossil carbo-
nate, locally graded, which lacks organic matter and
containsradiolaria,echinodermremainsandbenth-
onic foraminifera. The Calera Limestone is tentatively
attributedtothe basal Cenomanian: coevaldeposits
elsewhere in the Franciscan include graded terrigenous
sandstones and black mudstones.
The Great Valley Sequence and the Franciscan may
be interpreted as parts of the Pacific Plate that have
been thrust onto North America; the former has been
specifically interpreted as the product of deposition in
a fore-arc basin (e.g. Dickinson & Seely 1979). Thus
theToroFormation may havebeenlaiddown in a
trough whosewatershadlimitedexchange with the
rest of theCretaceous Pacific. The Black Calera
Limestone of the Franciscan is best interpreted as the
depositionalproduct of someoceanictopographic
high,suchasasearnount,plateau or aseismicridge
which mobile clasticsedirnentsnecessarilybypassed.
4 Pacific plateaus are known to carry intercalations of
bituminousmaterial in otherwisenormallyoxidized
pelagic
successions: Hess 310:
(Site
Rise
Cenomanian-Turonian), ManihikiPlateau(Site317:
Barremian-Aptian), Shatsky Rise
(Sites 305,306:
Barremian-Aptian and Cenomanian-Turonian) and a
plateau in the NW Mid-Pacific Mountains (Site463:
lower Aptian) (Larson & Moberly et al. 1975;
Schlanger & Jackson et al. 1976; Vallier & Thiede et
al. 1979). Thus incorporation of a plateau or similar
aseismic structureontocontinentalNorthAmerica
couldexplain theoccurrence of theBlack Calera
Limestone (Jenkyns1978).
173
Pelagic continental-margin facies
Pelagic Cretaceous rocks,pertaining totheformer
continentalmargins of Tethys,are exposed in many
parts of the Alpine-Mediterranean region. Of all these
sections perhapsthe bestdescribed are those from
Umbria, Italian Apennines (Barnaba 1958; Bortolotti
et al. 1970; Bernoulli 1972; Arthur & Fischer 1977;
Premoli-Silva & Paggi in press). Barremian bitumin-
ous levelsoccurlocally,but more widespread are
blackorganic-richshales, cyclically interbedded with
red and green varieties, of Aptian-Albian age; these
are characteristic of the Marne or Scisti a Fucoidi, a
series of foraminiferalnannoplanktonmarls.Burrow
mottling, which gives theformation its name, is usually
absent in thedarker marls which retain,therefore,
original sedimentary lamination. Organic carbon con-
tents of this black shale facies rise to 2.5% (Fischer &
Arthur 1977).
Overlying theMarnea Fucoidi is the so-called
ScagliaBianca,
series
a of light grey to
green
foraminiferal nannofossil carbonates, that,
at
one
level, carry a distinctive 1m thick cherty black shale
called the ‘Livello Bonarelli’ and dated as basal Turo-
nian:organiccarbonlevelsriseto13.6%inthis
horizon. Unlike the enclosing Scaglia Bianca which is
dominated by planktonic foraminifera, the bituminous
level is rich in radiolaria and fish remains.
Capping the ScagliaBianca is the ScagliaRossa,
distinguishedessentially by itscolourfrom thebeds
below; in its Coniacian-Santonian portion, however, it
may be grey, laminated and locally pyritic (Arthur &
Fischer 1977). The development of this latter facies is
significantgiven that coevalblackshales are present
elsewhere (Fig. 1).
Similar facies to the above are exposed in the Lom-
bardian Basin of theSouthern Alps in Switzerland
near the Italian-Swiss border (Fig. 2).Described by
Bitterli(1965) and Weissert et al. (1979), the oldest
bituminous to coaly facies occur cyclically intercalated
between white calpionellid-nannoconnid limestones
termed Biancone: the age is late Barremian. Overlying
the Biancone is the Scaglia Variegata (equivalent to
theMarnea fucoidi) which containsone principal
layer (0.5 m) of laminated bituminous siliceous shale
(upto13.6% organiccarbon)rich infish remains,
datedataroundthe Aptian-Albian boundary.The
dark organic material is interleaved with bed-parallel
siliceouslenticlesa few hundred p m thick(Bitterli
1963); additional minor organic-rich levels are present
elsewhere in the section. Theoverlying Scaglia Bianca,
of Albian-Cenomanian age, contains some bituminous
layers, but there are none in the higher Scaglia Rossa.
Superposed on this latter pelagic limestone is a flysch,
aseries of marlylimestones andferruginoussand-
stones, which is locally dark grey and contains small
pyrite-filled foraminifera. Organic material consisting
174 H. C.Jenkyns
mostly of coaly fragments (max. 1%organic carbon) is
common in basalparts of thesection,dated aslate
Cenomanian.
In the Bavarian (i.e. Northern Calcareous) Alps the
Barremianand lower Albian is present asblack
bituminouslimestones(Zeil1956).Inwestern Sicily
theso-calledCaltavuturoFormation,developed in
faciesverysimilar tothe ScagliaRossa,containsa
25 m bed of bituminous shale; the age of this material,
though inexactly dated, falls between the Cenomanian
andSantonian (Caflisch 1966). InTunisiathelower
Turonian is locally present as bituminous pelagic car-
bonates (Burrollet et al. 1978; Salaj 1978).
Certainflysch-likedeposits of theTethyan region
contain black shales and mudstones, e.g. the so-called
Galestri of the Southern Apennines (dated as Lower
Cretaceous(Scandone1967,1972)), which is highly
siliceous, contains intercalated limestones and breccias
and is locally manganiferous.
In all the above examples deposition took place in
deep basins along the southern margin of the Tethyan
Ocean. The basinal environment is clearly indicated by
the frequency of slumps and re-deposited material that
is presentthroughout many of thesethicksections
(e.g.Bernoulli & Jenkyns1974). Clearly the anoxic
environments that affected the Atlantic and Tethyan
Oceans alsoinfluencedtheirmargins. Further evi-
dence of anoxia,frombasinalenvironmentsonthe
northern continental margin of the Tethyan Ocean, is
to be found in the Subbetic Ranges of Spain, where
the Aptian-Albian is developed asseveralhundred
metres of bluish-black to greenish black marls variably
enriched in planktonic foraminifera, radiolaria, sponge
spicules and nannofossils; benthonic foraminifera and
echinoid spines are rare. Locally intercalated between
theseblue-blackmarls arebeds of derivedoolite
(Dekker et al. 1966; Kuhry 1975). On parts of Ibiza,
BalearicIslands,theLower Cretaceous is similarly
developed in finely laminated yellow-green to blue-
black shales rich in pyritized ammonites; coeval rudis-
tid shallow-watercarbonates alsooccur (Rangheard
1971). O n Mallorca blue-blackshalescharacterize
the Aptian-Albian (e.g. Colom 1973). A thin
Cenomanian-lower Turonian bituminous level, sand-
wiched betweennormal pelagiclimestonesrich in
planktonicforaminiferaandradiolaria,hasbeende-
scribedfromthe Subbetic of mainlandSpain (Durr
1967).
Similarfacies totheabovearedeveloped in the
PieninyKlippen Belt, Polish and Czechoslovak Car-
pathians(Birkenmayer1963;Mahel et al. 1968). In
the Polishsector theupperAlbian is developed as
green to blackmarlylimestones with chertnodules.
Very similar sediments characterize the Aptian-lower
Albian in Czechoslovakia. In the lower Turonian of
the Polish Zone a 3 m blue- to greenish-black bed of
shale, rich in calcified radiolarians, is locallyinterca-
lated between variegated red marls. In the Briancon-
nais Zone, Western Alps, the Albian-Cenomanian is
locally developedasinterbeddedradiolariancherts
and black claystones and siltstones (Bourbon 1978).
Allied Aptian-Albian facies are furthermore found
in the Vocontian Trough of theMaritime Alps,
France. Here the so-called ‘Marnes Bleues or Marnes
Noires’ outcrop (e.g.Middlemiss & Moullade1970).
These laminated blue-blackshales of Aptian-Albian
age, which are rhythmically interbedded with dark
grey argillaceous limestones, locally contain glauconi-
tic sandstones and pyritic ammonites; in one section
organiccarbonvaluesrangefrom1.5 to 6.5%. The
organicmaterial is apparentlyderivedfromboth
planktonicandterrestrialsources.Certainorganic-
carboncompounds suggestthe formerpresence of
dinoflagellates andmethane-producingbacteria(de
Boer et al. 1978).
Returning to
the
southern continental margin,
another important occurrence of bituminous horizons
must be mentioned, in a rather different palaeogeo-
graphicsetting tothe previous
examples. Several
localities are known, the most important being
Mollaro,Covelo, and Sasso Rosso near Trento
in theVenetian (i.e. Southern)Alps (Fig. 2). The
bituminous horizons, intercalated
betweengreen,
pinkand greypelagiclimestonescontainingsyn-
sedimentary breccias and slumps, are dated
as
lateAlbian(Mollaro),earlyTuronian (Covelo) and
Santonian (Sasso Rosso) (Patriciu & Teichmuller
1930;Fuganti1961,1964,1966; Castellarin 1970;
Bosellini et al., in press). The two former levels are
rich enough in uranium(mm.725ppm U& at
Mollaro, average 100 ppm U,O, at both localities) to
be called‘uraniferous’, The Mollarodeposit, which
has been exploited commercially in the chemical and
pharmaceutical industry, ranges in thickness from 30
to150 cm and is confined toanortherlytrending
elongated zone extending over some 12 km. Typically
the deposit shows a millimetre lamination of bitumin-
ous materialandpelagiccarbonatethatcommonly
contains pyritized foraminfera and fish scales. Glauco-
nite,phosphateanddolomiteare accessories;some
plantmaterialhasalsobeenrecorded(Patriciu &
Teichmiiller 1930). An organic-carbon value of 3.3%
was noted by Bitterli(1963).SimilarupperAlbian
black shales are develoDed in a north-easterly oriented
belt lying S of Trento (Bosellini et al., in press). The
depositat Covelo is alsospatiallyrestricted,being
traceable,asasimilarlytrendingzone,oversome
15 km.Thishorizonhasamaximumthickness of
100 cm, and is more siliceous than its counterpart at
Mollaro: both the foraminifera and the radiolaria are
commonly pyritized. The bituminous matter typically
occurs as microscopic lenticles; more rarely millimetre
alternations of organicmaterialandcarbonateare
developed (Fuganti 1966). At Sasso Rosso the
bituminous level, traceable laterally over several km’,
is a few metres thick and contains occasional intercala-
 Cretaceous anoxic events: from continents to oceans 175

