Personality ADPD 2103: Faculty of Social Science

PERSONALITY ADPD 2103
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

SEMESTER JANUARY / 2017
ADPD 2103
PERSONALITY
NAME : ANITHA D/O MAGANTERAN

MATRICULATION NO : 901008146038001
IDENTITY CARD NO. : 901008146038
TELEPHONE NO. : 011-26759585
E-MAIL : nitha_5858@yahoo.com
LEARNING CENTRE : NEGERI SEMBILAN LEARNING
CENTRE
1
CONTENT
NO TOPIC PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 2
2.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY 4
3.0 FOUR LEVEL OF COGNITIONS THAT 6

CONTRIBUTE TO PERSONALITY
DIFFERENCES
4.0 EFFECT OF PERSONALITY ON VARIOUS 11

ASPECTS OF LIFE
5.0 CONCLUSION 14
6.0 REFERENCES 16
2
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Every individuals share the same human nature throughout their life. Yet,
humans possess completely different and unique styles of thinking, feeling and
behaviour. The differences between the common humanity and unique individuality is
related to the personality of an individual (Trump, 2016).
According to John, Robins & Pervin (2010), personality is defined as a unique

set of characteristics of an individual that influence one’s beliefs, motivations, emotions,
thoughts and actions. Cherry (2016) described personality as something that arises from
within the individuals and remains fairly consistent throughout life. It comprises all the
cognitive and behaviour patterns that impact on how one views themselves and their
belief about others and world around them.
According to Skoe & Lippe (2005), the process of personality development

refers on how the organized patterns of an individual’s behaviour make up their unique
personality emerge over time. An individual’s personality is formed during their
childhood and is shaped through the interaction of both heredity and environmental
factors. This makes every individual to possess a distinctive and unique personality
which remain stable throughout the life (Shuler, 2009).
Basically, personality of an individual is made up of a number of different

broad traits and dispositions. These traits exist on a continuum and every individual
possess each trait in varying degrees (Cherry, 2016). Due to this fact, people have
different personalities, different ways of thinking and behaviour and different
sensitivities. According to Five Factor Model of Personality, there are five broad essential
traits that helps to build individual’s overall personality as shown in figure 1.0 (Engler,
2008).
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Figure 1.0: The Big Five Personality Traits. Source:

https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/2-3-personality-and-values-3/
The development of personality is considered as an important key in human’s life since it
was one of the component that creates impression of oneself among others. Haslam
(2007) found that every interconnected aspects of behaviour, feelings and emotions in an
individual is affected by personality as a whole. Hence, the concept of personality
concerns the most meaningful part of an individual’s psychological life by making them
to realize their own capabilities, strengths and weaknesses.
2.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY
4
Altman, Valenzi & Hodgetts (2013) categorized the determinants of

personality into biological factors, social factors, situational factors and cultural factors.
2.1 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
According to a study by Goleman (1986), the genetic makeup of an individual

is believed to have a strong influence on certain traits and behavioural characteristics
development. This is proven through a study of more than 800 sets of twins that shows
that genetics were dominant over an individual’s environment in shaping their personality
(University of Edinburgh, 2012). According to Altman, Valenzi & Hodgetts (2013), the
genetic transmission of certain traits or behavioural characteristics from parents allows
their children to form a primitive and inborn personality disposition. These inborn
personality tendencies are believed to largely influence the personality development
throughout the life of an individual. For instance, some children are born with milder and
calmer dispositions while others might be more anxious or irritable (Kraus, 2013).
Caprara & Cervone (2000) suggest that those born with good temperament might develop
a gentle and pleasant personality as they grow meanwhile those with bad temperament
might possess a violent and aggressive personality in their later stages of life.
2.2 SOCIAL FACTORS
The social structure of a society in which an individual lives provides another

