Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Analysis of the solar and wind energetic complementarity in Mexico

~ a Gallardo a, *, Aurelio Medina Ríos b, Juan Segundo Ramírez a
Rafael Pen
a
Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autonoma de San Luis Potosí, Manuel Nava #8, Zona Universitaria, San Luis Potosí, C.P. 78290, Mexico
b
Facultad de Ingeniería El s de Hidalgo, Francisco J. Múgica S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, Morelia, C.P. 78290,
ectrica, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicola
Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, the temporal energetic complementarity between solar and wind resources for Mexico is
Received 15 January 2020 presented. Energetic complementarity studies are useful to assess the feasibility for the combined use of
Received in revised form two or more renewable energy sources with high variability, over a specific interval of time, and help to
12 May 2020
identify potential sites for the installation of new generation systems. The energetic complementarity
Accepted 15 May 2020
Available online 23 May 2020
study carried out in this research is based on the Pearson correlation coefficient. This coefficient lets to
know the correlation between the solar and wind resources, and with the obtained results new maps are
Handling Editor: Pawel Oclon generated showing the monthly and annual energetic complementarity in the country. Besides, for
practical use of the presented maps in the analysis the natural protected areas of the country, the
Keywords: orography, and the location of the transmission system are included. Also, a comparison between the
Energetic complementarity results obtained and the sites where have been already installed generation systems based on solar and
Feasibility study wind energy is presented. The obtained results show that Mexico has many sites with great energetic
Photovoltaic energy complementarity, some of them are being exploited, but still, there are sites from the center to the north
Resource maps
of the country which have not been exploited and where renewable energy generation systems can be
Wind energy
developed.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Globally, the use of natural renewable resources, such as the sun
and wind, for the generation of electricity is increasing. This because
of the obvious advantages that they have, compared to the use of
petroleum derivatives (Claudia Rold an et al., 2014). However, it is
important to keep in mind that these resources have variable behavior
and they are not dispatchable, which leads to the problem that they
cannot follow the demand profiles of consumers (Joskow, 2011).
Therefore, when photovoltaic and wind generation systems are
integrated into electrical networks, their variable generation pat-
terns must be taken into account and should try to minimize the
negative effects that they may cause. Some solutions proposed in
the specialized literature to deal with the problem of variability of
the renewable resources are: to oversize the generation systems
(Kellogg et al., 1998), use energy storage systems (Beaudin et al.,
2010), place multiple distributed systems in a wide region
(Orgerie et al., 2014), forecast the demand and generation (Graff
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rafael.pena@uaslp.mx (R.P. Gallardo), amedinr@gmail.com
(A.M. Ríos), juan.segundo@uaslp.mx (J.S. Ramírez).
et al., 2014), to have variable and flexible loads in terms of con-
sumption (Taneja et al., 2013), and use two or more energy sources
which complement each other (Ospino-Castro et al., 2017;
Weschenfelder et al., 2020).
If the use of energy storage systems wants to be avoided, due to
its high cost, it is necessary to know the amount of the renewable
resource available, the regions where it is more feasible to install
these systems, and above all, to seek that the generation of one type
of renewable energy complements the generation of another type.
That is why energetic complementarity studies are important and
increasingly used today. Energetic complementarity studies allow
knowing the feasibility of using two or more renewable energy
sources together, in a specific region and time. These types of
studies are increasingly used nowadays.
Thus, energetic complementarity can be defined as the ability of
two or more energy sources to work together, complementing their
generation, and improving their energy performance (Jurasz et al.,
2020; Yan et al., 2020). Typically, the energetic complementarity is
divided into three types (Jurasz et al., 2020): i.e. temporal, spatio,
and spatio-temporal, respectively.
Temporal energetic complementarity is the one that is observed
in the same region and specific period, for example, over a year or a

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122323
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323

Fig. 1. Historical growth of solar and wind installed capacity in Mexico.

season. Examples of studies of temporal energetic complemen-
tarity have been reported in (Stoyanov et al., 2010; Monforti et al.,
2014; Kunwar, 2014; Jurasz et al., 2016; Aza-Gnandji et al., 2018;
Berger et al., 2020; Naeem et al., 2020) for Bulgaria, Italy, Nepal,
Poland, Benin Republic, France, and Pakistan, respectively.
