ECHNOLOGY 2.1 INTRODUCTION © The treatment given to water before supplying it to the public for domestic us led water treatment i.e. the complete process of removal of undesirable matter (various impurities), in order to make the wat able for domestic or industrial u: Water contains number of impurities which are to be removed before it is used. Absolutely clear water is also not good for health, because our body requires certain minerals and if they are present in water, then it is not require to remove them. Only those impurities should be removed which are harmful for health. Since, treatment is a costly affair, various purification (treatment) units are constructed and maintained by public bodies like Municipality, Corporations, Industrial development boards or governments. ag Ba Objects of purifying the water are given below : * To remove hardness of water to make water fit for domestic use of cooking, washing and for various industrial purposes as dying, bleaching, steam generation etc. + To climinate the tuberculating and corrosive properties of water which affect the pipes. * To remove the dissolved gases and colour of water. * To remove the unpleasant and objectionable tastes and odours from the water. * To kill all the pathogenic germs, which are harmful to human health. + To remove the iron and manganese present in water. * To make the water potable so that all the characteristics of water are within the limits + To remove settleable suspended impurities and non-settleable colloidal impurities. Sr. No. Process Impurities Removed 1. | Screening It is adopted to remove floating matter. It is provided at the intake point. 2. | Aeration It removes objectionable tastes, odour and dissolved gases like CO, and H.S. Dissolved oxygen is increased. 3. | Plain It is adopted for removing settleable suspended sedimentatin impurities like silt, sand ete, which are heavier than water. 4. | Sedimentation It is used to cause the sedimentation of colloidal and very with coagulation _ | fine suspended particles. Some bacteria are also removed. 5. | Filtration It is most important stage in the treatment. Colloidal and very fine particles which escaped from sedimentation tank are removed. Micro-organisms are removed to a large extent. 6. | Disinfection All remaining organisms including pathogens are destroyed. 7. | Miscellaneous an 4 (2) Softening Hardness is removed. (b) Activated Matters causing taste and odours are removed. carbon treatment TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) =a2.3 SCREENING Water obtained from the surfé matter. Floating matter includes leaves and branches of trees, sticks, matter thrown by the people on the upstream of the source. ‘The method of removing the floating matter of large sizes with the help of screens is called source often contains suspended as well as floating screening. Screening is must to remove the large sizes material, otherwise it choke the small pipe and may damage the pump and other equipments. Screens are provided to exclude plant. ‘They are provided in front of the pumps or the intake works, so that they can exclude the large size particles. ‘Types of screens : (a) Coarse screens or Bar screens, and —_(b) Fine screens ich matter from water before it is admitted to treatment ©) Pian Fig. Bar screen or Trash rack AERATION Aeration is the process of bringing the water in intimate contact with air so that the water absorbs oxygen from the air and remove unpleasant odours and gases in water. While doing so the carbon dioxide gas is removed upto 70% and bacteria are also killed upto certain extent in this process. Also partly, iron, manganese and H2S gas are also removed from water. Objectives of aeration : ‘To increase the oxygen content of water which gives freshness to water. Also providing oxygen to iron and manganese in water it gets oxidize and thus precipitate. ‘Tokill bacteria to some extent by process of agitating during the aeration. Removal of carbon dioxide to the extent of 70%. Removal of hydrogen sulphide from raw water. Removal of gases which are formed by organic decomposition. Removal of chlorine odours. TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) _=y‘ADRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (POLYTECHL » Purification of Water Methods of Aeration: 1) Air Diffusion Method : + This method consists of concrete tanks to which air is supplied at the bottom and sides of tanks by diffuser under pressure. * Compressed air pipes are provided with perforation or holes through which compressed air is blown against diffuser plate. * Air bubbles come in contact with water. Time of contact can be increased by spiral flow, caused in water. |} Dituser plates Kb ee eS Compressed airpipe —= Fig. : Continuous flow type diffusion tank 2) Using Cascades Aerator : + They are also called as Gravity Aerators or Free fall aerators. * They consist of concrete steps over which water comes down in thin sheet. Weir may be provided at the edge of each step. * Thin sheet of water which comes down over steps comes in contact with the atmosphere. Following fig. shows aeration by cascades. 