important contribution to the personality development. Farooq (2011) pointed out a few
social elements such as work group, peer group, family and media which helps to mould
one’s personality. According to Richard (1961), an individual’s tendency to form either
positive or negative personality traits highly depends on the type of association or contact
the person makes with another individual of different personalities. In a social group, an
individual tends to adopt the prevalent patterns of social behaviour and tend to follow the
group personality style. Therefore, the influence of interpersonal relationships through
social interaction contributes to the growth of different personality characteristics and
emotional competencies between individuals (Boyle, Saklofske & Matthews, 2014).
2.3 SITUATIONAL FACTORS
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Spontaneous and unpredictable events also can have a significant effect on

potential behaviour and thinking of an individual. Personality traits formed are mostly
relevant to patterns of behaviour that persist across relationship issues, work settings,
economic decision and other life situations (Comensoli, 2013). According to Altman,
Valenzi & Hodgetts (2013), the appraisal of a situation and emotional reaction towards
the situation determines the type of personality of an individual. For instance, weak and
ambiguous situations such as grief situations tend to provoke our true personality. On the
other hand, a life-threatening may alter one’s true personality and make them to develop
negative personalities such as anxious, angry and aggressiveness (Xiuqin & Xin, 2008).
2.4 CULTURAL FACTORS
Dash (2004) stressed on the pattern of cultures as another important

determinant of different types of personality. According to Farooq (2011), a culture
within a society consists of a set of norms and behavioural expectations that defines the
traits or characteristics which is important, desirable or undesirable. Since it is inevitable
that people must live within their own cultural framework, they will eventually adopt
some of the thinking, ideas, attitudes, beliefs and values which were established by
ancestor and act according to it. This cultural content which is passed from generation to
generation helps people to seek and shape their personality traits (McCrae & Costa,
2012). Altman, Valenzi & Hodgetts (2013) suggested that personality traits may vary
from culture to culture based on differences in values, needs and beliefs. For instance, a
personality trait which is considered as a positive trait in one culture might be assumed as
negative trait in another culture. Hence, different culture contributes to different
expressions of personality among individuals.
3.0: FOUR LEVELS OF COGNITION THAT INFLUENCE PERSONALITY

DIFFERENCES
6
Bogenfurst (2015) described four levels of cognition that influence the

differences in personality development of each individual. These stages consist of
perception, interpretation, conscious goals and intelligence as discussed below.
3.1 PERCEPTION
According to Abel (2017), there are two ways in which perception can
contribute to formation of different personalities which consist of the way one select and
perceive surrounding information and the other way is one’s ability to tolerate pain.
3.1.1 FIELD DEPENDENCE VERSUS FIELD INDEPENDENCE
According to Griffin, Guillette & Healy (2015), there are two cognitive styles
associated with the differences in individual perception which are known as field
independent and field dependent. Individuals who have a field independent preferences
are more likely to narrow their attention and able to screen visual information more
specifically. Hence, they possess an autonomy personality and display a more detached
orientation towards others (Martin, 2008). Whereas, those with field dependent have
difficulty to extract information from complex situations and tend to rely on information
provided by the social context or frame of a situation. Therefore, they possess a friendly
and social nature and have a high awareness on social environment (Harmon & Jones,
2005).
3.1.2 PAIN TOLERANCE
According to Leary & Hoyle (2013), Petrie, a psychologist developed a

theory known as reducer-augmenter theory in order to explain the dimension along which
people differ in their reaction to sensory stimulation. According to this theory, people
with low pain tolerance had a nervous system that was amplified or augmented subjective
impact of sensory input whereby, people with high pain tolerance have a nervous system
that is dampened or reduced effects of sensory stimulation (Canli, 2006). Since reducers
are motivated to seek out stronger forms of sensory stimulation, they possess a more
novelty and sensation-seeking personality than augmenters (Barone, Hersen & Hasselt,
2012).
3.2 INTERPRETATION
7
Human’s mind constantly make sense of surrounding world, form

judgements and opinions about every situations (Byrne, 2007). According to Kelly’s
personal construct theory, people develop their own personal constructs in order to
understand and explain the world around them. Those interpretations are mostly based on
their core beliefs, own set of experiences, cultures and values. Hence, the differences in
outcomes of personal construct tend to develop different personalities in each individuals
(Butt, 2008). There are two cognitive approach of interpretation which influences the
personality formation as discussed below.
3.2.1 LOCUS OF CONTROL
Locus of control is an important aspect of cognition which refers to

