o STARE osove Neat se ne Clee Cage Fe Bar aa “pe ns el hae yoda aa Ree ak Fegan? "ep a epee Noel anton pastor carers Aig a alata fe rl nat bas Cre ge aR Ta ‘nero ernie "Shee Drammen Ono ery Pe ac nes sce ramen ea a che Fee freee rarta accretion ie Acie eo ort ok mail ft he BAK ry a Contig ane Preface “Tis book i am introdton to some ofthe moet ntretngappliations of Cahelay frm Newton's Une to the present day. These tly. brave [Genin of dani, La of how and wey tings change with tne, i takig 2 fesh approach tothe whe suber 1 hope the book my be sulle for wide endorsing nest student of mathematics and scence readere who are preparing to take a univers coe Imathomatis aod cence teachers, n schol and univer ‘nor general readers who refs tobe put of by fe equations ‘The only real equrement some knowlege of elementary cleus, Ny main aim to hlp people se, and eval eos sone tly semask atle applications of mathematic, ad the best way kw f doing tht to inode, by means f simple examples, some of the mort excing rele nove uch way tat the really big ese do not get oesed kn {enowstor of det To tis end, we amove slong gute sap om ft ‘Sep to the toiere ‘Roster nove! featre ofthe book itt apposch tthe we of computers. es perl posie, ofcourse, to Jon take the comequent “esl! on tra, ot rendert who would Te to uke 4 PC to explore dynamic for Yhemacies ‘an do 20 ery ea, cen they have na pein comping xpeience, becuse the book comes unum dowatoeath Introd ‘hn tothe whole mate, "Whe wring the book I sve had great deal of pascal aie from potenti readers inching techer and student tbo schol ad uniter Ses T would ie to thick, ia paricalr, Jolin Addison, lan Aitchison, ‘Anno Barnes, Anew Basso, Peter Cor Stephen Ca David Crghon, ‘Tom Evane John Ging Sarsh Henna Raynond Hise, Davi Hughes Mark Mathsson, Janet Mls, Tom Malin, Pasi Newton, Howell Peregrine Joh Roe, Helen Sansom and Dan Waterhouse forthe helpful comments om indidval chapters oF the book at a whole: Iam aio moet gre) to thse students at erus Coles an Keble Cllge who ted out te various ‘rats asd ollered mo mach advice and encouageneat. Ord David Acheson ereh 1997Contents Introduction 2 ‘Tae binning of yams Fromeska to chaoe A brief review of calculus a 2 23 Intodsction Some elementary ess ‘Toylrseres, ‘The functions ean log = Brerciee Ordinary diferental equations 2 3 aM 36 Fest orde linear eqeations Fimcordernonnear equations ‘Second-order linear equations Scoot order soninear equations Phase pace Brertier Computer solution methods a as Computer implementation of Euler's method ‘Shas of dread eqeations More acre step-by-xep methods Ererdues 0 0 6 » a 2 Es h 3 % % aSa a5 ‘The linerexilitor Matipl modes of oxen Couple escilatore Nonlinear onions Planetary motion “ 6 a ea & oa Tntoticion Equations of motion under acetal force ‘The eqeal area ule Diterentia eqeation forthe obit (Oyitsundran inverse sae law 'A sumer approach ‘The mo hady pobie ‘The tee bly problems Brerces Waves and difsion 2 3 Ieerodtion Wave motion The best of al possible worlds? a re aa Introdetion The cone of ction’ ‘The cals of variations Lagrage’s equation of mation Brereaer Fluid fow a 92 oe Intodion The geomety of id main ‘The equiom of veo fw Very vic Bow ‘The cn of sal iscsi st a n m m0 9 i 135 i» 10 Instability and catastrophe inca bly theory Malpe solos: arcaion Sudden changer of tate Inperecion and eatastophe Instaliy of tin Exereiee 11 Nonlinear esclatons and choos 111. Inodveton 2 Limit ce the van der Po equation 5 Contitons for ehce 118 The Lorenz equations FHS Chote ming stretch and fold 116 One out to che psi doubling 113 _Mokiple solutions sod "jmps 12 Thenotso-simple pendulum 122 Pendolums fom the pst 123 Avibrated pendulum! 124 Chaote pensulsms 125 Note the Indian Rope Tick Further reading Appendix A: Elementary programming in QBasic [AL tncoducton 2 Geting started 133. Mathematica varibls, operations, and fnctions 4 Program oops AS Grice Appendix B: Ten programs for exploring dynamics Solutions tothe exercises Index 13 13 ie ir 12 M6 19 182 13 136 158 ia 163 183 us 168 168 0% os 195 195 9 a os1 Introduction LA. The beginning of dymamis In Avgost 1651 the astooomer Edmund Hilly tavelled 19 Cambridge, Svat f0 seek Newtorssivce on the Key scemiie problem of the dy, ed planetary mation oe evens oggested that the Sun exerts 8 grav (on each planet proportional 01/7, where denotes the distance from the ‘Sin. The oustanding question, then, ws whether such tn aves-are aw ft gieviteoral stration could acount for he sina ape ofeach obi ‘Goo of De. Halley’ contemporaries reported ofthe meeting with Newton sat “geet hee me tn is, ha Hn a be hah he “tn ona he Sante rca te sgn hen tS i epuetmmedaety hat mld be a ip, Dao sack ih iy ‘Sven std hi how be ity sat he Tove ee In do cour, tht singe schievemen! came to be recognized aoe ofthe eit stent vanes ofa ime ctor proceeting farther, let us note how dynamical problems are Wp ‘aly se ody, bt hy considering 2 moch simpler example an a cane as PEs pe ad fa one Sa Resear—_—E—rtéi‘“(<‘i‘C;éC™O_OS it wt up 8s of ewes (2) ad vw te fname _ an rca, Eh ne aan — ‘ae 13 Asn pin LL Thien fdas a wher denotes ne 2s our dierent equations of motion. "We ow try to sole these subject te fall conditions, which in this yarvealar cat se ey, gh whens=0. an aaa ‘This whole problem i fortunately, quite simple, We may once integrate a.) oa ay where © an atirary constant But one ofthe ial condins is that {Dy7de =O when 10, © ts be or, ltgrstig ain, {nal conditions, that y= h when f=. Then ne oC tn ilar wy we find by inerating 1.28) tht eat fits ttt hf fo eH tv peom eiiting «tense 1 and (1.5) we find hat he path af he parted oo which i abla Caen ou by pines na 1 18 Now, Nemto's Principia of 1687 is jy aaimed a a rat masterpiece ‘ofsinze,butagore wis has stay pees Know her eto ther fey ferential equations uc 8 (02,9 or een othe fe of he [Sppronch otined above The