SPA4210 (2017) Page 1

SECTION A Answer ALL questions in Section A

Question A1

Two vectors are given by    

1 3
~v =  2  , ~ =  2 .
E
3 1

a) ~
Evaluate the dot product of ~v and E.
The dot product for two vectors ~a and ~b is given by

~a · ~b = ax bx + ay by + az bz .

In the present case this gives

~ = 1 × 3 + 2 × 2 + 3 × 1 = 10.
~v · E

[2 marks]
b) Evaluate the cross product of ~v and E. ~
The cross product for two vectors ~a and ~b is given by
 
ay b z − az b y
~a × ~b =  az bx − ax bz 
ay b z − az b y .
In the present case this gives
   
2×1−3×2 −4
~ = 3×3−1×1 = 8 
~v × E
2 × 1 − 3 × 2. −4.
[4 marks]
c) Let ~v and E~ represent, respectively, the velocity of an electron at a given point in space,
and the electric field, in SI units. Determine the total force acting on the particle. You may
use that the charge on the electron is −1.6 × 10−19 C.
The total force acting on a charged particle is

F~ = q[E
~ + ~v × B],
~

where q is the charge, ~v the velocity, and E~ (B)

~ the electric (magnetic) field. Here the
−19
magnetic field is zero, and q = −1.6 × 10 C is the charge of the electron. The total force
is then
−4.8 × 10−19
   
3
F~ = −1.6 × 10−19 ×  2  =  −3.2 × 10−19  N.
1 −1.6 × 10−19
[4 marks]
[Unseen.]
Page 2 SPA4210 (2017)

[10 marks]

Question A2

a) A charge q is brought from spatial infinity to a point ~x. Define the electric potential V at this
point.
If ∆U is the change in potential energy of the charge q in moving from infinity to ~x, the
potential V is given by
U (~x)
V (~x) = .
q
In words, it is the change in potential energy per unit charge upon moving the charge q
from infinity to ~x. [2 marks]
[Bookwork.]

b) ~
State the relationship between V (~x) and the electric field E.
The electric field is given by
 
−∂V /∂x
~ x) = −∇V (~x) =  −∂V /∂y  .
E(~
−∂V /∂z

[2 marks]
[Bookwork.]

c) The potential for a particular charge distribution is given by

V (~x) = 1/(x2 + y 2 + Kz),

where K is a constant. Using your definition in part (b) or otherwise, work out the electric
field as a function of position.
Using the result of part (b) gives
 
2x/(x2 + y 2 + Kz)2
~ x) =  2y/(x2 + y 2 + Kz)2  .
E(~
K/(x2 + y 2 + Kz)2

[3 marks]
[Unseen.]

d) Explain the processes that result in the electric field being zero inside a conductor.
Conductors contain charges that are free to move about. If a field exists, the charges feel
a force F~ = q E,
~ and move to create an imbalance of charge. This generates an induced
field that ultimately cancels the original field. [3 marks]
[Seen in lectures, but can be worked out from first principles.]

[10 marks]
SPA4210 (2017) Page 3

Question A3

a) Give an equation defining the magnetic flux through a surface S, explaining all symbols
used.
~ be the element of vector area on the surface, pointing outwards from the surface.
Let dS
Then magnetic flux is given by the integral
Z Z
ΦB = ~ · B.
dS ~
S

That is, for each infinitesimal area of the surface, it is the component of magnetic field
perpendicular to the surface, multiplied by the differential area. [3 marks]
[Bookwork.]
b) A closed surface S encloses a volume V with a position-dependent charge density ρ(~x).
Write an expression for the magnetic flux through S, and another expression for the electric
flux. Comment on the difference.
The flux through any closed surface is zero, as there are no monopole sources of magnetic
charge. The total electric flux is given by Gauss’ Law:
Z Z
ΦE ≡ ~ ·E
dS ~ = Q,
S 0
where Z Z Z
Q= dV ρ(~x)
V
is the total enclosed charge, and 0 the permittivity of free space. In contrast to the magnetic
case, this is nonzero as there are indeed isolated charges. [4 marks]
[Bookwork.]
c) Consider now a non-closed surface S 0 which spans a conducting ring. State the conditions
necessary to induce an electromotive force E in the ring, and give the relationship between
ε and the magnetic flux through S 0 .
An electromotive force is induced if the magnetic flux through S 0 varies with time. The
relationship is given by Faraday’s law (which also encapsulates Lenz’s law):
dφB
E =− .
dt
[3 marks]
[Bookwork.]