Spatio energetic complementarity refers to when energy sour-
ces complement each other in a broad region. This means that the
generation sources can be distributed over the region, and when
the resource is scarce in one area, it can be abundant in another,
that is, they complement each other. Studies about spatio energetic
complementarity can be found in (Li et al., 2009; François et al.,
2017; Miglietta et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2020) for the regions of
New South Wales (Australia), Eastern Italian Alps, Europe, and
China.
On the other hand, the energetic complementarity can also be
spatio-temporal, that is when the conditions defined above are met

Fig. 2. Maps of solar energy potential in Mexico, months from January to April 2018.
 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323
Fig. 3. Maps of solar energy potential in Mexico, months from May to August 2018.
simultaneously, in both space and time. There are studies reported
of this energetic complementarity for the Iberian Peninsula (Jerez
et al., 2013), New Zealand (Suomalainen et al., 2015), Lower Sile-
sia (Poland) (Jurasz et al., 2017), Australia (Prasad et al., 2017),
United Kingdom (Sun and Harrison, 2019), and China (Ren et al.,
2019; Cao et al., 2019).
Energetic complementarity studies based on renewable re-
sources have been reported for the Americas, where Brazil is the
country with the most published papers in this area of knowledge,
followed by the USA. Other countries of this continent that have
energetic complementarity studies reported are Canada, Colombia,
and Mexico. Some examples of studies carried out for Brazil are: in
(Silva et al., 2016) the Pearson correlation coefficient is used to
assess the energetic complementarity between hydro and offshore
wind power, while in (de Oliveira Costa Souza Rosa et al., 2017) and
(de Oliveira Costa Souza Rosa et al., 2020) the same coefficient in
combination with linear programming is used to comprehend and
optimize the hydro, photovoltaic, and wind power in Rio de Janeiro;
in (Beluco et al., 2008) is proposed a new dimensionless index for
evaluating the time complementarity between two renewable re-
sources, this index has been used in (Eifler Neto et al., 2014) for
wind and water resources in Northeastern region of the country, in
(de Mourin ~ o et al., 2016) for the regularization of hydroelectric
reservoir levels through hydro and solar energy complementarity,
in (Bagatini et al., 2017) is extended for evaluate three renewable
resources (hydro, wind and solar), and in (Borba and Brito, 2017) for
more than two renewable resources; the optimal mix and opera-
tion of renewable power generation plants has been carried out
using energetic complementarity studies in (Ramos et al., 2013),
3
(Schmidt et al., 2016), (da Luz and Moura, 2019), and (Neto et al.,
2020); other methods to assess the energetic complementarity
have been used, such as long-term correlations and cross-
correlations (Dos Anjos et al., 2015), correlation maps (Cant~ ao
et al., 2017), complementarity charts based on distance (Risso and
Beluco, 2017), and complementarity roses (Risso et al., 2018).
In the case of USA, in (Slusarewicz and Cohan, 2018) the solar
and wind complementarity in Texas has been evaluated using the
Pearson Correlation Coefficient; in (Li et al., 2011) Oklahoma’s wind
and insolation resources are modeled with a focus on their com-
plementary nature; the optimal mix of electricity from wind and
solar resources is investigated in (Nikolakakis and Fthenakis, 2011)
for the New York State, and in (Solomon et al., 2016) for the Cali-
fornia State; the spatial and temporal analysis of electric wind
generation intermittency and its dynamics with other renewable
sources in California is presented in (Tarroja et al., 2011), while
similar research was reported for the solar generation in (Tarroja
et al., 2013).
In Canada, in (Hoicka and Rowlands, 2011) the solar and wind
complementarity has been investigated to smooth the effects of
their power production on the grid, and in (Denault et al., 2009) the
complementarity of hydro and wind power was evaluated to
improve the risk profile of energy inflows. For Colombia, the solar
and wind energetic complementarity has been assessed in
(Ramírez, 2015) to support the hydropower generation of the
country, and in (Pen~ a Gallardo et al., 2020) complementarity maps
are created using an image processing-based method. In (Vega-
Sanchez et al., 2017) the temporal energetic complementary be-
tween solar and wind resources for Mexico is obtained. Finally, in
4 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323
Fig. 4. Maps of solar energy potential in Mexico, months from September to December 2018.