FIG. 2. Jurassic-Cretaceous palaeogeographic elements of the Southern Alps; this area formed partof the southern
continental margin of Tethys during the latter halfof Mesozoic time. Palaeo-topography of basins, plateaus and
carbonateplatforms isstrictlycomparablewiththepresent-dayBlake-Bahamaregion.AfterGaetani (1977).
Bituminous horizons occur at Mollaro, Covelo and Sasso Rosso.

tions of dark organic-rich cherty limestones; fish and where the Cretaceous palaeogeographic configuration
plant remains are locally common. parallels that of the Alpine-Mediterranean Tethys. Ex-
AlltheseorganichorizonsformedontheTrento amplesare
the
Turonian deep-basin globigerinid
Plateau, a largetopographicfeaturesurrounded by limestones of theQuerecalFormation,Venezuela
deeper basins throughoutmost of JurassicandCre- (Hedberg 1937, 1950) and the Cenomanian to Conia-
taceoustime (e.g. Aubouin1963;Castellarin1970; cian Gautier and Lower Naparima Hill Formation of
Massari & Medizza1973). 2 of theseorganic-rich Trinidad (Kugler1953). Theformer limestones are
horizons(MollaroandCovelo)apparentlyaccumu- pyritic, finely laminated with alternating carbonaceous
lated in small fault-bounded depressions on the sur- and carbonate layers, are rich in calcareousconcre-
face of the edifice; the third (Sasso Rosso) was depo- tions and contain black cherts in higher levels of the
sited close to the scarps that formed its western edge formation. Hedberg refers
to
their
‘petroliferous
(Fig. 2 ) : the associatedslumps and breccias poiIit to odour’ when hit with a hammer. The material from
relativelybasinalenvironments. Thefurther signifi- Trinidad is extremely similar, as are further examples
cance of the Trento Plateau as an index of the chang- in Barbados, where they occur as exotic blocks, and
inglevel of oxygenationin theocean is discussed Colombia. In Mexico andthe Gulf Coast, shallow-
below. Theparticularpalaeogeographicsetting of water carbonate platforms ringedby rudistid reefs pass
these organic-rich layers recalls that of Pacific plateaus laterally intobasinalbituminous pelagic carbonates
and, more particularly, the continentally floored Falk- rich in planktonic microfossils (e.g. Enos 1974, 1977;
landPlateau E of SouthAmerica (cf. Barker et al. Carrasco-V. 1977).
These basinal
facies (Upper
1977). Tamaulipas and Cuesta del Cura Formations) embrace
TheundeformedNWAfricancontinental margin the Aptian-Cenomanian stages, are typically dark col-
contains
severalcoastal
basins
where
laminated ouredand
contain black chert. A very similar
bituminous cherty mark and limestones outcrop. Or- palaeogeographicconfiguration is manifested in the
ganic carbon contents rise to 15%. These facies are Middle East, where carbonate platforms and rudistid
particularlywidespread in theTuronianbut locally reefs intertongue with basinal bituminous pelagic car-
occur in the upper Cenomanian and lower Coniacian bonates and shalesof Aptian-fdbian and Cenomanian
(Wiedmann et al. 1978).LowerCretaceous flysch, age (Wilson 1975).
with black shale matrix, is present on Fuerteventura, Mention shouldalsobe
made of the Peruvian
CanaryIslands(Rothe1968;Robertson & Stillman Andes, which exposeAlbian
sections of black
1979). bituminous shalesand
limestones, locally rich in
Other important occurrences of bituminous pelagic bivalves andammonitesandbearingnodularchert
sedimentsaretobefound in theCaribbeanregion, (PariatambaandMuertoFormations;Wilson1963;
176 H. C, Jenkyns
Fischer & Arthur 1977). Cretaceous black shales and carboncontents rise to3.3%(Hattin1975). Particu-
flysch are also recorded from Timor and the Tibetan larly
interesting is thedistribution of benthonic
Himalaya (Wanner 1931; Heim & Gansser 1939), but foraminifera in thesefacies,not only in Kansas,but
the datingisinsufficientlyexact to include them in throughoutthe WesternInteriorSeaway;theseare
Fig. 1. virtually absent in part of the upper Cenomanian and
lower Turonian,whereplanktonicformsdominate,
Pelagic epeiric facies whereas they are present in intervening levels (Eicher
& Worstell 1970; Frush & Eicher 1975). The Western
Pelagicepeiric or epicontinentalfaciesare well rep- InteriorSeaway was alargeintra-continentalwater
resented by theUpperCretaceous shelf-seachalks bodywhich, atpeak transgression, was apparently
(HBkansson et al. 1974). So-called‘incipientchalk deep and fertile enough to support an abundant coc-
facies’ characterize the Barremian and lower Aptianof colithflora. Atthe sametimedeoxygenatedwaters
NW Germany (Blattertonsteine and Fischschiefer, re- must have been generated and where these impinged
spectively) and comprise darklaminated claystones directly onthesedimentary surfacethe benthos was
containing coccoliths. Organic carbon levels are typi- banished.
cally in the 2-5% rangebut locallyrise to12% In parts of the Middle East, rocks of Santonian to
(Kemper & Zimmerle 1978). Lower Aptian bitumin- Maastrichtianage aredeveloped aschalks(Flexer
ous shales also occur locally in the North Sea (Ander- 1968,1971;Schneiderman1970; Bartov & Steinitz
ton et al. 1979). One important organic-richhorizon 1977). The chalks, chert-rich at some levels, are essen-
developed in the English Chalk is the so-called Black tially nannofossil micrites containing varying ratios of
Band, a 10 cm thickhorizon of dark-coloured clay planktonic and
benthonicforaminifera plus In-
bracketed by normal white chalk. The clay, a smectite, ocerarnus prisms and whinoid spines. Bituminous-rich
is laminated, rich in pyritic nodules and fish remains, levels arepresent locallyin theupper Santonian-
and lacks benthos (Jefferies 1963).Organic-carbon lower Campanian and may extend into the Maastrich-
valuesrise to justover1%(Schlanger & Jenkyns tian (Spiro et al. 1978). Phosphate-rich levels occur in
1976).Thisbedoutcrops only in Yorkshire and the uppermostCampanian and roughly
coeval
Lincolnshire and is ascribed to thebasal Turonian. Also sedimentarybarite occurs locally (Bogoch & Shirav
of probable earliest Turonian age are the Plenus Mark 1978). The occurrence of bituminous material princi-
(with which the Black Band may be grouped), a series pally in one area suggests that this may have been a
of commonly smectitic clays intercalated in the Chalk deeper basinal pocket in an otherwise generally shal-
which,in the central North Sea, includeanorganic- low Middle East epeiric sea.
richgreenish-blackandpyriticclaystone(Deegan & In theCarnavon Basin,westernAustralia,a dark
Scull 1977): this may be directly correlative with the grey carbonaceous shale containing pyrite and glauco-
Black Band. There is also, in other parts of the central nite embraces the
period mid-Albian to mid-
North Sea, a horizon of carbonaceous marly limestone Coniacian: this is the Gearle Siltstone and its correla-
dated as top Cenomanian. At least in the case of the tives (Condon 1968; Bate 1972). Bentonites punctuate
Black Band there is the suggestion that the bed is a the succession and sedimentary barite is present loc-
bentonite formed by submarinealteration of a vol- ally.
canic ash-fall (Hallam & Sellwood 1968). Clearly the One other occurrenceof possible epeiric bituminous
ChalkSeahadatendencyto anoxiaat aroundthe pelagic facies may be mentioned: this is the Turonian