[10 marks]

Question A4

Under certain conditions, Maxwell’s equations in a vacuum reduce to the following form:
∂ 2 Ey 2
2 ∂ Ey ∂ 2 Bz 2
2 ∂ Bz 1
= c , = c , c2 = .
∂t2 dx2 ∂t2 dx2 0 µ0
Page 4 SPA4210 (2017)

a) Show that
Ey = E0 cos(ωt − kx), Bz = B0 cos(ωt − kx), E0 = cB0 ,
are solutions to these equations, provided a particular relationship is satisfied between ω
and k.
Substituting the proposed solution for Ey into the first equation gives
∂ 2 Ey
= −ω 2 E0 cos(ωt − kx) = −ω 2 Ey ,
∂t2
and similarly
∂ 2 Ey
= −ω 2 E0 cos(ωt − kx) = −ω 2 Ey .
∂x2
Thus, the equation is satisfied provided ω = ck. The magnetic field case is very similar. [3
marks]
[Unseen, but similar to exercise in lectures.]
b) Hence interpret the solution for (Ey , Bz ), and state the physical meanings of ω, k and c.
The solution represents a plane wave moving in the +x direction, where ω and k are the
angular frequency and wavenumber respectively, and c the speed. [4 marks]
[Unseen.]
c) The energy densities of the electric and magnetic fields are given by
1 ~ 2 1 1 ~ 2
uE = 0 |E| , uB = |B| .
2 2 µ0
Show that the energies carried by the electric and magnetic fields of the above solution are
the same.
The electric energy density is
1
uE = 0 E02 cos2 (ωt − kx),
2
and the magnetic energy density is
1 1 2
uB = B cos2 (ωt − kx)
2 µ0 0
1
= 0 c2 B02 cos2 (ωt − kx)
2
1
= 0 E02 cos2 (ωt − kx),
2
which is the same as the electric result. [3 marks]
[Similar to material seen in lectures.]

[10 marks]

Question A5

Consider a cylindrical length of copper wire with cross-sectional area A and length L, connected
to an electrical circuit.
SPA4210 (2017) Page 5

a) By considering a cross-sectional surface, define the current I flowing in the wire.

Let positive charge dQ cross the surface in time dt, in the direction of the electric field. Then
the current is given by
dQ
I= .
dt
[3 marks]
[Bookwork.]

b) Define the current density J in terms of the current I.

The current density is given by
I
J=
A
[1 mark]
[Bookwork.]

c) If E is the magnitude of the electric field parallel to the wire, define the resistivity, and state
which assumptions enter this definition.
The resistivity is defined as
E
ρ= .
J
This assumes that the current density is proportional to the applied field, which is an ap-
proximation valid for many cases in a narrow temperature range. [2 marks]
[Bookwork.]

d) Describe the processes in the wire that cause the resistivity to be non-zero.
The electrons in the wire collide with the relatively immobile ions in the metal lattice, where
the frequency of collision depends on the thermal energy that the electrons have. [2 marks]
[Can be explained using material seen in lectures.]

e) Describe qualitatively how the resistivity of the wire depends on temperature, giving your
reasoning.
As temperature increases, the electrons have more thermal energy, and thus collide more
with the ions. Thus, the resistivity increases. [2 marks]
[Can be explained using material seen in lectures.]

[10 marks]
Page 6 SPA4210 (2017)

SECTION B Answer TWO questions from Section B

Question B1

a) If the surface of a given conductor carries a charge Q, define the self-capacitance C of this
surface.
Let V be the potential difference associated with bringing a charge from infinity to the
surface of the conductor. Then the self-capacitance is given by

Q
C= .
V
[3 marks]
[Bookwork.]

[3 marks]

b) Now consider two charged surfaces carrying charges Q and −Q respectively. Write down
the mutual capacitance C of this system, defining all terms used.
The mutual capacitance is given by
Q
C= ,
∆V
where ∆V is the potential difference between the two conducting surfaces.[2 marks]
[Bookwork.]

[2 marks]

c) The electric field near an infinite charged plate is given by

σ
E= ,
20
where σ is the charge per unit area. If a pair of oppositely charged plates is separated by a
distance d, show that the capacitance per unit area is given by
0
C= .
d

The field between the plates is given by the superposition of both individual electric fields,
thus has magnitude
σ
E= .
0
The potential difference between the plates is then given by

σd
∆V = Ed = .
0
SPA4210 (2017) Page 7

Consider an area A of the system. This has charge Q = σA, such that the capacitance is
Q Q0 0 A
C= = = .
∆V σd d
Thus, the capacitance per unit area is
C 0
=
A d
as required.
[Exercise similar to lecture material.]

