Jack: Chapter 34 - Sections 8-9

Allergies

● An Allergen is a mostly harmless substance that stimulates an immune response in

some people
○ Common allergens
■ Drugs
■ Foods
■ Pollen
■ Dust
■ Mite feces
■ Fungal spores
■ Insect venom
○ Sensitivity to an allergen is called allergy
● Some people are genetically predisposed to have allergies
○ Factors
■ Infections
■ Emotional stress
■ Exercise
■ Change in air temperature
○ These factors can worsen their allergies

An example of an allergy is Hay fever. This Allergy is caused by being allergic to grass pollen.
Symptoms like sneezing and a runny nose (common cold) are a result of inflammation of the
mucous membranes in respiratory airways.

● Direct contact with an allergen can cause an itchy, irritated patch on your skin.
○ Example:
■ Metal ions or small compounds such as these oils penetrate skin and
covalently bond to molecules, primarily discovered in epidermal tissue

Illnesses can arise when mechanisms that limit the immune systems fail. Allergic reactions
(anaphylaxis) cause inflammatory molecules with histamines and prostaglandins, which are all
released all at once into the body.

Anaphylaxis requires immediate treatment. Exposure to allergen can cause risks.

● Risks may include

○ Allergic reaction
○ Severe episodes of asthma
○ Septic shock
● Autoimmune response
○ Response that targets its own body tissues
Sometimes, the immune system fails to get rid of a pathogen from the body. This is because
evolved defenses cause a recurring pathogen to evade the hosts immune system. Interfering
with the hosts adaptive immune response is a pathogen strategy

● Bacteria produce molecules prevent antibody bining; slimy capsules and biofilms can
disrupt white blood cells

AIDS

The most common immune system deficiency is a result of HIV. There are 37 million
cases of viruses of AIDS. AIDS is a disorder that happens because HIV cripples the
immune system, presenting the body with foreseeable infections (cancers). Are you
fighting a “common” cold or “the flu”? these might be early symptoms

● Symptoms
○ Fever
○ Enlarged lymph nodes
○ Chronic fatigue
○ Weight loss
○ Night sweats
○ Yeast infections (mouth)

Kapasoi’s sarcoma is a type of cancer that is very common among AIDS patients.

● These medical conditions are uncommon for people who have healthy immune systems

Transmission

● HIV is transmitted through unprotected sex with a partner who is infected

● Virus occurs in semen and vaginal secretions
● Can enter through sensitive parts in your inner linings

Testing

● AIDS checks blood, saliva, and urine for antibodies

● Antibodies are detectable in 99% of infected people within a 3 month span of infection

Treatments

● There is no cure for AIDS (HIV)

Blood test

The Immune System is studied by Blood Tests. The drawing of blood allows scientists to see the
amount of antibodies in the system. It tests the major functions to see if they are working
properly which is a necessity. It also shows the higher risk of being prone to a certain disease
that wouldn't have been able to be seen without the test. In addition, it also shows the success
of medication that you are taking if it works or if it doesn’t.

Source

- Castello, Luren, editor. "What is a blood test?" Healthline, 16 Nov. 2021,

www.healthline.com/health/blood-tests. Accessed 2 Dec. 2022.

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Carter: Chapter 34 - 5+6

Antibody-mediated immune response (Humoral response)

- Involves mainly elements of blood and tissue (Latin - Umor = Body fluid)

If you injure your finger then bacteria on your skill will enter the cut. This then activates the
healing process. White blood cells are then attracted to this bacteria

Red Blood Cells:

- Blood type determined by carbohydrate on your red blood cell

- Carbohydrate called H antigen and can be found in 2 forms

Blood transfusions:

- Blood transfusions require someone with the same H antigen (the same blood type)

- If another blood type is put into your bloodstream it can be fatal (causes kidney failure)

NK Cells:

- Natural Killer Cells

- Eliminate harmful cells from the body such as cancerous cells

- An early response to something wrong

Example:

The human immune system depends a lot on adaptive immunity to help fight specific infections.
An adaptive response can sometimes take days to develop. Crocodiles also have an adaptive
immunity, but their innate immunity is much stronger than humans

Immunoglobulin therapy:

Immunoglobulin contains antibody proteins necessary for the immune system to help fight
infections. It can be inserted underneath the skin or injected into a vein with an IV. The IV
treatment is needed every couple weeks while the other form of infusion is needed about twice
a week.

Source: Primary immunodeficiency disease. American Academy of Allergy, Asthma &

Immunology. https://www.aaaai.org/Conditions-Treatments/Primary-Immunodeficiency-Disease.
Accessed Dec.1, 2022.

Dylan: Ch. 34 Sections 1 + 2

There are various viruses that attack the human body such as bacteria, fungi, parasitic worms
and many more but how does the body fight back against these viruses? The major function of
the immune system is its resilience to fight back for the human body to survive.

Section 1: Receptor proteins are proteins that generate the change in cell movement to respond
to a specific stimulus. In our immune system there are a set of cells that can identify a nonself
molecule or otherwise known as a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMPS). PAMPS
are an example of an antigen and they consist of peptidoglycan. The anatomical and
physiological walls are the first border of defense against nonself molecules. The second border
is the innate immunity. The last border is the adaptive immunity that works simultaneously with
the innate immunity. In vertebrates, there are Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells, that
engage in both innate and adaptive immunities. These cells react to the chemical indication
molecules. Neutrophils, Macrophages and Dendritic cells all classify as white blood cells under
the phagocytes that all concentrate on different tasks. On the other hand, Basophils, eosinophils
and mast cells are all white blood cells that have granules. Also, in the immune system there
are B cells that produce antibodies and T cells that are the focal point of immune responses,
some T cells even kill cancerous cells. In Invertebrates, there are no white blood cells but they
do attain various other trained cells in their system.