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary, a tendency that ap- of theBenueTrough, Nigeria. Here, blackshales,
parently only resulted in adiagnostic sedimentary containingplanktonicforaminifera, are characteristic
record in certain areas. of this UpperCretaceousstage,and deoxygenated
IntheWesternInterior of theUnitedStatesthe environments were apparently developed in depths as
upperAlbian is locallyrepresented by theMowry shallow as 30 m (Petters 1978).
Shale, a black partly laminated siliceous deposit con-
tainingmanydegradedradiolariansand fish skeleta Timing of oceanic anoxicevents
and characterized by organic carbon values of 0.4-5%
(Schrayer & Zarella1963; Byers & Larson1979). The ages of the variousorganic-rich and/or black
Thisandothernon-carbonaceous shalesconstitute sediments described above are plotted on Fig. 1. The
parts of Cretaceous cyclic successions in which chalks, usefulness of thisdiagram is, however,limited by
shaly chalks and chalky limestones are other members several factors. There is, firstly, a strong sample bias
(e.g. Kauffman 1969). The Greenhorn Chalk of Kan- towardsthe Alpine-Mediterraneanregion. Further-
sas
(Cenomanian-Turonian), where fresh
andde- more, the dating of many bituminous horizons is usu-
veloped in shaly facies, is olive-black to dark olive in ally carried out by examination of planktonic
colour,laminatedand rich inpyrite.Commonas- foraminiferalfaunas in enclosingpelagiclimestones;
sociates are lnocerarnus prisms, planktonic foraminif- thin-sectionstudy of suchfaunas is difficult andthe
era, fish remains and phosphatic coprolites. Organic- ageassignment is commonlyinexact andopento
 Cretaceous
anoxic events: from continents to oceans
reinterpretation.Thusthebituminous horizons may
‘move around’ from stage to stage. A thin bituminous
horizon apparently extending over a considerable time
span may reflectaninexactage determinationona
depositlaiddownveryfastratherthanlong-lived
organic-rich sedimentation. Even with these provisos,
certainconclusionsmay bedrawn:oceanic anoxic
conditionswereapparentlyparticularlywidespread
during latest Barremian and throughout the Aptian-
Albian:afocus may perhaps bediscerned atthe
boundary of these two latter stages. A more discrete
eventtook place aroundthe Cenomanian-Turonian
boundary, and a minor manifestation of anoxic condi-
tionswasapparentlyfeltduring the Coniacian and
Santonian.
The reality of these temporal slots is reinforced by
the study of similar sediments recovered by the Deep
Sea Drilling Project in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific
Oceans (Schlanger & Jenkyns1976;Ryan & Cita
1977;Arthur & Natland1979;Thierstein1979).In
particular the data of Arthur & Natland and Thiers-
tein from the organic carbon values in central Atlantic
DSDP coresbearoutthemore temporallydiffuse
nature of the Barremian-Aptian-Albian oceanic
anoxic event as opposed to the probably stronger but
more
short-lived
episode
the
Cenomanian-
at
Turonianboundary.The Coniacian-Santonianevent,
whosevalidity one might doubt fromitsapparently
meagre outcrop record, is also recognized by Ryan &
Cita (1977), Arthur & Natland (1979) and Thierstein
(1979),and is hencedeemed worthy of statusasa
separate OAE. In may, however, have been an essen-
tially Caribbean-Atlantic-Tethyan phenomenon.
seems
It likely, at
least in the case of the
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event, that bitumin-
ous horizons may be used for correlation. One might
suggest, therefore,thatthebituminous levelin the
Caltavuturo Formation of Sicily in fact indicates the
Cenomanian-Turonianboundaryandthatthe Black
Calera Limestone from the Franciscan,California, is
more likely to be late rather than early Cenomanianin
age.
Nature of oceanic anoxic events
and the transgression hypothesis
Cretaceous transgressions and oceanic anoxic
events
Investigation of theorganiccarbon in the various
Cretaceousbituminous levels coredfromtheoceans
suggests significant differences in the nature of the two
major OAE’s. BlackshalescoredfromtheAtlantic,
for example, reveal a significant terrestrial component
in theorganicmaterialfrom Aptian-Albianlevels
whereasthat of Cenomanian-Turonian age is more
richly planktonic(Arthur1979;Arthur & Natland
1979).Schlanger & Jenkyns (1976) proposedthat
thesetwo O A E s correlatedwithtimes of equable
177
climate and with transgressivepulses. Somecorrela-
tion between all3 OAE’sand transgressivepulses
may, in fact,beinferredfrom Fig. 3, althoughthe
Coniacian-Santonian event is only convincingly tied to
theflooding of northernEuropeand possibly the
USSR; this in turn could explain its mgre provincial
record. It is important to stress that an absolute (eus-
tatic) rise in sea level is not the relevant factor per se,
butactualflooding by the sea of formerlydryland.
Transgression curves generated by examination of the
global spread of Cretaceous marine facies thus supply
the relevant information. Itis suggested that transgres-
sionshaveatwo-foldmechanismfor promotingde-
position of organic-richsediments.Firstly,they may
swamp vast areas of deltas and coastal plains, hence
transporting large amounts of plant debris out to sea
(cf. Schlanger & Jenkyns 1976; Montadert & Roberts
et al. 1979) and perhapsit is not too fanciful to suggest
that much of themid-Cretaceous world ocean was
simply awash with wood; secondly, transgressions may
cause major increasesin the globalproduction of
organiccarbon,asdiscussedbelow. That significant
oceanographiceventstook place at thesetimes is
independently revealed by positive X,, isotopic
anomalies in Mexican and Italianpelagiclimestones
and N European chalks (Scholle & Arthur, in press).
This may be explainedasfollows:organic carbon is
isotopicallylight, i.e. preferentiallyenriched in C,*
over carbon dissolved in the global marine reservoir;
hence large-scale burial of organic matter would cause
enrichment of the heavyisotope(Cl3) in the world
oceanand in carbonatesprecipitatedtherein(e.g.
Fischer & Arthur 1977). This isotopic signal reaches a
diffuse maximum at around theAptian-Albian bound-
ary, whereas a sharp peak locally of relatively greater
magnitude characterizes thetopCenomanianand
basal Turonian.This couldsuggest thatduringthe
early Cretaceousevent,planktonicprotoplasm was
largelyoxidizedwithin theoceans, onlygradually
shifting isotopic balance, but nevertheless favouring an
anoxic milieu within which the more refractory wood
and plant material could accumulate; the more intense
Cenomanian-Turonian event, on
the
other
hand,
clearlyallowedburial of considerablequantities of
planktonic organic matter. Some isotopic evidence for
Coniacian-Santoniananoxia is registered in English
chalks (Scholle & Arthur, in press).
In Recent oceans, areas of high organic productivity
are predominantly localized in mediterranean, margi-
nal and shelf seas(Koblenz-Mishke et al. 1970); the
ratio of the surface of such seas to the global ocean
surface is about 1:30 (Sverdrup et al. 1942). However,
during thepeak of theCretaceous transgressionthe
ratio was at least 1:6 (Hays & Pitman 1973; Schlanger
& Jenkyns 1976). Thus,assuming no limiting factors-
suchas
primarynutrient
supply fromshrunken
landmasses-it is likely thatat thistime thetotal
amount of organic carbon produced in the ocean was
178 H. C.Jenkyns