[5 marks]

d) Consider two coaxial infinite cylinders of radius R1 and R2 > R1 , such that the inner and
outer cylinders carry charge per unit length λ and −λ respectively, where λ > 0. By con-
sidering a length L of the system, show that the capacitance per unit length is given by
C 2π0
= .
L ln(R2 /R1 )

First we must find the electric field, for which one can use Gauss’ Law. For the Gaussian
surface, we can consider a cylinder of length L and radius R1 < r < R2 , coaxial with
the other two cylinders. By symmetry, the electric field on this surface is pointing in the
cylindrical radial direction, and is constant on the surface. The total flux is then

ΦE = 2πrL.

The total enclosed charge for this Gaussian surface is

Q = λL,

so that Gauss’ Law gives

λ
E= .
2π0 r
[5 marks]

The potential difference between the two conducting surfaces is given by

Z R1
∆V = − drE(r)
R2
Z R1
λ dr
=−
2π0 R2 r
λ
=− [ln(R1 ) − ln(R2 )]
2π0
 
λ R2
= ln .
2π0 R1
Page 8 SPA4210 (2017)

The capacitance is now given by

Q 2π0
C= = (λL) ,
∆V λ ln(R2 /R1 )

so that
C 2π0
=
L ln(R2 /R1 )
as required. [5 marks]
[Unseen.]

[10 marks]

e) Now let R2 = R1 + d. Evaluate the capacitance per unit area of the inner cylinder as
R1 → ∞. Compare your answer with part (b) above, and explain your answer.
As R1 → ∞, one has    
R2 d d
ln = ln 1 + ' .
R1 R1 R1
From part (d), the capacitance of a length L of the system is then
 
2π 2πR1 L0
C=L → .
ln(R2 /R1 ) d

We can recognise A = 2πR1 L as the area of the inner cylinder associated with a length L.
Thus, the capacitance per unit area is given by

C 0
= .
A d
This is the same as the result for parallel infinite charged plates, which makes sense: as
the radius of the cylinders’ radii become large, they look locally like flat planes.
[Unseen.]

[5 marks]

Question B2

a) State Ohm’s Law relating the current flowing through a resistor to its potential difference.
Ohm’s law is
V = IR,
where V is the potential difference across a resistor, I the current, and R the resistance.
[Bookwork.]

[1 marks]
SPA4210 (2017) Page 9

b) State Kirchhoff’s two rules for electrical circuits, and explain the physical principles under-
lying them.
Kirchhoff’s voltage rule says that the sum of potential differences around any closed loop
in a circuit is zero. It follows from the conservative nature of the electric field.

Kirchhoff’s current rule states that the sum of all currents entering a vertex equals the sum
of all currents leaving a vertex. This follows from conservation of charge.
[Bookwork.]

[4 marks]

c) Show that the effective resistance of two resistors in series is given by

R = R1 + R2 ,

where Ri is the resistance of the ith resistor. Similarly, show that the effective resistance is
given by
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
if the resistors are in parallel.
The potential difference across each resistor in series is given by Vi = IRi , given that the
same current flows through each one. The total potential difference across both resistors
is then
V = V1 + V2 = I(R1 + R2 ).
The effective resistance will be given by V = IR, and thus one finds

R = R1 + R2

as required. [4 marks]

For the resistors in parallel, the total potential difference around the loop containing the
two resistors must be zero (Kirchhoff’s voltage rule), which in turn implies the potential
difference across each individual resistor is the same. The current through the parallel
circuit satisfies
I = I1 + I2
from Kirchhoff’s current rule. The effective resistance will then be given by

1 I I1 + I2 I1 I2 1 1
= = = + = +
R V V V V R1 R2

as required. [6 marks]
[Bookwork, but can be worked out from first principles.]

[10 marks]
Page 10 SPA4210 (2017)

d) The Wheatstone bridge is a circuit used for accurately measuring resistances, as depicted
in figure 1. For a given unknown resistance R3 , the variable resistance R2 is adjusted until
the current flowing through line DB is zero. Show that this condition implies the relation

R3 R2
Rx = .
R1

Kirchhoff’s current rule applied at vertex D gives

IAD = IDC + IDB ,

where IIJ is the current flowing from point I to point J. Similarly, from vertex B one has

IBC = IDB + IAB .