Section 2: The human skin consistently comes in contact with the environment everyday,
creating for the skin to gather many microorganisms. Scientists say that there are “25
million microorganisms on every inch of your external surface”. Microorganisms that
reside on the human skin are known as normal flora or normal microbiota.These
microorganisms guide the digestive tract and produce many vitamins. They also play a
significant role with metabolism, mood and immune activity therefore it can help with
diabetes, weight, and cancer. Usually, if microorganisms have a mouth they are apart of
the dental plaque to aid a human’s tooth. As one ages the microorganisms weaken and
they are exposed to periodontitis. This disease also links to atherosclerosis that cause
severe inflammation and affects one’s life. However, if microbiota attacks tissue it can
lead to serious diseases such as pneumonia, whooping cough, ulcers and even cancer
to the colon, stomach and intestine. To add, healthy people will not have
microorganisms in the blood or tissues because of the strong outer skin. Lysozymes
wipe out the bacteria before reaching too far into the body.

Psoriasis is a chronic condition that begins inside the body. It shows on the skin surface
as red patches all over the body. This disease is caused by the skin production process
being affected and creating a rapid overproduction of cells in a few days that build up to
the surface. These red patches are itchy, dry and feel like scales. There is no cure for
the disease but treatment includes ointments that can create for the swelling to go
down.

Source: “Psoriasis.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 18 Aug. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/psoriasis/index.htm.

Immune System anatomy + physiology: the main system is the lymphatic system that
includes lymph nodes, thymus gland, spleen and bone marrow. It also has white blood
cells within the system.

BELLA:
Mechanisms of Innate Immunity

Complement Activation

- Complement
o Set of proteins that circulate in inactive form in blood and tissue fluid
o When activated become part of responses against extracurricular pathogens
o Complement operates in plasma, in tissues, or within cells
o kills unwanted bacteria and initiates inflammation
- Activated Complement
o Forms coating on microorganisms, damaged cells, and debris
§ Enhances uptake by phagocytic white blood cells
o Assemble into structures
§ Punctures plasma membranes
o Phagocytosis
§ Engulf complement coated cells and other particles
Inflammation

- Fast, local response

- Destroys affected tissues
- Jump starts healing process
- Begins when basophils, mast cells, or neutrophils degranulate
o Releases contents of their granules into affected tissue
- Chronic inflammation
o Not normal
o Doesn’t benefit the body
o Causes diseases like asthma, Crohn’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, and
cancer
Fevers

- Temporary rise in body temperature

o Above 98.6 depending on the person
- Response to infection or serious injury
- Cytokines stimulate brin cells, releasing prostaglandins that act on hypothalamus to raise
body’s internal temperature
- Hypothalamus sends signals that cause skin blood vessels to constrict, reducing heat loss from
skin
o These signals also increase metabolic rate, heart rate, and causes shivering
o “chills” boost metabolic heat output of muscles
o These responses raise the body’s internal temp
- Fever is sign body is fighting something
- Brain damage or death can occur if temp reaches 107.6 F
Adaptive Immunity

Two Arms in Adaptive Immunity

- Two different responses that work together to eliminate diverse threats

- Antibody-mediated immune response
o Bacteria, fungi, toxins, and other extracurricular threats are intercepted by
antibody-mediate IR
o Not most effective way of going against all threats
- Cell-mediated immune response
o Targets intracellular threats
Antigen Processing

- Mechanism by which white blood cell prepares antigen for display

- Phagocyte engulfs pathogen, ailing cell, or any antigen-bearing particle then migrate to
lymphatic organs
o Spleen or lymph nodes
o During infection lymph nodes swell because lymphocytes accumulated inside of them
Rheumatoid Arthritis

Causes joint inflammation and pain. 1.5 million. People in US affected. Women 3x more likely

to develop RA. In women common between 30 and 60. In men, rare under age 45

- Symptoms
o joint pain, tenderness, swelling, stiffness longer than 6 weeks
o morning stiffness more than 30 mins
o more than one joint affected, same joint on both sides
- causes
o auto immune disease
§ immune system mistakes body’s cells for foreign invaders
§ releases inflammatory chemicals to attack cells
§ in RA, attacks synovium, tissue lining joint
§ inflamed synovium gets thicker makes joint painful, tender, swollen
o researchers not sure why it develops
- Treatment
o Medications
§ Slows disease
§ Prevent joint deformity
§ Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs
o Self-management strategies
§ Proven to reduce pain and disability
§ Allows people to pursue activities
Arthritis Foundation. "Rheumatoid Arthritis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatments and

More." Arthritis Foundation, 15 Oct. 2021, www.arthritis.org/diseases/

rheumatoid-arthritis. Accessed 2 Dec. 2022.

CDC. "Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 27 July 2020, www.cdc.gov/

arthritis/basics/rheumatoid-arthritis.html. Accessed 2 Dec. 2022.