(Viviescas et al., 2019) is reported a study about the complemen-
tarity and climate change impacts of wind and solar resources to
increase energy security in Latin America.
This paper presents the temporal energetic complementarity of
the solar and wind resources in Mexico to identify areas in which it
is feasible to install solar and wind generation systems, and that
they complement their generation over a year. Besides, it is
considered within the analysis factors that are always neglected in
these studies which are considered in the feasibility studies, such as
protected, hard-to-reach areas, and the closeness to transmission
systems. The contribution of this research lies in the fact that for
Mexico only monthly maps of local complementarity have been
reported in (Vega-Sanchez et al., 2017), and the energetic
complementarity is not considered over a year, neither the feasi-
bility of installation. Therefore, this research improves the previ-
ously reported work, and the results obtained are validated with
the current data that the Mexican government has regarding the
areas identified as feasible, and where renewable generation sys-
tems have already been installed.
2. Description of Mexico, generation, and renewable
resources
Mexico is a country located in the Americas. It has a total area of
1,964,375 km2, being the thirteenth largest country in the world
(INEGI, 2017). It borders to the north with the United States of
America, to the south with Guatemala and Belize, to the east with
the Atlantic Ocean, and to the west with the Pacific Ocean. The
country is mostly composed of mountain ranges, plateaus, and
many valleys; the rest is composed of coastal plains with an
extension of 9,330 km of coastline (INEGI, 2017).
It is a country with one of the greatest diversity of climates in
the world, among which the humid-warm climate, semi-humid
warm climate, temperate climate, and dry climate stand out
(INEGI, 2019). The average temperature in the country is 24
C; the
highest temperatures occur in the country’s north, reaching 43
C,
and the lowest in the mountainous and northern areas with values
around 0
C (INEGI, 2019).
According to the latest report published by the Secretariat of
Energy (C amara de Diputados Me xico, 2013), the generation of
electricity in Mexico in the first half of 2018 was mainly based on oil
derivatives, with 75.88%. The rest is generated with clean energy,
including hydroelectric energy with 10.31%, nuclear energy with
4.02%, wind energy with 3.63%, efficient cogeneration with 2.79%,
geothermal energy with 1.59%, bagasse with 0.81%, photovoltaic
energy with 0.72%, biogas with 0.23%, and others, such as black
liquor and regenerative brakes with 0.02%. The goal established in
the Energy Transition Law of the country is a minimum share of
clean energy in the generation of electrical energy of 25% for the
year 2018, 30% for 2021, and 35% for 2024 (Ca mara de Diputados
Me xico, 2013).
Regarding to the growth of the generation of electricity using
solar and wind energy, it can be seen in Fig. 1 that the generation
using wind power has increased since 2011; growth that stag-
nated between 2016 and 2017; while the use of solar energy has
maintained a constant growth, having its maximum in 2017, with
a growth of 434.88% compared to 2016. It is important to
mention that the data for the last two years is not shown since
 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323
Fig. 5. Maps of wind power potential in Mexico, months from January to April 2018.
the report of the Secretariat of Energy covers until the first
months of 2018.
The rapid growth in the installation of photovoltaic and wind
generation plants is because of the Energy Reform that was
approved in 2013 (Alpizar-Castro and Rodríguez-Monroy, 2016),
and the large number of renewable resources that the country has
for the generation of electricity. Figs. 2e4 show the solar energy
potential of the country throughout the months of the year 2018.
The color scale used in these figures ranges from yellow to red
colors; where the red color represents the maximum value regis-
tered in that month and the yellow color the minimum value. The
values in this scale vary linearly with the color tone, getting a range
of values. The data for the generation of these figures were obtained
from the measurements made by the Institute of Electrical Research
and which are published in the Geographic Information System for
Renewable Energies in Mexico (by its Spanish acronym SIGER)
(Ubaldo et al., 2003). Fig. 2 shows that in the first months of the
year which correspond to the winter and spring seasons, the po-
tential is increasing, especially from the center to the north of the
country, with maximum averages of 212.5 W/m2 in January,
245.8 W/m2 in February, 295.8 W/m2 in March, and 316.6 W/m2 in
May.