‘
MAASTRICHTIAN
‘\, \
WESTERA.
INTERIOR, USA
EUROPE

CAMPANIAN \ 1.
75 \
\

95 CENOMANIAN

I
I HAUTERIVIAN I
I
VALANGINIAN

BERRIASIAN \
GLOBAL CURVE \ USSR
\
\
l135
2 I \

145 47 OXFORDIAN
\
\
\
\
3 I CALLOVIAN
1
l
l
, 3 l
BATHONIAN

165

PLIENSBACHIAN /-
/
SlNEMURlAN
/
/
HETTANGIAN
I
I

FIG. 3. Relative transgression curves (horizontal scale is arbitrary)plotted against Oceanic Anoxic Events.
Transgression to the right, regression to the left. OAE’s drawn to thenearest half stage, except forthe
Cenomanian-Turonian event, where the cluster of ages at the stage boundary merits division at the quarter-stage
level. Time scale after van Hinte (1976a, b ) . Global transgression curve after Hallam (1978) for the Jurassic, Sliter
(1976) for the Cretaceous; transgression curve for the USSR after Hallam (1977); Cretaceous of Northern Europe
and Western Interior of North America after Hancock & Kauffman (1979). Given the degree of uncertainty in the
curves, major OAE’s correlate closely with transgressive pulses; correlation of the Coniacian-Santonian O A E is less
convincing thanthe others, which could account for themorerestrictedoccurrence of black shales of this age.
Whether or not OAE’s correlate with high sea level stands, rather than with transgressive pulses, is not established.
 Cretaceous
anoxic events: from continents to oceans
vastly greaterthan it is today.Onepointerto this
increase in productivity, which suggests that nutrients
werenotalimiting factor, liesin the nature of the
widespread UpperCretaceous chalks. Asnoted by
Hikansson et al. (1974) and Funnel1 (1978) the depos-
itional rates of N European shelf-sea chalks are esti-
matedasseveral timeshigher thanRecentoceanic
carbonate oozes, implying that fertile and highly pro-
ductive waters characterized these pelagic epeiric seas.
Most of thenutrients utilized by phyto-and zoo-
plankton intoday’s oceans are recycled from below,
typically by upwelling. Where thisprocess doesnot
occur, the near-surface waters may benearlybarren
(e.g. Sverdrup et al. 1942).Thenutrient-richzone,
containingphosphate,nitrateandbicarbonate ions,
roughly corresponds with the mid-water oxygen-
minimumlayer;thechemistry of thislevel of the
ocean may be simply explained by bacterial oxidation
of sinkingplanktonicorganicmatter (e.g. Wyrtki
1962;Richards 1 9 6 5 ~ Spencer
; 1975). Inatypical
oceanicprofile thenutrient-richlayerliesatdepths
between 300 and 1500 m. However, in the European
and North American chalk seas, where palaeo-depths
are commonly assessed as 50-300 m (Hikansson et al.
1974; Hancock 1975; Frey 1972; Hattin 1975), it is
likely thatwind-generatedand tidal currents would
cause considerable vertical mixing, efficient recycling
of nutrients, and continuous high productivity (Fig. 4).
Indeed in a chalk sea of 150-200 m depth the photic
zone could touchthesedimentlwaterinterfaceand
nannoflora could wallow permanently in fertile waters.
Peak transgression in the Western Interior Seaway was
marked by aninvasion of benthonicforaminifera,
suggesting perhaps that depths at this time were great
enoughtosupportastable oxygen-minimumlayer
whose base lay above the basin floor (Frush & Eicher
1975).
It
must be concluded thatthelateCretaceous
epeiric and marginal seas produced sufficient organic
material to render them,via bacterial oxidation, potent
sources of oxygen-depletedwaters:indeed,the local
oxygenated
mixed primary layer
nutrient supply
179
occurrence of bituminous facies in the chalk deposits
described above confirms this. More subtle confirma-
tion may be seen in the local levels of laminated chalk,
where primarystructuresremainedunmodified by
benthonic organismswhose presence was dependent
on oxygenated bottom waters (Hancock 1975; Hattin
1975). Conversely, it may be thought surprising that
Cretaceous chalks contain so little bituminous matter;
presumably they were generally laid down in environ-
ments shallow enough to feel theeffect of algal photo-
synthesis and interchange with atmospheric oxygen. In
the productive zones of Recent oceans theoxygen-rich
surfacelayertypicallyextendsdown todepths of
50-300 m (e.g. Richards 1965b; Thiede & van Andel
1977). It is probable that bottom waters of shallower
parts of chalk seas maintained a delicate balance be-
tween mildly oxic and completelyanoxicenviron-
ments.
Thus the general picture is of fertilemarginal and
epeiric seas, produced by marine transgressions, acting
as oxygen sinks through bacterial consumption of or-
ganic matter. One must, as a corollary, envisage ton-
gues of anoxic waters spreading out from these shelf
seas acrosscontinentalmarginsintooceanbasins
(Fig. 4). Such a lateralspread of oxygen-depleted water
from coastal regions has been suggested for the origin
of oxygen-minimum zones in thoseparts of the
present-day Atlantic where productivity is low and in
situ generation of deoxygenated waters does not seem
feasible (Bubnov 1966; Menzel & Ryther 1968; Men-
zel 1970). Implicit in thismodel is somedegree of
localcontrol, in thatoceansadjacenttoa flooded
continent should feel maximum impact of anoxic con-
ditions.
There is, however, no doubt that the production of
anoxic waters along oceanic margins is only a partial
explanation for the deposition of Cretaceous organic-
rich sediments. As noted by Ryan & Cita (1977), the
mid- to late Cretaceous configurations of the Atlantic
andIndianOceans wererestrictedenough to allow
only limited access to the deep oxygenated waters of
recycling of nutrients
and high organic
productivity