cls twas il ney early sage of ‘Serelopmen, and Newtons wooeapronch oars eas om pred Dut ‘9 ho aepstion ofthe methods of casa geomet) gD ea he wre i wi i dee wy old ste the awe sto be found sme 0 js rn varus paper by Leonard Baer @Ar-178), a alr was the fremont mathemati of the ightenth centr, and was comoudy prolif. producing some 90st papers tn sve ighly ‘rig ebooks Anemone os paper of 179 fed forte fst tne ‘ot ony (1.2 but he general equi of mation fo singe pa ss m ‘moving in hee aimersions an ete, Deft wal pats fer mn, Eee ig. 19. Hore the force octagon the muss ae been split into tree fripendcularcoaponents FFF, paral othe various cordate aes, Td the assertion of the fas Rae been tented umlcly, Homer com Imonpac today, ts was a novel and grey plying) Hes tte ine Trnas von io tha way. then, and in continental Extope rather than in Eenglnd tht bythe mil ofthe eighteenth comtury ia ht became eat tia he hey to an undertndlag of much af Nature was going toe a fet Ferman and then uying Wo soe, dire equation, 112. From caleutes vo ehaoe ln thie book we shal sketch some of the msn sppition of cleus, rom Inga otha more eset desopers fend to appent Inyo Prot fas been to make exch chap i ter a reuomblysacotined a pon 2A bref view fell kc We ey hing yr ‘thal aod ie nebo 7 8 Onkinary diirenial equations We present some simple methods for Salingsifereniat equations. Tht lend bs to distinguish Detworn iller- a equations which sr tina, Sr eeoo, ad those which a moaiaear, Nonlicar equations are, in general, morelifficut, and ther solutions can bebave in more diverse and peculiar ways 4. Compmter ation methods ‘The iden here it to covert the diferent equtin in question ino « theme for clelting ate yl of Une i terms of 380 ‘ate at tne # This Spratg proses ‘nd eves again by com puter using 2 spe prorism coming * Bou too, The tn Irethod of thi King (ie to Eur in 170K, a a Real dams prblens py lava an: 4 Ucar iret equtons second order, Bet thew ten ump reat we eng Dal ‘Sections about poston of equlbion, Cow | ld asntrs are parca interesting eneely ; ‘camp being the double penSuhen, fst sed ‘We ft consider Haleys question to Newton: wil 8 planet orbing the Sin unde an com am ste? Te law ‘ving vie oF tore acing Bodie od shoe that motone ef evormoxs complet can then cc. 7 Ware and dition ‘Many natural phenomena are governed not by sll ordinary ifereta) quntne bot Sy paral dierent oatians, A famous srample the wih = here ting a function of the Tro independent arin = snd 7 This pateulae equation sro fat Tas in connection with abating stings, bt made notable rapes evo the Te part of Marvel's dncovery that ht an elctroma. ni The be of al psi wre? Here we lok at émamical problems from a completely diferent point of ‘iow: Instead of thinking in Tersof ease and elec, and how 2 yer ‘Gobet fom tine 1 tone 1-8 we sir the Stel motion ar a mia snd compare. it with —orher sins thet igh conceal hve (geen clever vention eal the ‘Slo of sanatons, and is of res vale in moder theoretical pies 9 id ow Mary éyeamial problems sch at the sirfow past an seropline wing "vole id motion and key quan in the toby the sou of he Mi, deoted by. practice this ‘fen teem 20" mall tht one i Senet neh ako a rene in some stoting Teas to ‘complete nonsense faethe, na ma. {row sma he ct oa of The Feasos for this pradosialbenaviour Began to emerge i 1908, bt secon Sequeoees ae sl being investigated toaay10 cabin and entropic Ie is sometimes poset nfr 2 ret dal about a dail stem singly = ey tng is eis sates and ‘Caer wach ofthese ae tbe {0 tml cirbancs and which ae ‘table. Ts ca abo lp oa {den or txasronkie pr fom ‘oe aim to anther a some parame: {er i padtally aie. Por ame, the cped late strip shown Ree, sich bends ner # wes ilu ‘Popped down ste wl ote of Perna me the cmp angle eredualy increased pat ite vse 11 Nonna lao and het (One ofthe aajr covers ofthe last 20 years or 50 is tat even uit ‘Simple owcilaing stern cn dpa remarkable bei the governing equations are the one, hand, Bienly regular fuilaione can teres more or Teer independ scaly "of the inital com ‘Stiooe AU the ‘ter extreme withthe eqpasion Sea E ar eroat, ‘the csilatons can be extremely ipl or eho and so sine ty ‘hanes or unceranie in hentia eiions tht long-term predictability ‘Sine outome become, n practi sot pone 12 The nets pend Pendolums have mage a strong come bck i he reat aetifie Mestre, ‘mainly beau they ean provi rid Thorton demonsrauons of chaotic oe diferent note, wih 2 remark. Sh Bolaning act voting 20 pendslom stem whch. been formed wulecdm Tn ts kind of sey, apatoniy some’ of he oldest Unbjecs of siete enguty are sil ‘apble of springing spies,2 A brief review of calculus 2.2 Introduction Wile aco the mathemati key to an undenstanding of Natur, is ‘oats ie realy ln problers of geomet "Thu the derivate of fonction y = fC, define by flrs 62)-f0) ric om he stem finding te gst 1 phen cae nd yd ‘present the slope ofthat tangent, and Hence of he cave isl the point Ingueston (Fg 20) The notation fs), rather than dy ds, sometimes wel en 1 prone 2B as ya ster From the pot of view of the present Book, integration i esenily the ‘opunite process "Tagen foston fl we sak function TC) sch Ss en and dete the oatsome by eo ths Itegral being determined only to within an arbitrary adive constant. te e's apn. «geomet interpretation of integral the wre ander owe ig 22 pene metre 4 Now, tour porposs hereto gv a stematie account ofthe ealelas swe sm ony cole together, for eayfterence, some of the mui eli, no seca tome of the ways In which there onl are vested to be rae 22. Some elementary resus We ase fit that the reader wil be fara with various speci case of (Serentation aod iteration, nloing 4 . 