It can be seen from Fig. 3 that the solar energy potential con-
tinues to increase with the passing of the months, in the spring and
summer seasons, reaching a maximum of potential in June with a
value of 337.5 W/m2. In May, there is the highest average potential
in the whole country with a minimum average value of 291.6 W/m2
and a maximum of 325.0 W/m2. It is observed that the potential
decreases during the summer, in the months of July and August.
5
In Autumn and the month of December, the solar potential
continues to decrease. This behavior can be observed in Fig. 4.
December is the month with the lowest average solar potential in
the country, with a maximum of 200.0 W/m2 in areas of the center
of the country, and a minimum of 158.3 W/m2. It can be seen that
Mexico is a country with great potential for the installation of
photovoltaic panels throughout the year.
Regarding the wind potential of the country, Figs. 5e7 show the
potential maps of this renewable resource for 2018 reported by
SIGER (Ubaldo et al., 2003). Fig. 5 shows that in the months of
January to April, the greatest potential of the country is located in
the Mexican southeastern, in the region known as La Ventosa (in
English “The Windy”), considered as a place with the greatest wind
potential in the world (Jaramillo and Borja, 2004). In this area, the
wind energy potential is greater than 800 W/m2. Other important
areas are shown in the northwestern of the country (in the
peninsula of Baja California) with good potential, and also in the
northeastern region with values between 200 and 400 W/m2.
Fig. 6 shows the wind potential from May to August. As the
months of the year pass, the wind potential in the country de-
creases, with August being the month with the lowest average wind
potential in the whole country, with values between 0 and 200 W/
m2. During these months, the most significant potential is located
in the northeastern areas of the country; even in La Ventosa, the
potential decreases.
During the months that correspond mainly to the Autumn, the
wind potential increases in some regions of the northeastern and
southeastern of the country, mainly in the coastal areas (see Fig. 7).
This increase occurs mainly in September and October.
6 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323
Fig. 6. Maps of wind power potential in Mexico, months from May to August 2018.
Subsequently, the wind energy potential decreases in the country
but increases in La Ventosa.
Unlike the solar resource, the wind resource presents more
variability in the year and is only available in specific regions of the
national territory, hence more detailed studies are needed in re-
gions that are identified with good potential (Hernandez et al.,
2013), and that the generation of one type is complemented with
another type of generation. That is why energetic complementarity
studies are valuable in this task of identifying potential sites.
3. Assessment of the energetic complementarity
The energetic complementarity between several natural re-
sources has been evaluated through the use of indexes or statistical
analysis using correlation coefficients. These coefficients measure
the linear dependence between two randomly distributed variables
using statistical analysis. The use of the following coefficients for
the calculation of energetic complementarity has been reported in
the literature (Jurasz et al., 2020): Canonical Correlation Analysis
(CCA), Cross-Correlation (CC), Kendall Correlation Coefficient (KCC),
Pearson Correlation Coefficient (PCC), and Spearman’s Rank Cor-
relation Coefficient (SRCC).
In this work, the negative of the PCC (NPCC) is used to evaluate the
complementarity between solar and wind resources for the genera-
tion of electricity. This coefficient is selected because it allows from
the measurements of the solar and wind resources to conduct sta-
tistical analysis and to determine regions in which both resources
complement each other, and where it is possible to install generation
systems with both types of technology seeking to have a more
efficient generation. This coefficient has been widely used to assess
energetic complementarity in (Sahin, 2000; Li et al., 2009; Wide n,
2011; Liu et al., 2013; Monforti et al., 2014; Suomalainen et al., 2015;
Jurasz et al., 2016; Jurasz and Piasecki, 2016; Bett and Thornton, 2016;
Miglietta et al., 2017; Vega-Sanchez et al., 2017; Slusarewicz and
Cohan, 2018; Shaner et al., 2018; Canales et al., 2020).