water

FIG.4. Sketch showing suggested processes in a shallow epeiric sea produced by a marine transgression. Turbulent
shallow water ensures efficient recycling of part of the nutriment-rich oxygen-depleted layer and continuous high
productivity. The 0,-poor water mass, beingrelativelyrich in dissolvedsolids, may slide off the shelf into the
deeper oceanic realm to find its equilibrium density level. As long as primary nutrient supply is sufficient to furnish
the requirements of the phyto- and zooplankton, oxygen-depleted waters will continue to be generated.
180 H. C. Jenkyns
the World Ocean; thus in these cases the ‘Black Sea’ America(Deuser1975).Anenhancement of such
model,albeit on agiantscale, may be applicable conditions, experienced aas laterally extended
(Thiede & van Andel1977).Stagnationthroughout oxygen-minimumlayer,musthavecharacterizedthe
much of the water column, aided by salinity stratifica- mid and late Cretaceous Pacific (Fig. S.), thus favour-
tion, may have characterized these young oceans (cf. inglocalaccumulation of organic-rich sedimentson
Degens & Stoffers 1976). The records from the Pacific submarine high ground (Schlanger & Jenkyns1976;
Ocean are perhaps more puzzling in that its Cretace- Fischer & Arthur 1977; Ryan & Cita 1977; Thiede &
ous antecedent was even larger than it is today and in van Andel 19771.
no way restricted;mostmajorbituminouslevelsre- Coupled with the effect of a horizontal expansion of
corded were deposited on submarine plateaus whose the oxygen-minimum layer,
here
interpreted
as
palaeo-positions-lay to the S of the Equator. Signific- transgression-dependent, is the influence of climate.
antly, the equatorial Pacific is and was a locus of high Oxygen is supplied to the deep ocean by dense bottom
productivity(e.g. Winterer 1973; Berger & Winterer waters of polar origin; thus a secondary oxygen max-
1974) and oxygen-deficient intermediate or deep wa- imum is commonly found above the sea floor. In the
terspresentlyextendsome7500 km W of Central Cretaceous, however, in the absence of ice-caps, such