5 Reem 0s andi counterpat fronZ a, wer es Here n must be a constant bt not necenaiy an iter pata te Lvan-cn 7 ene 4 teu sins, ‘where radian meaere i ed.2 2 Abi rin eine Pr’ 3 f Fg 26. tt 60-718, The casi of more complicsted functions i helped by the mules for iterating product or qctent ali) ale) meine [those fuer 1 ofen apes atm ese vile y wih fon snl + uel some futon of another vail nyt In thi way canbe Tegarded a function off ad Leb’ shai rl ls us hat ay _ay ae “This has, again, narra counterpart in he formula for ttgration by en) es oe» Jesse feta aw ‘As an stration ofthis at eu, consider he aca shown in Fi, 2446. ce Ne ae so hat we obtin the elegant formals faeert aay a ew 23 Taylor series ‘We often need an approximation toa function y =/ts) for vale of + near ‘ome parclr vale <= 1, apd 2 crade but obvious way to do thi { daw a straight line trough the point ln question with the correct Slope Paso that yafrs(e-opla) a) 29. able to do rather better by taking a quadratic function of (xa), Le. y= Git ele~a) reise? We then chooe the constants yy. 20 tha the ‘ius of yr” andy” he alone nt x-=a; th requies tang cy =f), =PUo), & = (a). Coming a ths way we ane led to the Ae of “gor eres presentation for y= fle) aboot =a nat 0 pias yafled+ eared + 5 + tH)2 Atif rin ofa RARE Aaoeng 210, Taking 4 ~0, pariculr examples are (2s) core Eee nna Tn the cve sin, lg 26 sbows how the st ow tems pode avery good “approxanation, provided a eresonaly small For ler awe need 0 {EEC more tere to pets E004 wppronmation, bu the sees (2130) maybe (sed sus In his way no mater Bow age I Sede. dseecimecy a eet More ypiclly, Taylor series (2.4) comerges only fr fa ss than some dete miner R, called the radar of convergence. An important ‘ample of thi the Binomial sees ale D | ale a=, oP ge Sy 10) ase 28. Taran 1s ic omg ol fr el < 1 Here may be an el ber, poste of ve bat in mporane of he oad ie san bee yey WGoiprular coe = "1 The sum of he fst mics ten ecotte sve may confi by mukipjig toh sis by 14 and teeing al te Zotz On tlie the ent nos we ita (hos) ar dee, [nae [shi condition x i for onion dos he er (=H ‘Wine momar of he righnd ef C1) tendo sry abe than Sle over ore wy ae = eee spt heet 1 em “Whe the mai eu, (210, was published by Brook Tayorin 1715, wa fective oe an used by Neston nd ther mach ear Inne reves ‘were infact, cental o much of Newtons calcula athe sess tat he would ten effect ‘an integration ty expanding the Integr in an lite series fe ten lnterate cach tr separately If we horow (212), an expe of ‘Sk ype of apument © Fe [phate [1-8 nt atoae fee Sof a16 2 Abi ioe ida ving the esti est Grisetde ew ‘While sisi often ceited to Gregory and Leibniz, it was apparent ist ‘izorred by Indian athens some 150 yer erie. 24 The function” and log From the point of view of the preseat book, the key propery of the apne Fncion y= ng) tat Stentdt- ante am tear eal etn te We tl i cao ‘oan or tating pa. S28 Tapani Succeive diferetiton of (220) shows, in fact that all the higher “desntves of ex) ae abo egal "0 exp), and 221) thea ips they are all equal wo when #0. The Taylor series 18) for y= exp) shoot 5 = Otherto eater t ete om sand it can be sown tha his conergs fra iw define exp then wae = 2.71828 m4 904s. em 24 Teams” and og a ‘sing (220 and ©.20 we may show that expe +9) = el esp) em (@x20) Ifolons tat expo) =feptn" oo pric, hat exe) = 25) for pov satger values of. The result can infact be extended witout {mach diffe 0 3nynaonalvalge of mand lementary mathemati ‘Sores so clear meaning toe" when umatioal His Ony natural £0 ‘Ge oh when 1 rational, a eg) In eh ee 220) forall. ‘By combining (20, (226) and the chain ral 29) we may show that Reenter en for any onsant fd we Shall often ate thi rea he fenton og ‘We may define the function log athe inverse ofthe exponential anstin, oe weker = red. a2 N20 Th ting1s 2 Adprin ofa Some important consequences are log =0, ew logab) = opa+logb. eo nd it a flows that 4 1 “Ag ) = > on so thatthe ‘mtn lg the set (25) has now been Heat: the integnl of 7 eng.» onstan). ale’ format foro “The Taylor series (222) canbe shown toe vali forall real x If me are Techies enought set 10, wheres= y= and 9 real we btn erate a ofS kajefe Sef em sod ig 219 bees _ om 1s esa ro ily deed Ea a te sient way (Fig, 210) We rn veal thew ia 4 dfn of, fr me fe aot el estaba ty metning fa sumer fated to an inainary omer Nonetheless we som find that behaves according al the sul ues. n pra, ‘ Henne a and procs bene scoring tthe wal index aw eh etme 035) (29. In consequence, (ont ne where is any postive inet, 50 (on 8+ iin 8)" ~cosn0+ isin, 030) a ret known a De Moe theorem Finally on sting 0 im Euler formula (2.3) we obtaln ora, on 1m onstr deo informal § 18 ates» insta parva ott « sumer ia tage 4, Sti ibaa alewn Alt st ge Dre fr sede ot cei ha abe (teensy mete Vata, 1.210 tenia (20. fos SOULS MTT eae ad oe SD eae ad ae ‘rade the maaion Y= ° which relates the thee fundamental quanti e, + and | and is widely ‘pueda one of the most Beutifalequaton nthe whale of mathemati reriet 21 Stationary pints A funtion y=) 6 sid to havea stsonary pont wherever dy/d 0. Finda sk pols in he case ee y where fa constant, and examine the sign of dy/ at each one 12 ‘keine whether y has lol maim oF minim thee20 2 Abr fens 2.2 Show diretly om (220) and (220 that expr ry) expan), ty considering cools) eo)” hyd one 23 Ane of Th nig _ em with ie negro einen ve gi er td Yow (225 forthe eakulation of tough convergence b extremely sow (rable 20, in “able 21. Converaence 1 sing 28) ar rove 2.38 fst observing a (231) pis that og(s+88) Doge uae and then setting S> 1/n 124 The funtion cash send sinh These are defied as follows: come Herter, siahx= fe"), Show that wd 2.5 Prove tha 3. Ordinary differential equations 3 Ineodsesion In his chapter we consider some method for hing fis and second order ‘ira equations "We begin wih fist onder equations, ie equations ofthe form ‘ar Sof, on ware fli some gen function of and & Thete wil ao be a nt ‘nation sem 10, 62 sy bela ven constant ‘while we foc attention here on ying to find am exact expression