The NPCC, defined as rxy, can be calculated from a data set {(x1,
y1), …,(xn, yn)} as:
Pn
i¼1 ½ðxi  xÞðyi  yÞ
rxy ¼  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Pn (1)
2 Pn 2
i¼1 ðxi  xÞ , i¼1 ðyi  yÞ
where n is the sample size, xi and yi are the individual measure-
ments of each variable of the solar and wind resources, and x and y
are the averages of each variable.
The NCCP measures the relationship between two variables,
yields values in a range of 1 to þ1. In energetic complementarity, a
positive value means that there is a full complementarity between
the two resources in a region, a zero value that there is no associ-
ation between the resources, and a negative value that both re-
sources are similar, increasing or decreasing, resulting in low
energetic complementarity.
Please note that to apply the NPCC the measurements of the
solar and wind resources must have the same amount of data. In
this case, the daily averages values were used, with which Figs. 2e7
were made; this guarantees the same amount of data.
The NCCP was used instead of the CCP because the color scale
selected for the results ranges from blue to red colors, where a
 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323
Fig. 7. Maps of wind power potential in Mexico, months from September to December 2018.
strong blue color is represented by a 1 and an intense red color by
a þ1. A red or hot color means a better complementarity and a blue
or colder color than there is no energetic complementarity.
A computer program was developed in the C language to carry
out the energetic complementarity study. The program has the
following features:
 Reads the solar and wind data, checks the data (same amount of
data, missing data), and converts the data in the same units.
 Calculates correlation coefficients.
 Creates new maps and plots based on the data and the results.
 Makes comparisons and calculates statistics of the data and the
results.
4. Results and discussion
The NPCC was computed with the historical daily average values
of the potential solar and wind resources to obtain the energetic
complementarity along the different regions of Mexico.
The energetic complementarity analysis was conducted through
six case studies: (1) monthly complementarity, (2) annual
complementarity, (3) with protected areas, (4) with hard-to-reach
areas because of the orography, (5) proximity to the main trans-
mission lines, and (6) comparison against the potential identified in
the country by the government and private associations. The study
of these case studies allows discriminating the sites with a real
possibility to install complementary photovoltaic and wind gen-
eration systems.
7
4.1. Monthly energetic complementarity
The solar-wind energetic complementarity is changing.
Figs. 8e10 show the monthly evolution of energetic complemen-
tarity in Mexico. Fig. 8 shows the energetic complementarity
computed from January to April. Notice that the zones with yellow to
red colors have the best energetic complementarity between both
resources according to the NCCP, while the green to blue colors
represents zones with zero to low complementarity. From the center
to the northeastern and the peninsula of Baja California, located in
the northwestern of the country, have functional complementarity.
Also, notice that the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in La Ventosa in the
southeastern of the country, has functional complementarity in
these months. The percentages of the extension of the country with a
positive energetic complementarity are 44.02%, 34.89%, 33.88%, and
28.81% for January, February, March, and April, respectively.
From July to August, the energetic complementarity is decreasing,
as is shown in Fig. 9, due to changes in the availability of renewable
resources. The percentages of the total extension of the country with
positive energetic complementarity values are 24.70% in May, 22.76%
in June, 27.63% in July, and 27.18 in August. August is the month with
the lowest energetic complementarity values throughout the year,
while June is the month with the lowest percentage in the country’s
extension with positive energetic complementarity and can be
selected as a critical month since it is the one with the least energy
available from both resources.
It can be seen from Fig. 10 that the downward trend in the
highest energetic complementarity values continues during
September, to rise again in the following months. Note that during
8 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323

Fig. 8. Maps of energetic complementarity in Mexico, months from January to April.

October, the lowest complementarity is in the southeastern of the
country, illustrated by the blue colors. The areas from the center to
the north of the country continue with functional energetic
complementarity over the months. In these months, the percent-
ages of the total extension of the country with positive energetic
complementarity values increases, with 34.73% in September,
34.71% in October, 52.22% in November, and 57.81% in December.
4.2. Annual energetic complementarity
As observed in the previous case study, the energetic comple-
mentarity varies over the months due to the variations in the
available solar and wind resources. Thus, it is necessary to assess
the annual energetic complementarity in the country. It is worth
mentioning that for the correct calculation of the annual energetic
complementarity, the average of the monthly energetic comple-
mentarity should not be taken, but that from Equation (1) the
variables x and y, which represent the monthly average of the solar
and wind resources, respectively, must be replaced by the annual
average of the data to recalculate the NCCP.