individual’s perception about the main causes of events that happens in life (Neil, 2006).
Figure 3.2.1 shows the differences between the internal and external locus of control.
Figure 3.2.1: The differences in internal locus of control & external locus of control.
Source: http://wilderdom.com/psychology/loc/LocusOfControlWhatIs.html
According to the ‘expectancy model’ developed by rotter on 1966,
individuals with an internal locus of control believes that their own actions determine the
rewards that they gain. However, individuals with an external locus of control will
generalise expectations that these rewards are from the external factors or reinforcements
(Lefcourt, 2013). According to McEntarffer & Weseley (2007), individuals with internal
locus of control has been associated with many positive outcomes such as development
of healthy behaviours and rational thinking compared to those with external locus of
control.
3.2.2 LEARNED HELPLESSNESS
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Learned helplessness is another cognitive state in which people feels

helpless and begins to believe that they do not have control over negative situations, even
when they do (Mikulincer, 2013). According to Weiten, Dunn & Hammer (2011), learned
helplessness conditioning eventually influences one’s thinking pattern and explanatory
styles of life events. Explanatory style is a psychological attribute that indicates to the
way one explain their experience of particular event (Thomas & Segal, 2006). There are 3
broad categories of attributions as shown in figure 3.2.2 below.
Figure 3.2.2: Attributions of explanatory styles in learned helplessness. Source:

http://www.slideshare.net/AdimeshLochan/learned-helplessness-58489745
According to Abel (2015), the explanatory style in learned helplessness is

also referred as pessimistic explanatory style which emphasizes on internal, stable and
global causes for negative events. This style is in contrast to optimistic explanatory style
which depends on external, temporary and specific causes of events.
3.3 CONSCIOUS GOAL
According to Locke (1960), goal orientation is a driving force that have a

strong impact on the direction of one’s behaviour and thinking. Every Individual
develops their own standards of goals through different means for varying reasons. In
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order to achieve these well-defined goals, one need to be aware of their natural behaviour
tendency and how this behaviour affect their goal setting (Rabideau, 2005). Once an
individual adopts a conscious goal, their cognitive processes is directed towards
maximizing anticipated positive outcomes and reducing anticipated negative outcomes
(Wankel, 2007). According to Goal Setting Theory of Motivation, many personality traits
such as achievement motivation, conscientiousness and goal-orientation have been
developed by individuals in order to achieve their personal goals (Lopez, 2011). For
instance, individuals who prefer to lead others would definitely develop goal-oriented
motivations for leadership which in turn enable them to adopt a leadership personality.
3.4 INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence is the most final stage of cognitive processes in which one attain
knowledge about his surrounding environment. According to McGreal (2014),
individuals have distinct ability of learning, solving problems and applying knowledge to
adapt new situations. Individual differences in cognitive functioning are reflected by the
difference in neural processing mechanism in brain. This differences forms the biological
basis of human’s personality (Prat & Just, 2008). Gardner’s Theory of Multiple
Intelligences suggests that the ways one’s intelligence invoked and progressed in specific
domains determine the type of personality that he possesses. According to this theory,
there are seven main domain of intelligences which contribute to different interests,
attitude and thinking styles as shown in figure 3.4.
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Figure 3.4: Personality in relation to Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory.