L L

FIG.5. Global reconstruction at 100 Ma, after Smith & Briden, (1977). Approximate palaeo-positions of DSDP
sites at times of organic-rich sedimentation (age and site number given) after the method of Lancelot & Larson
(1975). DSDP data fromLarson & Moberly et al. (1975); Schlanger & Jackson er al. (1976); Vallier & Thiede er al.
(1979). Position of present-day oxygen-deficient intermediate and deep-waterrelative to CentralandSouth
America after Deuser (1975). A laterally expanded mid-to-late Cretaceous oxygen-minimum zone is required to
explain the distribution of these Pacific bituminous sediments. Site 317, with the most southerly palaeo-position, lies
much closer to the Equator on the reconstructions of Winterer et al. (1974).
 Cretaceous
anoxic events:
from continents
oceans
to 181
bottom-water circulation would have been very slug- Jacobshagen1965). Thefauna includesammonites,
gish indeed, with basal watermasses less rich in dissol- pluspelagicbivalves,brachiopods,echinodermfrag-
ved gases, thus causing a downward vertical expansion ments, allcommonlyre-deposited,andforaminifera,
of theoxygen-minimumlayer(Schlanger & Jenkyns spongespicules and particularly radiolaria. All these
1976). Furthermore, high global temperatures would Carpatho-Alpine deposits are rich in complex Ca-Mn-
have lowered the solubility of oxygen throughout the Fe-Mg-carbonate minerals usually associatedwith
water column, favouring anoxia (Berger 1979). chamosite and pyrite (Andrusov 1965; Szab6-Drubina
1961; Germann 1972, 1973; Germann & Waldvogel
1971).ThustheearlyToarcian saw thewidespread
Correlation of other anoxic events deposition of laminated bituminous sedimentsfrom
with transgressions shallow shelf seas to deep continental-marginbasins
and we mayhypothesize that similar conditions per-
One test of the transgression hypothesis is to evaluate tained in some, if not all, parts of the World Ocean.
the timing of pelagicblackshaledeposition in other Asnoted by Hallam(1967,1975)and stressed by
parts of the geologicalrecord. The mostspectacular Hallam & Bradshaw(1979),animportant global
development of suchfacieswasduring theearly transgression took place during this time.
Palaeozoic, less so in the late Palaeozoic. In a world- This brief survey demonstratesthatthroughout
wide survey, Berry & Wilde (1978) stressed the pre- geological time a good correlation exists between de-
valence of pelagic black shales in the Lower Ordovi- position of black and/or bituminous shales in a variety
cian,MiddleSilurianandUpperDevonian.Ineach of pelagic settingsandthelateralspread of water
case theperiods of black shaledepositioncorrelate across adjacent continents. This is entirely consistent
with high sea level standsduring interglacials. In a with the transgression hypothesis.
more specific study,Leggett(1978)underlinedthe
temporalrelationshipbetweenthedevelopment of
Ordovician and Silurian black graptolitic shales from
an oceanic terrain now exposed in the Southern Up- Sedimentology of Cretaceous
lands, Scotland, and coevaltransgressions on the adja- bituminous rocks
centcontinentalmargins. The development of black
shales in the Upper Devonian and Lower Carbonifer- Although the scenario depicted above offers a general
ous of the Rheinisches Schiefergebirge, W Germany, frameworkbehind which oceanicanoxicevents may
is also linked to transgressions (Franke et al. 1978). In be viewed, there are a number of features common to
the Carboniferous epeiric seas of North America the many Cretaceousorganic-rich deposits exposedon land
samecorrelationmayagain be recognized(Heckel which deserve further comment.
1977). 1. Cyclicity, manifested by alternating organic-
Turning to the Mesozoic, themostobviousextra- rich and organic-poorlevels, is present in many basinal
Cretaceousexample is theearlyToarcian,during sections of late Barremian-Aptian-Albianage: e.g.
whichtimebituminousshales weredepositedover the ValLavagnaShales of the LigurianApennines,
much of epicontinentalnorthernEurope(JetRock, the Marne a Fucoidi of the Umbrian Apennines, the
Schistes Cartons, Posidonienschiefer). Indeed this oc- Biancone of the Southern Alps and the Marnes bleues
currencehasbeen suggested astheprimecandidate of the Maritime Alps. Such cycles have parallels in the
for a ‘Jurassic OceanicAnoxicEvent’(Hallam & Aptian to Turonian sediments of the Atlantic Ocean
Bradshaw 1979). In order to demonstrate the validity (Berger & von Rad 1972; Lancelot et al. 1972; Dean
of this assertion, however, it is necessary to document et al. 1978; Arthur1979;McCave 1979). It is
the presence of bituminous facies in pelagic sections this cyclicity
which has
led
Thierstein & Berger
rather than those formed in the shelf seas of northern (1978), Arthur & Natland (1979)
andThierstein
Europe, where conditions were locally advantageous (1979) to postulate periodic bottom-water anoxia de-
to blackshaledeposition atother timesduringthe pendent on salinity stratification. Indeed, such stratifi-
Jurassic. No Toarcian sediments have been cored from cation has been viewed as a cause of oceanic anoxic
the World Ocean-if indeed such rocksstill exist-and events. Dense brine injections from marginal evapori-
one mustsearchthereforeforoutcrops in mountain tic lagoons and quasi-isolated oceanic basins are post-
beltstogleanthe pelagiccontinental-marginrecord. ulated. Specifically, Aptianbrinesfromtheyoung
Study of the former Tethyan continental margins now South Atlantic are thought to have been flushed into
exposed in Austria, Czechoslovakia and Hungary are the central Atlantic, thus fosteringabyssal anaerobism.
revealing in this respect (Bernoulli & Jenkyns 1974). The implication is, therefore, that formation of black
LowerToarcian pelagicbasinalsections fromthese shales is dependent on the presence of a low-latitude
countries typically contain bituminous carbonate-rich smallocean basinwhich can judiciouslyleak (cf.
clay and siltstone, millimetre-laminated, and interbed- Burke 1975). Admittedly this situation also pertained
ded with lighter-coloured,
burrowedlevels (e.g. during the early Toarcian, when the central Atlantic
182 H. C. Jenkyns
and Tethyan Oceans began to open (Pitman & Tal-
wani, 1972; Dewey et al. 1973; Bernoulli & Jenkyns
1974; Laubscher & Bernoulli 1977). But what we are
correlating is simplysea-floorspreadingevents with
episodes of black shale deposition and the former may
also cause rises in sealevel(Hays & Pitman1973;
Pitman 1978). There are further problems: Thierstein
& Berger (1978) assume episodic injection of saline
waters into the central Atlantic and Pacific from Ap-
tian times, yet black shales were deposited well before
this. Barremian examples have been cited above and
therecordfromthepresentoceansextends back,
sporadically, to the basal Cretaceous (Arthur & Nat-
land 1979). Also it is difficult to understand how such
Atlantic-derivedbrinescouldpromotedeposition of
Barremian-Aptian bituminous deposits
on Pacific
plateaus whose palaeo-depths, according to Thierstein
(1979),were less than2 km. Thus,although saline
spillovers may provide a rationale for cyclic anaerob-
ism inrestrictedbasinalsettings,they do notthem-
selves provide a satisfactory causative mechanism for
oceanic anoxic events.
2. Theoutcroprecord of particularly thethinner
(few metres thick) bituminous horizons is commonly
discontinuous.Asarguedabovewithrespect tothe
Trento Plateau, it is probable that although the overall