Fig. 11 shows the annual energetic complementarity obtained
for Mexico. The places where there is the best potential for the
combined use of solar and wind systems are marked in the map
with a star. It is shown that in the northwestern and southeastern
regions of the country, there is only a good complementarity be-
tween resources in specific regions near to the coastal areas. At the
same time, from the center to the northeastern, there are vast re-
gions from good to an excellent energetic complementarity, espe-
cially near to the USA. In the peninsula of Yucatan, which lies
between the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, there is no good
complementarity, since the solar resource is constant throughout
the year and therefore there is no variation that can complement
variations in the wind resource; only on the coastline there is a low
energetic complementarity. Regarding the most of the regions of
the southwestern, central and northwestern, an NPCC value of zero
is observed, which indicates that they are not suitable areas for the
installation of power plants that complement their generation,
without this meaning that there is no potential for the installation
of a single technology. The total extension of the country with a
positive energetic complementarity value is 36.72%.
The map shown in Fig. 11, and complemented with the maps of
Figs. 8e10, is important since it allows to visualize specific areas in
which generation systems based on renewable energies can be
installed and whose generation is complemented. These maps
should be complemented with subsequent studies of local power
generation and balance with the electric consumption to establish
full feasibility of installation; studies that are not considered in this
research and are left for further studies.
 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323
Fig. 9. Maps of energetic complementarity in Mexico, months from May to August.
4.3. Annual energetic complementarity with natural protected
areas
Although the results previously obtained show that there are
multiple regions with good energetic complementarity, it should be
considered that not all of them are suitable for the construction of
electric power plants. One reason is that care must be taken of the
environment and the ecosystems that inhabit the region, therefore
in this case study are considered the natural protected areas that
the country has.
Fig. 12 (a) shows the map of the natural protected areas of
Mexico. There are 182 protected areas as of June 2019, covering a
total area of 90,839,521.55 ha, representing 11.2% of the land area
and 22.05% of the sea surface (CONANP, 2019). These areas include
reserves of the biosphere of Mexico, national parks, national
monuments, areas of protection of natural resources, areas of
protection of flora and fauna, and sanctuaries.
Fig. 12 (b) shows the map of annual complementarity
including the natural protected areas in black. Areas with good
energetic complementarity in the peninsula of Baja California,
and in the northwestern, are in protected areas, so they are not
suitable for the construction of generation systems. The same
happens in the northern part of the country and the southeastern
in the coastal strip. This shows that in practice, the number of
suitable areas with good energetic complementarity is dimin-
ished to preserve the environment, which is a vital issue when
building new facilities. 12.28% of the areas with a positive value
of energetic complementarity fall in natural protected areas,
9
which reduces the percentage of the total extension of the
country usable with solar and wind energy jointly from 36.72% to
32.21%.
4.4. Annual energetic complementarity considering the orography
Similarly, the orography of a specific region may limit the
installation of generation systems because of the difficulty of ac-
cess. In the particular case of Mexico, four main mountain ranges
cross it, which are: the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra Madre
Occidental, the Sierra Madre del Sur, and the Neovolcanic Axis,
respectively.
The map of the orography of the country is shown in Fig. 13 (a).
From this map, the information of the mountains with greater
height was extracted and included in the map of annual comple-
mentarity, shown in Fig. 13 (b). Here, the areas with good energetic
complementarity are not as limited as in the case of natural pro-
tected areas; this is because the mountain ranges that cross the
country are located in central and southwestern areas, in which the
energetic complementarity is low. However, it is important to take
into account the orography, since in high areas (such as in the
mountains), the wind potential is higher, and that is reflected as
areas of good complementarity within the map of annual energetic
complementarity in yellow color. The reduction in the total areas
with a positive energetic complementarity value is approximately
0.78%, passing from 36.72% to 35.94%.
10 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323
Fig. 10. Maps of energetic complementarity in Mexico, months from September to December.