If no current flows through DB then IDB = 0, and these equations reduce to

IAD = IDC , IBC = IAB .

[3 marks]

We can also apply Kirchoff’s voltage rule around the loops ADBA and DBCD, which gives

VAD = VAB , VDC = VBC .

Ohm’s law then implies

IAD R1 = IAB R3 , IDC R2 = IBC Rx .

Using the current and voltage equations, one may solve twice for IDC yielding

Rx R3
IDC = IAB = IAB ,
R2 R1
which implies
R3 R2
Rx =
R1
as required. [4 marks]
[Unseen.]

[7 marks]

e) Let I be the current generated by the battery. Derive an expression for the power dissipated
by the resistor R1 in terms of I, R1 and R3 .
From Kirchoff’s current rule applied at vertex A, one has

I = IAD + IAB ,
SPA4210 (2017) Page 11

R1 R3
+
D B
R2 Rx

Figure 1: The Wheatstone bridge, where points in the circuit are labelled for convenience. Rx
denotes an unknown resistance, and R2 is a variable (adjustable) resistance.

and from above one has IAB R3 = IAD R1 , so that

   −1
R1 R1
I = IAD +1 ⇒ IAD = I +1 .
R3 R3
The power dissipated in the resistor R1 is
−2
I 2 R32 R1

2 2 R1
P = IAD R1 = I +1 R1 = .
R3 (R1 + R3 )2

[Unseen.]

[3 marks]

Question B3

a) State Ampere’s Law for the magnetic field due to a current, defining all symbols used. Use
this law to find the magnetic field at perpendicular distance R from an infinitely long wire
carrying current I.
Ampere’s Law states that I
d~l · B
~ = µ0 I,
C

where the left hand side is the line integral of the magnetic field B~ around the closed con-
tour C, µ0 is the permeability of free space, and I the current enclosed by the loop. [4 marks]

For an infinitely long wire, one may choose a circular loop of radius R centred on the wire.
By symmetry, the magnetic field is constant on this contour, and furthemore the magnetic
field points tangentially to the contour (by the Lorentz force law). One thus has
I
d~l · B
~ = 2πRB = µ0 I,
C
Page 12 SPA4210 (2017)

where the current enclosed by the loop is simply the current I carried by the wire. Thus
one has
µ0 I
B= .
2πR
[4 marks]
[Bookwork, and exercise similar to lecture material.]

[8 marks]

b) A point charge Q moving with velocity ~v generates a magnetic field

~ = µ0 Q [~v × ~r],
B
4πr3
at displacement ~r from the particle. Use this result to derive the Biot-Savart law for the field
generated by a small element of wire d~l carrying a current I.
In time dt, a small amount of charge dQ moves through the segment of wire, such that the
velocity of this charge is
d~l
~v = .
dt
From the formula stated in the question, the magnetic field at a displacement ~r originating
from the segment d~l of the wire is

~ = µ0 dQ
dB [~v × ~r]
4πr3
µ0 dQ
= [~v dt × ~r]
4πr3 dt
µ0 I ~
= [dl × ~r],
4πr3
where we have used the definition of the current
dQ
I= .
dt
The final result is the Biot-Savart law.
[Bookwork, but can also be worked out from first principles.]

[5 marks]

c) Consider a wire of length L, and a point P at perpendicular distance R from the wire, as
shown in figure 3. Show that the magnetic field at P has magnitude

µ0 I
B= [cos(θ1 ) − cos(θ2 )],
4πR
where the angles θi are defined in the figure. Determine in which direction the field points,
explaining your reasoning.
SPA4210 (2017) Page 13

l=0 P

Figure 2: Geometry of the Biot-Savart calculation for the current-carrying wire.

Consider a length of wire d~l, with an angle θ subtended by the wire and the line joining the
segment to P , as shown in figure 2. The contribution of this segment to the magnitude of
the field is given by the Biot-Savart law as

µ0 I ~
B= |dl × ~r|
4πr3
µ0 I ~
= |dl||~r| sin θ
4πr3
µ0 I
= dl sin θ,
4πr2

where dl = |d~l|. Also as shown in the figure, we may take the variable l to be zero where
a perpendicular line from P intersects the wire, and increasing along the direction of the
current. The value of l at the segment dl is then given by

R R
l= ⇒ dl = dθ.
tan θ sin2 θ

Furthermore, from the figure one has

R
r= .
sin θ

Substituting these results into the Biot-Savart law gives

µ0 I
dB = sin θdθ.
4πR

[5 marks]
Page 14 SPA4210 (2017)

P
I
1

Figure 3: A wire carrying current I.