for x in terme af fe shall beara mind hat the question of ost practical interest ‘Soften ‘what esta pens to In parca, 1 dees [al (des + tend to some fie ti? Gi does sete down into some Kind of regular oxilaton? (G) might perhape do one of these thing ut istead Macon cal (he remaining bounded), even as f= (ee Fig 3. BL mat ernie ie sir2 3. Online dif qatns ‘We shall also emphasize, from the very outset, a. geome! view of ferential egetons Conse, or example he eqn Saas, 6» whee Ai. constant. Thi aries, when A> O, fom the simplest of pop Tin mode, nme bith site $478 propordomal fo population 2. Using (Clnyme ca en confi that rene” oa satsies (83) and the inital coaition (3.2), and we Rave plated sever Solution Cove coespontiag to ferent wales of xy 0 Fig 32; fr the Daly cise Ai But we have ao sed the fic that the diferent {fumon Gr) au es the slope f(x) of the solution cue, psig ‘Brough any pacar oun ofthe 2 plane. la Fig 3.2 we Dave therefore “Males sstrt inc seement of appropriate slope (ex, In this particular (Eo to each int of pid nthe (ye) pane, witha crue arom the ‘her end The various soln cares ae een low this direction fed inthe obvious vay 2 pe a aie) hd ae In practic, the eal valve ofthis geometrical approach comes when the cng equnion Co) so site tat we are Umble 1 obtain an expt Station sich os 4, ln thwe ccummances we spy sil coasrct the Citesion field, and hen phen 29 lta value sy, e ey a pine onsuurt the conespoasing solution care by aig from the po ‘Ranh a oy oto follow the dreton Held teach successive post ‘hat sid, our major concer in this chapter wil be ening special depimstanse in which we ean solve the lorena equation exe Lien rer manne eins “rote Hook we wil seo gush cy betwee reat ons which are near and those which are ao Tinea diferenal equation is on in which the “unknow’ or dependent athe and i taro derives appeat in near ay. Tse ere cad cy ae constants, near, Because and x/de appear otto The din power. Tt would sil be linear fc and c, were Completed icon it how he ent a an Stats apes {aoe ere £ denotes $273, The major simpifing feature of linear ferential equations becomes scaly endear nly when we come to comer equation of second Onde 132 Fitorder linear equations Equation (1) & sear f f(x) of the form aff + BU), and equation G's ofthis ype, wih sk) and. BH). We may tackle aay sich ‘ation, pip bythe method of iterating factor, (Coaster aan example the nea eqstion aa es. 2 nner i eget diye wen fd tt te ie art tn Seer oo Invegatng, wing ineration ty parts on the righ nd sie, we obtain (om sppiving the inal condition (32) we find that €=-5 + 350 of be (ayt De on ais ston umes conesponting i erent avs of shown in Fig together withthe drecton fed the spe of ech ine segment being (2 2ein tis ae, acordag to G9. Les endent both fom the fie and fiom G7 that a = the sation curve approaches evermore coe the Tne =~ en regadlese ofthe iia contons, and hat the ston ts 1 ine in the speci ease ty THa33 Verran er ei 3) ile retin shows that me may, apni, apply the above metbod to ary fst order ear equation S spox-ao. os and (being given fnctions of ¢ the comesponding megraing fcr atch ef py both ee 1" 69 for this has the desired propery tht its derivative with respect to # i) ‘Sosa inthe above extmpe, pO" 2307 38. Firveonder nonlinear equations We shall vide nonlinear equations in general nto vo cases, according 16 ether ont they are autonome eee “Te rt orde equation (1) sid ote autonmons (eset governing i the rte of change of i simpy fonction of fll and not dependent py & Faso. G1 fone consequence of (25) is that dx/dt= (81/2), 50 we may rewrite Brin the form weet im ow ad then integrate with reapet to 10 otal “Jaye om We consider neta amber of examples, ‘alow ap? = ow ‘is oatinca, on acount of the «term, but of the form (10. We fin rom G1) teat fe" 17 and on apn he Ena sondton (3.2) we obtain 1 aq. ow2» 1 Onkine sient sins a 84. pie of mine Sova + fie tn Th ni aa are sation res for eros een (pie) ves of ar show in Fee in true fener te Uwe the ston 2 Fea sup tuto G2) of 3) hen the lon es aa Cnt Mert blowup tne’ detrei cen tree of se oer he ssn bes So. An epidemic mod! — ee ta hat ron «of poplin hs a ft See mp a! te sean fe fatoas, ow and provided the fusctions and hae senple enough fr us 10 cary out ‘hese two inlestions we obs ect celatonaip between aod “As on example, conser # s-o0, om sch a0 [dee fa-nan (Om apping the intial condtn xy at =O we obtain ean 44 Second-order linear equations A tear otinaty ferential equation of second onder is ofthe form om smhere abcd may be conan, or gen factions of 1, but mast be Fptepende of «ad ts various deriathes ‘Armajer sinpliying festre of linear equations becomes events we conser the socalled hmogendous case, when d= 0 Homeseeos Bear euations Suppnse at we have somehow found to pariuar sltions to the ox» We now, noter words, to functions (0 and xx), ey, sac that ind at, +B xy ~0, where a dt denotes diferent {Then by sobstwing ey ino the equation G2) ro Ani BO om {abo a solution, fr any vues ofthe constints 4 and 2 (Ex 3.3) Provided {fat one of the particular soon (0,0) i bot simply contant ‘lige ofthe oter, ©. in fact the general sltion of .29, and Oy honing the consans and appropriately we may say the mo inka ‘eadtons which wil pil accompany second-order equation, arely a Gan wo, 625) yan being pen constants We est that this pomeru ies of Hines combining pst sluions to frm » pearl solution mers on when the dirt equation Wel camp cmon cients (One of the mos important speci cases of 3.29 ee Si peo, ow ere i constant Te p> Owe may write oA, so that Se aten am0 2 Onna iti cuains (One soktion ofthis equation is x,— oor wt, Because 41= win 50 fs “Siam or ne'ay Simla sya ay ft sloton, 2 k= Acar ot + Bsn at G2» i the general station Ton the other and, we may write = (—B)"%, 0 that fr geno, ox) Now 1)~ "tone slutn, bette ~ 6M and therfore &=g? "= fins