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/131871095313142688/.
4.0 EFFECTS OF PERSONALITY ON VARIOUS ASPECTS OF LIFE
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Human’s personality continues to develop throughout their life cycle and

have many significant influence on various aspects of life. Some of the effects of
personality are summarized below.
4.1 PERSONAL GROWTH
Berger (2005) defined personal growth as one’s growth and enhancement in

life, development of their self-image and the effectiveness of their living. According to
Salami (2011), the positive personality traits that one internalized as a child and develop
throughout his adulthood eventually contribute to the development of positive life skills
and realistic self-esteem. Undoubtedly, these positive traits helps them to achieve their
potentials and goals in life in order to make life more productive and meaningful. For
instance, individuals who are extrovert and persistent with high self-confidence
characteristics will continuously accept and conquer new challenges in life in order to
accomplish their future goals. Meanwhile, those who are shy and introvert will portray a
self-limiting attitude by restricting themselves from accepting new challenges and
opportunities (Tracy, 2016).
4.2 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
According to Asendorph & Wilpers (1998), personality traits have been found
to be related to relationship satisfaction and stability. Millon, Lerner & Weiner (2003)
identified that one’s personality and characteristics reflects their self-image towards the
people around them. When a person possess unique qualities that make them different
from others, they will be easily accepted and desegregated by their peer groups. Hence,
they will eventually create a happy, healthy and long lasting connection with their
friends, family and significant others (Dwyer, 2013). For example, people with high
characteristics of agreeableness and conscientiousness tend to have more positive
relationships since they have positive attitude when dealing with others and growing
relationships. In contrast, people with negative personality traits can result in having a
bad reputation among others, being distrusted and even being isolated from social groups.
This is commonly shown by people with higher levels of neuroticism who often focus on
the negative aspects interpersonal communication and have lower level of relationship
satisfaction (Salami, 2011).
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4.3 CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Personality have a negligible impact on one’s career performances and job

satisfactions. According to Davenport (2017), individual’s passion and preferences in the
field of careers is greatly influenced by their own values and attitudes. This is due to the
fact that one’s personality style provides a fundamental framework for career decisions,
early career socialization, advancement in jobs and career changes in later life. A study
by Klang (2012) suggests that individuals who display high levels of extroversion and
conscientious as well as low level of neuroticism perform well at any jobs, particularly in
the jobs that require high cognitive ability. For instance, individuals who are confident,
organized, disciplined and cautious are more likely to have career goals, perform well in
job and achieve success in their career field (Brown, 2002).
4.4 HEALTH AND WELLBEING OF INDIVIDUALS
According to Lakhan (2006), psychological research shows that the way

people think, act and feel about certain situations, events and ideas have a profound effect
on health. A study by University of Nottingham and the University of California in the
US revealed that certain personalities could help one to fight disease and illness while
others may be more prone to health risks such as heart diseases, diabetes and cancer
(Woolstone, 2015). This is because positive personality traits may influence one to adopt
healthy lifestyle meanwhile, negative personality may affect one’s healthy habits,
preventing them from modifying unhealthy behaviour and adherence to medical regimes
(Lakhan, 2006). For instance, optimists have a higher quality of life since they are more
resilient in the way of dealing stress compared to pessimists who have weak stress coping
mechanism (Haupt, 2010).
4.5 LEARNING STRATEGIES
According to Heinstrom (2000), studies have proven that different

personalities have different learning strategies and learning outcomes. The personalities
adopted by learners determines the ways individuals control their emotion and feelings
during learning process (Nag, 2012). In fact, the learning strategies of a person is a
motivational tendency that has been linked to personality types. Since learning styles can
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be thought of as habits, personality traits eventually influence learning behaviours by

providing a motivation and reinforcement towards the behaviour (Curtin, 2014). As a
result, each personality has its own learning approach. For instance, individuals with
sensing type of personality are detail-oriented type as they uses all their five senses to
gather information in a sequential process. They learn and create meaning based on their
immediate, practical and conscious thought. However, intuiting individuals are more
interested in theories and new possibilities, and often make good guesses in learning
something without going through the sequential steps (Crews & Sheth, 2014).
5.0 CONCLUSION
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Personality refers to the individual uniqueness in characteristics of thinking, feeling

and behaviour which remains consistent and stable throughout the life. It comprises of the
adoption of one’s outward appearance or inner role that influence on how they view and
belief about others and the world around them.
The constitution of an individual’s personality is influenced by biological
factors, social factors, situational factors and cultural factors. Biological factors
comprises on how one’s personality trait is passed from one generation to another
generation through hereditary. Social factors describes on how social interaction and
association among family, peer group and work group influences one’s personality traits.
Situational factors consist of life events or unpredictable situations which can completely
change or develop particular personality traits. Meanwhile, cultural factors exist ass a set
of norms and behavioural expectations which helps one to identify his own personality
characteristics, value, and beliefs.
There are generally four levels of cognition that contribute to personality