For the total field, we must integrate in the range θ1 < θ < θ2 , which gives
Z θ2
µ0 I
B= dθ sin θ
4πR θ1
µ0 I
= [− cos θ]θθ21
4πR
µ0 I
= [cos θ1 − cos θ2 ]
4πR
as required. From the right-hand rule, the direction of the field is into the page at the point
P . [3 marks]
[Unseen.]

[8 marks]

d) Evaluate the field in the limit in which the wire becomes infinitely long, and comment on
your answer with reference to part (a).
As the wire becomes infinitely long, θ1 → 0, and θ2 → π. The result of part (c) then gives
µ0 I µ0 I
B= [1 − (−1)] = .
4πR 2πR
This agrees with the result of Ampere’s law as expected. Furthermore, the direction of the
field is correct.
[Unseen.]

[4 marks]

Question B4
SPA4210 (2017) Page 15

a) Show that a particle of charge q moving with speed v through a uniform magnetic field B ~
will move in a circle of radius
mv
r= .
qB
Describe the orientation of the circle with respect to the field, giving your reasoning.
From the Lorentz force law, the particle experiences a force
F~ = q~v × B.
~
This always points perpendicular to the particle trajectory, hence does no work, and pro-
duces a circular trajectory, where the circle is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic
~ at all times, the magnitude of the force is
field. Given ~v ⊥ B
mv 2
F = qvB = ,
r
where we have equated this to the general expression for a centripetal force in terms of the
mass of the particle, and the radius of the circle. Rearranging, one finds
mv
r=
qB
as required. [6 marks]
[Exercise similar to lecture material.]

[6 marks]

b) The device shown in figure 4 consists of a screen with a hole in it, and a region of space
in which electric and magnetic fields are applied. A uniform magnetic field points into the
page, and a uniform electric field is also applied as shown. Show that this device can be
used to produce a monoenergetic beam of charged particles, and derive their speed in
terms of the applied fields.
Let a particle of charge q travel with speed v to the right. From the Lorentz force law, it will
experience a force
F~ = q[E
~ + ~v × B].
~
The first term points downwards (assuming q > 0), and the second term points upwards
~ the magnitude of the second term is simply
from the right-hand rule. Given that ~v ⊥ B,
given by qvB. The forces are exactly balanced when
qE = qvB.
[5 marks]

When this happens, a beam of particles incident on the hole will continue out of the device,
undeflected, provided their speed is
E
v= .
B
Particles with other velocities will indeed be deflected, and so will not exit the device. Thus,
the device can be used to make a beam of particles with uniform velocity, i.e. monoener-
getic. [3 marks]
[Exercise similar to lecture material.]
Page 16 SPA4210 (2017)

d
E xB

Figure 4: Device used in question B4.

[8 marks]

c) A particle detector is now placed on the outside of the device, a distance d from the hole,
as shown in figure 4. Explain how a second magnetic field may be used to detect only
those particles that have a given mass m. Derive an expression for this mass in terms of
the distance d and the applied fields.
From part (a), one may apply a constant magnetic field B ~ 2 in the region outside the device,
which will make the particle travel in a circular trajectory. From part (b), this force points
upwards initially. For the right magnitude B2 , the particle will move in a semi-circle and hit
the detector, where the radius of the circle will be d/2.[4 marks]

Again equating the magnitude of the magnetic force to the centripetal force, one has
2mv 2
qvB2 = .
d
We thus see that particles will hit the detector only if they have mass
dqBB2
m= .
2E
[3 marks]
[Unseen.]

[7 marks]

d) An ion of charge +1 (in units of the electron charge) passes through the device with speed
v = 2 × 106 ms−1 , with an applied magnetic field of 0.7 T. The detector registers a peak
when d = 10 cm and B2 = 6 T. Determine the mass of the ion.
The electric field inside the device is given by E = Bv = 1.4 × 106 Vm−1 . Plugging in the
other numbers gives
0.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.7 × 6
m= = 2.4 × 10−26 kg.
2 × 1.4 × 106
[4 marks]
[Unseen.]

[4 marks]