Siaary, spec" hn solitons he gencalsoltion fom racers Dee, 630) where Cand D ate abirary constants “Souon o 0.26 are therfore of ute diferent yes, depending on the sien of fr laos sucha those (3.28) ae pursed fare in Chapter Srl (20, which shows [x type growing without bound a f= ental to he ens of ably Sec in Chaps 10. Be 7 AA ip nin (929, ping he 8> or BB. More generally, 0 fong a a and € ae comsuis in (323), v= e™ ca slation an tm be =0, os) ‘Denoting the 00 of his guadaticby my and hich may Be compen sre then ne two partir slstone€™ and 50 the general son ‘hay be writen srE eH Fen, ox) nls 50 happens that mand mae equal (Ex 34. [Now-omegencns ner guns ‘Suppose that we can find one olton, (0) sy, of the non Romogeneous tice quition (222s that we have one patie faction (such that i, +B, Fern 639) ‘ren on defining poreetny ox sn id by sobtrsing (3.3) fom (3.2) hat ai thi tam 0, 635) so that satis the cortsponding homogeneous equation 2.29), ‘Wemay therefore deal with nom homogeneous linear equations by ding tie penetl solution 1 of the suacatel bomogeneous problem and then ing partilar itera (33). This prosedare works agai, oly tecause the equation in question, (3.22, linea. 35 Second-order nonlinee equations ‘We have noted already that x major distinction 10 be made with any non Tear savation whether or otis automa Trine tn spo he om Fay) 020 ay mana Aen ea eae Sean eno, os vere the nonineatty comes in through the tem x°dx/- This eguation Sis in conection with cera ype of eet crit (ce Seton 112) Tes often flu t recast an equation ofthe fotm (938) as 4 pa of coupled fimtordereouations by wing is # ome Sse Wey ten he hin le 29) nie age fam 38 se _ fou) a fin om2 2 Ondine dina cain tn this way we obtain a firstnder differential equation foro asa fonction of 2 itimay Be pole to soe thing x74 = 0) a a funtion of «THs ‘hen aves swith fal frstoreregeton to be sated for «as fonton Spsid af) a amction of ony my happen that 6.36) af he til sip orm ee a one, ow din this ese some ores wit (339 can certainly be made, beans that uation fe thon pore ponents ay Feat Ameen ‘One example of this case arses when a mast mis attached to 2 spring wich exerts for FU) depending onthe amount + by which las Bees (Chended (ig 38. The egstion of motion then mf = 0, ow 50239) becomes FD # Fe 6x) “Tis pale Gee G19) 99 Jmoso~~FLdax, an herore $mo?+ [EExd dr~ constant, os we now deine the funtion ven [free ow swe my we (3.388) f ete (45) inthe form $m?+ 768) ~ constant os) 26 Phage as We noe in psig ha ths bas simple pyc interpretation in tems of ‘Shnsrvation of energy, with ti? denoting the kee energy of the mas snd VC), ctined by G49), denoving the potential energy ofthe spring Te te inal codons ae sy. yom, 20 at t=0, G46) constant in (45) must be Cx) 0 Serres tthe known function VCs is mch tat we can perform this il itezaion ‘me wil hen havea tet rlstonshp between © and ta dered Gas) Non acon puaions (One example of such an equation is Behe 40a, 0” sere, an are constants, Thi quation i of ome practi interes, itis poinse becuse ofthe tr and nonatfonomous ah eu of {he exp dependence ont Inrdued ty the term eon art sion to second ort eqoatins of ir Mod re very ae, and ts not svelte the fat that the dependence of 08 such ces imy posi be caoae ce Secon 111) 36 Phase space Final, suppose that we hae some dyn problem, and that we manage toveprsen mathematically as astm of fist-ode diferent equations ‘othe following kin: BaNay rete) Bee hetinity) 050) Saabs Note that this stm is euonomaur ine ¢ doesnot appear explicit% 2 Ont ifiretin euains ‘We thon sy that we ae working in phase space, andthe cordate of ths lensonal spac ae spy the vale ny atte me cane Spin we hve = ln ring 8 ine or. Sr eeteno os) (Gee (20. By inducing y= dx/r we may es this equation as . os “which ofthe form 50 The pbise space fr thi problem ix therfore ‘vo-dieasina and ou chosen coors ia tat Spee ae x a8 Tie take (5) intend, te ax ann as ‘we might fit thik hatte phase space is oly one imenslonal, but i ‘ot because 33) not avons nview ofthe exc appearance of ‘We may. however, ture (33) into ah autonomous fs-orde sem y He {pparenly eval ep of supplementing ta he easton 7 : os ‘This stem i autonomous, and ofthe form (50, Deane we have Gone: ‘Whit devious) elevated 1 in satu to become one ofthe pendent are [bya welt bees the independent Yrale of the problem. The phase pace for (53) i therfore tor dimensional nd our chosen ent pce Fe and hese way, (8 can be ct the form any, jaye Acar, 655) int, and the sociated phase ce s three dinensiona “Tye queton tha emain, obvi, why we should g 10 the woubl of scully doing any ofthis Tere ae afc at eas thee good reasons TF reouting an aitononocs sccoaorder equation se two fstordet custom can sometnes help oft an eat soln 0 the eons we Inve already seen an example of his in Seton 35. “Another, fr deeper Yeasoa 6 that problems of the iad (350) tend tomiches 16 exsntlygeomeric segment in phase space, nd we tall Se something of this in Section $5 and Chapter 1 or present purposes, however a major advantage ofthe stm (350 is ‘nar it bint moa! convenient form fora computational stack onthe whole ‘ebm, and th the subject ofthe nxt chapter. erin aasone subject = 1 when £= 0, 32 Sove subject to x= 1 when £0. Does tne rltion ‘low vpn it dime? 3 (a) Verify that (529) satisfies 3.23) for any valor ofthe constants and © Sone x0 subject tthe inl conditions x= 1,4 = 0 when r= 0 44 Consider the general homogeneous linear equation (325), te here, and ¢ ae ven functions oft Sppose tht we have found one {Dlutoe of tha, dP ay, bu have dlficuly fading other. Show tat Uy wrting x= (ol) we my rede the equation Io 3 fis onder poblem (ee the variable = ‘Use ths eto to ohe ‘abject x= 12~ O when F~ 0, noting that the procedure leading 0 (3.31) [Bre only One sion, 20) ei ne patio ae 35 sohe abject to = 1,4 O when 1-0,6 3 Onn ier ean 46 The singe harmon olor Im the case of = near sping wih FO)max im OAD), being be sping constant, we have sith, sy, srH9 and £0 when #=0, Show that the (whol elas) ‘Potential every ann carry ot the iteration in (8 to obtain he sli. Check that this grees wh that obtained ty wing G20 and G23) instead. 