settingwasthat of topographic high,depositionor
preservation of the bituminous sediment was favoured
in basinal hollows. WithPacific oceanic plateaus, some
drillsiteswerealsopositionedinbasins(Larson,
Moberly et al. 1975; Schlanger, Jackson et al. 1976),
and the graded layers in the Calera Limestone of the
Franciscan suggest similar morphologies pertained on
the aseismic structure that floored this deposit. In the
case of the Black Band in the English Chalk,the
possibility of thisbeingan altered ash-fallraises the
spectre of sedimentary rate as another variable. AC-
cording to Heath et al. (1977), rate of accumulation of
organic carbon in marine sediments is closely related
to bulk sedimentaryrate.Thus times of accelerated
deposition, related to suchlocalfactorsas the emp-
lacement of ash-falls,turbidites,aswellaspossible
increases in surface productivity, may also control the
lateral continuity of the black shale record.
3. Bituminousdepositsarepreferentiallyenriched
inradiolarians,which may be engulfedinchert or
replaced by carbonate. This association, also noted by
McCave(1979)andArthur & Natland(1979) from
CretaceousAtlantic blackshales,mustreflecteither
high radiolarianproductivity and/or selectiveearly
preservation of siliceous relative to carbonate micro-
fossils. pH values of interstitialwatersfromRecent
anoxic and near anoxic environments are variable (e.g.
Debyser 1957; Sholkovitz 1973), but that such fluids
inmanyblackshales were aggressive is indicated by
etched carbonate grains and nannofossil imprints (De-
gens & Stoffers 1976; Noel & Melguen 1978; Weissert
et al. 1979).Thecarbonisotopedata of theselast-
named authors on Barremian black shalelwhite limes-
tone couplets suggest that the depositional basin was
subjecttoperiodicaerationratherthan changes in
productivity. Thus the
abundant
radiolarians in
bituminous deposits could represent a solution residue
whosepreservation was probablyfavoured by the
presence of enclosing organic matter (Siever 1962); in
some cases, after calcareous deposition recommenced,
conditions became favourable for replacement of silica
by carbonate.
The
presence
4. of mixedCa-Mn-Fe-Mg-
carbonates in certain Cenomanian and lower Toarcian
basinal sections from the Alpine-Mediterranean reg-
ion is relevant, given that such deposits form today in
the central stagnant deeps of the Baltic Sea, a salinity-
stratified water body (Manheim 1961;Hartmann
1964; Suess 1979). These minerals occur in greenish-
grey to black organic-rich phosphatic muds. One
might expect, therefore, that similar mineralswould be
common from the Atlantic Cretaceous. Many of the
describedexamples of dolomite and siderite may be
manganoan,as is certainly true in at least one case
(Dean & Schreiber1978).Theseauthorsprimarily
discuss the significance of authigenic barite and relate
its origin to the proximity of organic-rich sediments, a
conclusion applicable to deposits of that mineral in the
Cretaceous of Israel and the Carnavon Basin, western
Australia.
Other minerals which are associated with black
shales in outcrop are pyrite, glauconite, chamosite and
phosphate(carbonatefluorapatite);theyreflectthe
prevailing depositional and diagenetic conditions (e.g.
Krumbein & Garrels 1952).
The case of the Trento Plateau
As mentioned above, 3 organic-rich horizons may be
identified in theSouthern(Venetian) Alps:clearly
eachCretaceous O A E lefta sedimentaryrecord on
the Trento Plateau (Fig. 2). This plateau, which may
be closely compared in both structure and depositional
historywith thepresent-dayBlakePlateau,hasa
pelagic sedimentary record extending from the Aale-
nian(basalmid-Jurassic) to theCretaceous-Tertiary
boundary (Aubouin 1963; Sturani 1964;Premoli-Silva
& Luterbacher1966;Gaetani1975).Much of the
sequence is condensed, contrasting with the thick suc-
cessions containing slump-folded complexes, sedimen-
tary breccias, and turbidites of the neighbouring basins
(e.g. Bernoulli 1964). In certain levels throughout the
Jurassic and Cretaceous there are stromatolitic domes
(Sturani1971; Massari & Medizza 1973; Massari
1979), suggestive perhaps of photic depths, although
this is opentodebate (Monty1971). Whateverthe
exact bathymetric history of theTrentoPlateau, it
seems clear that itexistedasarelativelyconstant
environmentalmonitor against which the impact of
Cretaceous OAE’s may be assessed. One of the most
 Cretaceous
anoxic events: from continents
oceans
to 183
striking features of the mid- to late Mesozoic succes- tated iron oxyhydroxides (Krauskopf 1957). The iron
sion is the change in the nature of authigenic minerali- oxyhydroxides may have acted as a template to adsorp
zation in hardgrounds and condensed sequences from phosphate from sea water (Berner 1973).
iron-manganese oxyhydroxides in the mid-Jurassic to These changes in mineralization have inverse paral-
iron oxyhydroxidelphosphates in the Cretaceous, lels in the Miocene-Recent stratigraphy of the Blake
specifically in the intervals Barremian through Aptian Plateau.Here
phosphate
and glauconite
(whose
to Albian,Campanian to Maastrichtianandat the genesis is also favoured under mildly reducing condi-
boundary with theTertiary (Castellarin et al. 1971; tions,e.g.Cloud 1955;McRae1972) characterized
Massari & Medizza1973). Ferromanganese oxyhyd- non-depositionalenvironmentsduringtheMiocene,
roxides are only generated under conditions of posi- whereasiron-manganese oxyhydroxidenodulesand
tive Eh, and nodules andcrusts of this composition are crusts are being formedatthepresent day(Pratt
formingtoday inawide spectrum of environments 1971).Overall,therefore, itmustbe admittedthat
(Glasby1978).Phosphate,
however,has
a very there have been cyclic changes in thestate of the
meagre Recent record and its genesis is known to be oceansbetween anoxidizing anda mildly reducing
favoured in at least mildly reducing conditions; in the mode (Fischer & Arthur 1977; Jenkyns 1978).
two places where it is known to be forming today (off
SW Africa and the Peru-Chilecoast)it is produced
below the sedimentlwater interface where such condi- Conclusions
tionsprevail(Baturin et al. 1972;Manheim et al.
1975;Burnett1977).Theiron-phosphate crusts on Mid tolateCretaceousmarinewaters werecharac-
theTrentoPlateau, however,contain abundanten- terized by low oxygen contents relative to the oceans
crusting
foraminifera(Massari & Medizza 1973), andseas of today.Atcertain times and in certain
showingclearly thattheywere exposed onthesea settings anoxic environments existed at the sediment-
floor. Thus, whereas during theMiddle Jurassic oxidiz- water interface and dark-coloured organic-rich muds
ing conditions prevailed on the surface of the Trento accumulated. This, however, was but one sedimentary
Plateau, during mid to late Cretaceous times oxygen reflection of the low-oxygen contents of late Mesozoic
contentsinthebottomwaterswere low enough to marine waters; numerous other minerals which today
favour
precipitation of phosphate the
atsedi- form in poorly ventilated continental-margin settings
mentlwaterinterfacebutnot so lowas to exclude were developed in Cretaceous shelf seas. An attempt
benthos.Manganese wouldnot bedepositedunder to reconstruct the distribution of marine facies during
such conditions, but remain in soluble form and sepa- a Cretaceous oceanicanoxic event is shown in Fig. 6.
rate readily from the more stable and easilyprecipi- Perhapsthe mostsignificant feature of OAE’s is