differences among individuals. These stages are known as perception, interpretation,
conscious goal and intelligence. The contribution of perceptual differences can be
observed by the way one select and perceive surrounding information and through the
ability to tolerate pain. Different interpretation among people shown through different
locus of control and learned helplessness also contributes to personality differences.
Besides that, individuals develop distinct standards of goals which motivate them to
develop different personalities. Intelligence also plays role in defining personality
differences since individuals have different neural processing mechanism that leads to
different interests.
Personality development has many significant influences in one’s life. The

impact of personality development in various aspects of life include the development of
positive personal growth, formation of interpersonal relationships, career development,
improved health and effective learning strategies. Since personality provides a set of
strengths and virtues in oneself to determine their natural preferences in life, then one
should consciously change and improve themselves to some extent through personality
development.
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Personality ADPD 2103: Faculty of Social Science

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Personality ADPD 2103: Faculty of Social Science

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PERSONALITY ADPD 2103

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

SEMESTER JANUARY / 2017

NAME : ANITHA D/O MAGANTERAN

2.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY 4

3.0 FOUR LEVEL OF COGNITIONS THAT 6

4.0 EFFECT OF PERSONALITY ON VARIOUS 11

According to John, Robins & Pervin (2010), personality is defined as a unique

According to Skoe & Lippe (2005), the process of personality development

Basically, personality of an individual is made up of a number of different

Figure 1.0: The Big Five Personality Traits. Source:

2.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY

Altman, Valenzi & Hodgetts (2013) categorized the determinants of

2.1 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

According to a study by Goleman (1986), the genetic makeup of an individual

2.2 SOCIAL FACTORS

The social structure of a society in which an individual lives provides another

2.3 SITUATIONAL FACTORS

Spontaneous and unpredictable events also can have a significant effect on

2.4 CULTURAL FACTORS

Dash (2004) stressed on the pattern of cultures as another important

3.0: FOUR LEVELS OF COGNITION THAT INFLUENCE PERSONALITY

Bogenfurst (2015) described four levels of cognition that influence the

3.1.1 FIELD DEPENDENCE VERSUS FIELD INDEPENDENCE

3.1.2 PAIN TOLERANCE

According to Leary & Hoyle (2013), Petrie, a psychologist developed a

Human’s mind constantly make sense of surrounding world, form

Locus of control is an important aspect of cognition which refers to

3.2.2 LEARNED HELPLESSNESS

Learned helplessness is another cognitive state in which people feels

Figure 3.2.2: Attributions of explanatory styles in learned helplessness. Source:

According to Abel (2015), the explanatory style in learned helplessness is

3.3 CONSCIOUS GOAL

According to Locke (1960), goal orientation is a driving force that have a

Figure 3.4: Personality in relation to Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory.

4.0 EFFECTS OF PERSONALITY ON VARIOUS ASPECTS OF LIFE

Human’s personality continues to develop throughout their life cycle and

4.1 PERSONAL GROWTH

Berger (2005) defined personal growth as one’s growth and enhancement in

4.2 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

4.3 CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Personality have a negligible impact on one’s career performances and job

4.4 HEALTH AND WELLBEING OF INDIVIDUALS

According to Lakhan (2006), psychological research shows that the way

4.5 LEARNING STRATEGIES

According to Heinstrom (2000), studies have proven that different

be thought of as habits, personality traits eventually influence learning behaviours by

Personality refers to the individual uniqueness in characteristics of thinking, feeling

There are generally four levels of cognition that contribute to personality

Personality development has many significant influences in one’s life. The

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Byrne.R.M.J (2007). The Rational Imagination: How People Create Alternatives to

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Burger. J.M (2014). Personality. Retrieved from, https://books.google.com.my/books?

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