4 Computer solution methods 41 Iowroduction tis often quite impossible towne a diferent equation exc, expecially {the equation in question sonics Even sa solation can be ebaied, itty ve such awkward integrals or init sees sto be witall ‘As example of he is provided ty one ofthe east ferential equations on esr Seasent-aee « (Newton 1670) Ti i ison ap near, so we may toe in principle, 1 the method of iterating ator (Seon 3.2) In prac, Roweve, we fe urbe to cary out the coanpieted fia negation We ertany get no nea all fom this approaen of «malar property of (1), mame) that = SoftExemeu © Sie Rao Smet — ae hy tachay ee Tenor rae non afleftos Relrd Quantat difpotios vides in ‘eral Serie primo loco, de eligus y 8 yin ina Calanns. en +o | pee talk epee y t faa iSene 1 42, ies (4), Nem Me oan See a SIR mugheg tr onlcaanlesod obese S A m vatully tends to either += 07 ~= depending on whether ini value Spreater tan oF fs than 006. This tehavour i however, st once Sparen fom Fig. which was vane by ting 2 sey ap netbod on Somputer. ‘We now conser thre sch metho, Beginning with the simplest. which eas ded by Ene In 1768 We apply ech method i he fst instance 10 {he fitoner problem flr), wih xx at 10, «a 4.2 ales method We know fro the iia condition that x= when 0. Now, we aso now from the equation (42) Hull tht the sope ofthe salon cove, fhr/a f(x.) at t= 0. We may therefore obtatn am approximation to ‘he valve oF a a small ine ter By ang 0) 0 ye 5252 MEO) (ig 43. We may then take azote step forward inthe sme ay, sing the slope f(z) coretponding to thew tne f= and our spprninaon fo the ae of at that ew tine! arab Ala.) ee i Fe tae ‘The Hea of Euler's method, then, ito advance in me step famous {toning othe le Feet MCE te) aa where is he ghren inital value of and x, i or approximation othe tive vale ofa nef, =k To pa kspoter may, we advance s0rng mes tM ta ao ln Fig 43 the proadure ook rather ede, besae we have taken a age ie sep jn order thatthe prosedute canbe seen dear. The ence of ‘he metbod, however, to abu «good approximation othe solution a 2ny ‘Bren time 1 Oy taking lange number of sey small sep, a0 tat the ‘once curve in Fig 3 remain very cose tothe acu soon curve rn, An ample “There i one particular casein which we cam give asap and oe hg 700 these slates become chante (Fp sia se also E116 and Fig. 1-12. 5 “46. Namal npn (10 hg tin ra a i baring Mita teeteen of Ear Mh D208 Hee oOo Now; this strange tehaviour represents a breakdowa of Esle's method rather than geting propery ofthe orgie! ferential equation (19), Tecnue it dappeacs we speat he computation witha smaller sep sze (Fig 40). Here theo, we have a sharp reminder that Balers methods explained in AA Sem ie patios 6 Seton 42, sys noi aout fing fy smal and then compating for ‘Sime f= a lage awe like tooles, insted, fing 8 tne r= nan ‘bem in principle, reorking the whole cooation repeatedly with smal: hd smaller step aes hand, coaequenty more and mote sep n~17 in price we veto see for rather les ump nae sf thumb wit any sep step method I 0 gp alin the ep ae hun the rt of Smecesive compustions oer @fiten me ioral t, show no pepe ifoene. "We can do ths quite spt by modi our program ite farther to Yiew 230,20) 7 (350, 300), 0, © ine (0.0) = (em, 09, > Peer (2,0), col oor UNTIL ABS (e-em) < AY? ‘As soon 2 the program is run, the NOU command causes a request fo he Sep se n and the colour number for PEE am integer between I and IS wich we have ald col) appear on seen If we pe thes in eparted Uys comma, and pres RETURN the step by ep method then proceads 88d shen thar fied we are immediately prompted ty span oa the ame ‘ree wth a lifereath apd dierent color tecae we have embeded the tn part ofthe rogram in second 90. L00?. ‘Our coaldence im Fig M6) comes, therfore, fom the fact tha wag ‘ice a many steps, with k= 00125, lead to curve which i percept fren, ove the ghen tne interval rom the one shows the sence of ny more sophisticated consideration of ober ecors| ln this took we wil asap apply this spl test teat, our computer ese 44 Sytem of cilfezenial equations Soar, we have apled ule’ method ont the problem oo or“ 4 Compu ain meas vith xy at €=0, bt etends in am obvious and ent eatral ay 10 ete of fist order alent equations. "We might for istance, have the coupled stent af. Fo ale.yD, {and g being gen fontions of sand «The problem would then be to find haw bath x andy eve with tne gen my, x= 38d Y= 3y A Fo In omer to soe ths namely we have only epae there G3) ty eyuaent forthe problem st Band sane tHE tot Year HBC Yd. (ne coon way in which» coupled stem suchas (4.17) aes is when swe hive a scontorder eation FoF 80, G1 swith xy and £= oy sty, a =O. The cam alae be ress a8 coupled {est onder problems ern cro Yo Fly.o. with expand y= at = 0(E G.30) In this way she alpritn (6.189 “Mowe oro soe soni order equations aameialy. 