SHELF MARGIN OCEAN

Blue-gray mark with Marly palagic limestones Thick black
fish rpmainsand with bitummwslevels shales

sedimentary cover

Oceanic crust with aseismic

volcanic structures and
sedimentary cover

FIG.6 . Suggested facies distribution across a continental margin of a restricted ocean, during a Cretaceous Oceanic
Anoxic Event; not drawn to scale. This model is generated purely on the basis of outcrop data.
184
theirrelationshiptotheformation of oil(cf.Tissot
1979). As pointed out by Arthur & Schlanger (1979),
the
palaeogeographical configuration of carbonate
platformsfringed by rudistidcolonies andfore-reef
breccias
passing
laterally into basinal bituminous
pelagic limestones-as in the Cretaceous of the Middle
East and Mexico-is a perfect setting for the genera-
tion and accumulation of oil.
‘The distribution of oil with time reveals that 72%
of all known oilwas probablyformed in thelate
Mesozoic, most of it (60%) in themid-Cretaceous’
(Irving et al. 1974). Inthiscontext‘oceanicanoxic
H. C.Jenkyns
events’musthave colouredthepaths notonly of
geological but also of human history.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I acknowledge many profitable discus-
sions with M. A. Arthur, S . 0. Schlanger and H.Thierstein on
the topic of oceanic anoxic events, and have benefited from
helpful correspondence with D. Bernoulli and A. Castellarin
which clarified some details of Tethyan geology. The manus-
cript was read by A. Wood and T. Schopf. The base map for
Fig. 4 was supplied by courtesy of A.G. Smith. All the
figures were drafted by Liz Orrock. Funds for field work in
the Alpine-Mediterranean region were supplied by the Royal
Society, and this is gratefully acknowledged.

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