4.5. Annual energetic complementarity and proximity to
transmission lines
Photovoltaic and wind generation systems can operate as stand-
alone systems to meet needs in remote locations or without access
to the main transmission system. However, because of its vari-
ability, it is necessary to have backup systems to guarantee the
correct and constant supply of electric power to the end-users. That
is why access to transmission systems represents an essential
aspect of the planning of the electric power system.
Fig. 14 (a) shows the map that illustrates the National Electric
System. It is a highly interconnected system, which transfers the
electric power practically from the south to the north; the penin-
sula of Baja California is disconnected from the transmission sys-
tem. In Fig. 14 (b), the transmission system is superimposed with
the map of annual energetic complementarity to illustrate the areas
with high complementarity and close to the transmission system. It
is important to mention that at present, there is a very high cost of
building new transmission lines; hence, existing ones are used to
the maximum. For a better appreciation of the results, Fig. 14 (c)
shows the areas close to the transmission lines, with a distance of
up to 75 km. For the calculation of the distance on the map, an
algorithm of nearest neighbors was used. From this figure, it can be
seen that there is large coverage in the country by the transmission
system; 64.66% of the country is covered by the transmission sys-
tem considering a distance of 75 km. On the other hand, in Fig. 14
(d) the map of Fig. 14 (c) is shown, but only leaving the areas
with a positive energetic complementarity, in those where both
resources complement each other. It can be seen that many areas
with good complementarity are located near the transmission
system, especially from the center to the north of the country.
56.32% of the areas with a positive energetic complementarity are
at least 75 km near to the transmission system. Notice from Fig. 14
(b) and 14 (d) that zones of excellent complementarity in the
northeast are wasted since there are not enough nearby trans-
mission lines to interconnect these resources.
4.6. Comparison between the annual energetic complementarity
and the areas identified with potential
To validate the results obtained, a comparison between the
annual energetic complementarity obtained and the places in
which generation systems based on photovoltaic and wind tech-
nologies have been installed in the country was carried out, also
with zones already identify with good potential for each renewable
energy resource. Fig. 15 shows this comparison. The data used for
the creation of these maps were taken from the SIGER, the
Renewable Energy Data Explorer (REexplorer, 2020), and the latest
reports published in 2019 by the Mexican Association of Solar En-
ergy (ASOLMEX, 2019), and the Wind and Electric Vehicle Magazine
(REVE, 2019).
Fig. 15 (a) shows the map of annual energetic complementarity
superimposed with the areas where generation systems based on
solar are currently installed, while Fig. 15 (b) shows the areas where
 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323 11

Fig. 11. Map of annual energetic complementarity in Mexico.

Fig. 12. Maps of (a) natural protected areas, (b) annual energetic complementarity including the natural protected areas.

wind power plants are in operation. From Fig. 15 (a), it can be seen
that the photovoltaic generation plants are installed mainly from
the center to northwestern regions of the country; 81.81% of the
photovoltaic plants are installed in zones with a positive energetic
complementarity according to the obtained complementarity map.
In the same way, there are some wind power plants installed across
the country, with a high concentration of plants in the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec in the southeastern region of the country (see Fig. 15
(b)); 83.33% of the wind power plants are installed in zones marked
with a good energetic complementarity. The obtained concordance
suggests that the used method gives adequate results in finding
places with good energetic complementarity.
On the other hand, Fig. 15 (c) and (d) show the map of annual
energetic complementarity superimposed with the maps of the
areas with good solar and wind potential already identified for
power generation in the country, respectively. These regions are
considered for future developent of renewable generation pro-
jects. It can be seen that there is a good concordance between the
maps. There is a 42.71% of concordance with the solar resource
and 59.85% for the wind resource. If both potential maps are
combined and compared with the energetic complementarity
map, there is a concordance of 46.54%. Please bear in mind that
we calculated the energetic potential for the combined use of
both resources and the solar and wind potential maps were
calculated individually, and this explains why the concordance is
not higher.
12 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323

Fig. 13. Maps of (a) orography, (b) annual energetic complementarity including the orography.

Fig. 14. Maps of (a) location of transmission lines, (b) annual energetic complementarity including the transmission lines, (c) places near the transmission lines, (d) places near
transmission lines with good energetic complementarity.