4am A simple ccmpe Consider sts probes am wth we ey we ua whote wand oy ae pen constants ef (3.27), The exact solution is a= tsi a, um but we shall ive the problem by Euler's method for she sake of comparison. Preliminary ling of the rie [At fst sgt, perhaps, we ae going to Rave to rar the progiam agai and $4 Suen iri eatin e agin wih varios diferent names! values forthe constants o andy But Be Noun fc bea complete waste of time: by «simple anstomaton of TRE rabies me nay tere bth ad from the eompttonal problem ban th elie the ew seal varies as bere and b ae cnet which my be chosen tobe convenience. Then Sage be aa 2nd 0 ain th way the problem (21) raslomed ito wean, (2s) wi fo, ai=0 «2% ‘lei, i we now choos = and & = y/o, 0 ha faut (29 the parameter wand vy dsppear fom the computational problem hoger fore ae Tet wah 480, zm) ssbjert to 0, fet at Fao. 2m) ere dot denotes dieretition with reapest 1 Computarina proce We int ect (427 ata fink oder system: a (4280) 420)lt Oberon sobing i on by Els mein WENDOM (0, =x) ~'(tm, am)’ LIME (0, 0) = (Em, 0), 9 en cn oor ONEIL ABS(E ~ tm) < 0/2 ‘As writen this ons for fe eslation eyes af the exact Slatin 1 (4.27, ‘whi we know to Be Esk a “This equivalent to (420 by vie of 129. . "The ruts are shown in Fi 7. With any pen, Le. Gaed, time step the cosilins dpi spriou increase im amplitde With te, Mich we now i ot «propery a the atl solution (This inteste i, homeves, vor radu is very sal 1 47 mad pid (420, Ef st s atan More importantly fe fc the ending, the convergence ofthe computed soliton tothe actual schon asf decree i apparent 4.5 More acurate step-by-step methods ules method i conceptually simple, but the eror at fed tine & 65 Mee mea mp2 meds ° tonal 1 the tine ep I we rege an acute sohtion we etre hive to take very tal and Rene ery may sep. Tis tony [rensescomputation tine, bt ik the colton of rounding eer {Table 41 shows, "We now colder two rather more sophisticated sep tystep methods. AL sued the fn has erior proportional to hand the second Rat roe sonal toh, which, ash isl, presets ting improves etbaler method api, bth metho, ke the Eales mets isl, pry equal well 8 singe fonder equation o 03 coupled sper of me equation ‘he improred Baler method Let 0) dente the ect ston to the iil value problem ee «0 Let f,=nh dente the discrete ies at which we ae Selig approximations 2 tthe coms aes) Imegrating bot sie of (30) over one tine ep we find, without spprosmation tht we a) foal con there lat] denotes the funtion of tie only which obtained when we {ute the exe slation (6 ino the phe had sie of (0.0. Ime dae the graph of aC. rather than of #0 ta, gant, we se thatthe Fehon side of (31) coresponds to the aes under the cre, between fy Bad po ib 4. — q I. . Se Sart a a a Barat chy aes merFrom thie point of view, Ear metho consis in replacing the le hand S60 of G30) by t.1 rand replocing the vght hand ie by an approx ‘ation to the ae jst sietoned, namely the area of the range shown wrth eight sy) and th Inti ye my bn syne AflEt) 2) teu, bower, a teter approximation 1 the mean question maybe obtained ty ung the rapt in Fig 4 wich has ea WIE 80) +Food (33) “Tis would give Bye Ht Mat) FC oo «0 fn pace of (432), but this Is no, a8 stands, in suluble form for Compton st ao an expt exprestion Tor the "ew vale 18 femme ofthe ole "To get ons thi dificult we se the fst approximation (432) 10 replace Pere tg) ASA) wih fing Mette 3) then becomes an xp expression for yy in tems of Ta summary, thete ae thee steps 10 "the improved Euler method, and seve ate conse below wth he Euler enethod fal Baler Improved Euler method method nwo eat) ass) ene tent) pate erica Note how, inthe improved metho the computation ofc; ivahes the jstconpured uaa c 49 Inky md & ipl ar areal 4 Morante ne ya mods 8 Figwe 49 shows &compasrion tween the to methods a apie othe ‘ntl vle problem (82), btk math ane sep b= 008. The much beter ‘Sevrasy of ie proved Esler metho i early im evidence “he Range Kata meta ‘Tis method is move accurate il, with a etor proportional to Kat Sued Time Fon I dates fom the eo! of the ast century ad as & tol of fe ‘ep i the up-dting proces, exch ivaving the quantity that his ast been ‘Siatted in he sep bole eyo MOH et eeiflet jen cerita tet kD sett MG, 2er4 265 4) 439) We ge some idea of how the Runge-Kutta method cn be established in ‘be 46, but the aca derbation is beyond the scope ofthis book (and Sven lng). The best way forward n the ceumstanesy, to ebeck har te method works well om several ferential equations with Ken {bluon, sen Ex'43 and Ex before me use Inter in the book. 10 ‘ature further si Te perhaps worth metining a this olt that any ofthe thee methods inetd above can be ve dese, wih 4 tribe sp tech Ther 0 teed in cther mor, for to be onan throughout the Whole computation from ¢~0 to ¢= tm; we may use one vale of 4.36) 10 update 10 277 55, and then another, ferent value oth when we apply the leo Sea 0 update xy, 10. Aajusting tbe step size with tine Ia ths ay ‘hn slgnttanty cdce nemerieleror, and an important example gen in secon ot We end this chapter ty ceturing 10 the begining. ie. te dierent equation (61), which Newon Est conered in IoTl. We uy all tee Sttptytep meth on tis poblen, snd ake & gute deliberately axing ty choosing the inital conto x, ~ 106 very close tthe eel value of 1065903 which separates those sluons which eventual fend to ro those which eventually led to —= Gee Fp 4.0. "With a common step sae of ~ 0035 the Euler cue is satisictry until Tut hen taker wrong tr, wh the curve bind by be improved Ele metbod turns the crest way bat sbstantaly in erot ty =. The uve obained by the Runge-Kuts method, however, i indsngishable ftom (what factor computation indicate to be) the wre slation, nd i oul be so, fac, on the ume scale indited, een witha step ze as& £0, compra mt tn lange a 0.1. The additional accuracy of the Runge-Kutta method makes i the obvi choice forthe mae lpgly or deste numeri incyaions that ar equ Tater n this bok Beret {41 Type in rn and sve the various Bolr met programs in Section 43. ‘Medi the sound program so thatthe exact solution ef plated con screen in 4 diferent caour, for conparion wih the Eule method {ppeotinton. ‘Doct the smaller valve of h wed in Fig. 4b) ‘are’ the breskdowa of [Balers method sn Fig a, o simply pospone il ner ine 442 Type in ron and save the Euler method program in Section 44, and ‘ont the veaute in Fig 87 ‘One might hin, perhaps, that the updating proces cool be programmed move ssn a pipes ce bt this woul infact be diferent fom Ene’ metho. Why? 43 Cansger agin the problem : 1 wten 1=0. oo ‘Chang the frst program in Seton 4.350 that it wes he inproved Baler ibd instead, and cnet the equlent of Table 41 for k= 0.1, O01, oot "Te repeat he cxercis sing the Runge-Kutta method and computation wih double pression asuragy (Section A) (2(t) =e = 2.7908 128459085... 44 Sow by means of ite algebra that jot one step (eng #) of the ‘Runge Karta method lathe above problem lead to ata shen = which is just the Taylor approximation fre eotet to OCH. 445 Confirm the resus for the diferent equation 4.) in Figs 41 and 4.10 ty wing he program 17 iq Append B, whch cam employ any of He ee ‘epiystep methods and plo the drection i. ‘we were sing only the Euler method, how would we Know that the coneponding esate Fig 410 8 not reliable? "Wh evidence So we have thatthe Range-Katts carve in Fig 410 does ie te eomect solution? 146 Let) sty the autonomous diferent equation a Sr, with x45 at = 0, Espand s(n a Taylor series (8 (2.18) 10 show thats Wie a 20) 45+ MC) + WFO). corset o onder #2. Ten show that one step of the improved Ever method (255) ge he some res, covet to over sat the same approach, when eri ot corel Lo four ode, can be tsed o estab the vay ofthe Runge-Kutta method bt the algebra 1 daunting: vem inthe autonomous case}5 Elementary oscillations 5.1 Introduccion ‘One ofthe oldest and bes non oiling stems isthe so-called simple [pendalom, Ts conse of Hah ed tod of length f wih a pont at at ‘Br en te ener end being pote at fied oun, so tha he pendom hm swing ecy in one parla verte plane (Fi 5.0. z Fig Si Team pnt Calieo made arf servation of penta in about 1602 and found Ane peri of oseaion Tso be proportional to the square foot of the gt rat. en ‘hat realy impressed him, however, wis the way in which the osiaion| Detod seced fo be independent of the spud, although i emerged Steen tho a tins he pe order tose up he appropriate dierent equation of maton lt @ Gi adi) denote the angle Bemeen te pendulum andthe dowavard verti (Fie 5) The to has at ay instant a veloty 740/dr in the diecion of ‘fetcsing fects assertion component that ection is 13/4 “The ony force onthe bob in that dren «component myn 8 det trip, aa tsa inthe apposite sense, the dccon of Secresing © Semeur! must be equal 0 mpi 6 oe eo Fe +f sinono, on “Thies not easy 0 soe analy, bat we confine attention to small swings of he pendulum we may ie the approsimston sine 0 tor Isle 6m and we then have os Bef ono 6a ‘asthe approximate equation of mation governing mall amplitude oeilations Gra simple pendolem Seperate dew the endom aide small mount, 0 say f=0, and selene it om fest The soit of (34) which sais {ite nial condone _ 6 (Gee (28, 0 the pendulum swings oan fro with a pied ir T-28 6) ‘A oo “This proportional to VP and independent ofthe amplitude 8, a8 Galileo served it hs expeviment. 5.2 The linear olor “The bind of simplification we saw in moving fom (62) w (54)—called Uneataton of the orginal equation of motions pial of vitally ay Synamisl rem shen we ret stenton to mall placements hou! @ Pint of (aac) eqn. "To oe why th shoal be so, conser he pola mass min Fig 52, which moves to and fro ander the ston of 8 sping Let 2-0 dene the ‘lum point, at hich the springs neiher extended nor compres, Suet he once excited by he sping be Fe) nthe megane secon. 18 ” ® 20 A ing aie A opin eb of sing eH a 2 ion tatoo Pare ialEenchdgeneral this wil bea complicated fonction of x, determined by the deal ime popes of the sing. But we do know that #10)™~O, boca te Spring fre mos be feo at enti pat #0 "Naw. the ett equation of motion ee nS re, ‘bu if we contin attention 1 sual vals of Ix 0 thatthe pte cloue to the equim pone ray spproimate PC) bythe fist tom of sn 7) = +0 os (e210 an teame AO)-O my aie roe oo sto tea pte sping aan? seria it taal ning oma ih ea tn meer enw (ee 020, sen totes ern Toner) cum where C= (4? + B29 and D= tan" /A), ie V FS Aap temi tin Siall orion about the equiriam point are hetfore simple har rome (Fig. 53). The period of the oailaton is cleasly P=/ay, and the frequency, ic the momber of eeiltion le peri time, therefore {flavte, Having sid thi, we tall cesstonally Tape nt uring te term {resent 1 reer tw ise Ms proper tle angular ren Tie ies of damping Sipps now thatthe mass in Fg 5.2 experiences ao ficsional esitance ‘veh proportional ois sped. This implles an adlonal fore of ~ yin ‘he pose sien, being postv constant, and ithe ew (approxima) equation of motion for small apacements On ‘Riing f= 9/m we may rewrite thi F +k +020, 6 tere defied, a Before by 10, "ty be shown tha he Berl ston otis quaion Ge n((u? = H)"r~D), 6.9 ‘provided that the damping i not too Inge ie. provided that 12 2/0. presen and proporina to 44/4, so that a ai ‘Suppose now that tion place f (0) we hae Belt Lana, tee west weabuin Bs késsino-0 With 4 a Fa, where = 1/9)", k= Al/e) and a dot denotes “ierenaion th respect 0 ‘Use the progam ?ENDANEN to soe thi equstion by double recon Runge-Kutta method and daplay a sple animation of the motn, For “E01, a, how many complete revoltons aout the pivot docs he ead Tum make when (D1 47/8) t= kg)? 6 Planetary motion 6.4 Introduction ‘The planes moe, very ney, according tothe spe sles 1 The obit ofeach plant ian elise, with he Sun a oe oe. 2 Nine drawn rom the Sun to 2 planet raeeps ou esl aes 9 5 The pei af the various ors are in proportion to 7%, where F emotes the mean dtane of planet fom the Sun ‘These rules were discovered ty Kepler ater a painstaking anass of the ‘suonomiea!bsenation, and they appear, somewhat bse in Seo ‘aor books of 1609 and 619. The Third rule ted out to be paca Important frit helped pin the way tad Newtons vere equate lw of postion Be Panay cc Te {ee fom A 8 ear ABS CS Ma Before we see how thi happened i may be lp to sa tle abut the somety of motion in an elise. Wilh respect to stab chosen mes hips hs equation oF here we shall (ae bc without los of generality. The transformation ax" Y= bY” yes cele, 50 an elie ss Sle which bas ecm 7 wo