Besides, it can be seen from Fig. 15 that there are still regions in
the center of the country, marked mainly in yellow colors, which
have not yet been exploited, and in this area, there is high elec-
tricity consumption. The north region of the country is the best in
terms of the energetic complementarity, and the maps show that
still is unexploited. However, from Fig. 14 (d) and comparing with
Fig. 15, it can be observed that the places near to transmission lines
in the country’s north are fully exploited, while in the center, the
areas with good complementarity are not near to the transmission
lines, which indicates that new infrastructure is needed in these
areas.
In conclusion, the annual energetic complementarity map can
be valuable in the identification of specific sites not yet exploited
and where it should conduct more detailed local studies to estab-
lish full feasibility.
5. Conclusions
This paper presented the current state of the energetic
complementarity between solar and wind resources for Mexico.
The Pearson coefficient was used to calculate the complementarity
since it is a statistical measure of the correlation between two
variables.
The daily average measurements data of solar irradiation and
wind speed, previously converted into average electrical power
data, were used to calculate the monthly and annual complemen-
tarity in the country.
Six case studies were carried out to give a better overview of the
practical application of the maps generated of energetic comple-
mentarity in the location of sites with good potential for the
installation of new generation plants.
 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323
Fig. 15. Maps of the annual energetic complementarity superimposed with (a) solar generation plants, (b) wind power plants, (c) solar potential already identified in the country,
(d) wind potential already identified in the country.
In the first case, the monthly energetic complementarity was
calculated, obtaining that although this varies along the year, there
is a good energetic complementarity from the center to the north
and in specific regions of the southeastern of the country. This in-
formation was corroborated with the map of annual energetic
complementarity obtained in the second case study; 36.72% of the
country has a positive energetic complementarity.
Although areas with a good degree of energetic complemen-
tarity can be observed in the maps presented, not all are suitable for
the installation of new generation plants, since they are in areas
protected by the country or difficult to access, for example, in
mountainous areas. Therefore, two additional case studies were
generated in which the location of the natural protected areas and
the orography of the country was indicated, to discard these areas
from the map of annual energetic complementarity. The results
obtained show a reduction in the areas with a positive energetic
complementarity; 32.21% is usable in the natural protected areas
case and 35.94% for the orography case.
Another important aspect considered is the proximity of areas
with good energetic complementarity with the transmission sys-
tems, because of the high cost of the construction and installation
of new transmission lines. The results show that the country is
widely interconnected and with wide coverage; 56.32% of the main
areas in which there is an adequate energetic complementarity are
covered.
Finally, a comparative analysis of the current situation for gen-
eration plants based on photovoltaic panels and wind turbines
already installed and in operation and the energetic potential
already identified, and their similarity in a location with the areas
identified in this study with good energetic complementarity was
presented. A good similarity in the location of the renewable power
plants was obtained, 81.81% of the photovoltaic plants and 83.33%
of the wind power plants are installed in zones with a positive
energetic complementarity according to the obtained annual
13
complementarity map. Besides, there is a good concordance with
the regions already identified with good energetic potential, for the
solar resource the similarity is 42.71% and for the wind resource is
59.85%. It was also found that there are areas from the center to the
north of the country that have not yet been exploited and that have
good potential.
Funding
This work was supported by the CONACYT (National Council of
Science and Technology of Mexico) [grant number 740599].
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Rafael Pen~ a Gallardo: Conceptualization, Methodology, Soft-
ware, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data
curation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing,
Visualization, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acqui-
sition. Aurelio Medina Ríos: Conceptualization, Formal analysis,
Data curation, Writing - review & editing. Juan Segundo Ramírez:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation,
Writing - review & editing.
Acknowledgments
The authors want to acknowledge the Universidad Auto noma de
San Luis Potosí and the Universidad Michoacana de San Nicola s de
Hidalgo for the facilities granted to carry out this research. Rafael
14 R.P. Gallardo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 268 (2020) 122323
Pen~ a Gallardo thanks the financial support received from CONACYT
to carry out a sabbatical research stay at the Universidad Michoa-
cana de San Nicola s de Hidalgo.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122323.
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