32 175, 125 125425 13h a TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering NotesNAVSAHYADRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (POLYTECHNIG) Chapte: urification of Water Eno 3) Using Spray Nozzles : * In this case, nozzles discharge water under pressure. Jets coming out of nozzles have considerable surface area which comes in contact with the atmosphere. * Though these jets have considerable surface area, contact time is very less. Loss of water head is considerable and space requirement is also more for spray nozzles. + The spray may be in vertical direction or inclined direction. * There are two types of spray nozzles: a) Fixed type b) Movable type (= Fixed pipe and nozzies --| (@) Fountain (b) Spray nozzles (©) Spray nozzles (movable type) (fixed type) Fig. ! Spray nozzles (Fixed and movable) 4) Trickling Bed Method : * In this method, water is allowed to flow through beds of coke or stone supported on perforated trays. 5) Aeration fountain : + An aeration fountain aims at bringing water in intimate contact with air. * In this method, water is sprayed in the form of fine spray under the effect of fountain action by pressure. Fig. 1.22 : Aeration fountain TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes ‘By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer)(POLYT! Purification of Water Limitations of Aeration : It is inefficient to remove or reduce taste and odours caused by (i) Non-volatile substances like oils of algae. (ii)Chemicals discharged in industrial we Due to over oxygenation, water becomes corrosive and deaeration may be required. Iron and manganese can be precipitated by aeration only when organic matter is absent. Aeration is economical only in warmer climatic months. Possibility of air-borne contamination in water. SEDIMENTATION If water contains suspended impurities of larger size, it is very economical to remove them by the preliminary sedimentation. ‘The suspended impurities make water turbid; therefore, when they will be temoved, more uniform water will be available for further treatment process. ‘Sedimentation’ is the process of reducing turbidity of water by removal of suspended impurities, so that the suspended particles/impurities may settle down at the bottom due to force of gravity. Principle of sedimentation: -It has been observed that specific gravity of suspended impurities is greater than that of water but these impurities remain in suspension because of turbulence in water. -These impurities can only be settle down by bringing down the intensity of turbulence to zero or reduce to considerable extent by reducing flow velocity. -In short, principle of sedimentation is based on the decreasing or reducing the velocity of flow which results in the settlement of suspended solids under gravit Objects of Sedimentation : (a)To remove suspended impurities from water in large quantity. (b)To lighten the loads on subsequent process. (c\To reduce turbidity of water (d)To make sand particles or impurities settle down at bottom due to force of gravity. (c)To give treatment to raw water. Plain Sedimentation : ‘Plain sedimentation’ is the process of removing suspended matters from water by keeping it quiescent in tanks, so that suspended matters may settle down at bottom, due to force of gravity and natural aggregation. Plain sedimentation is more suitable to remove the suspended particles having size of 0.01 mm or more having specific gravity greater than one. Sedimentation with Coagulation It is also called chemically a Very fine suspended particles are not removed by plain sedimentation as it takes too long time to settle them down. In addition to fine particles of suspended matters, water also contains electrically charged colloidal matter which is continuously in motion and never settles down due to gravitational force. It has been observed that when certain chemicals are added to water then insoluble, gelatinous, flocculent precipitation gets formed. isted sedimentation, TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) _=ayNAVSAHYADRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (POLYTECHNIG) ‘This precipitation during its formation and descent through water attracts fine and colloidal particles and binds them together. The complete process makes bigger mass of particles which are easily settleble. First, coagulants are mixed in the water to produce required precipitate, then water is sent to sedimentation basins, where sedimentation of fine and colloidal particles takes place. Types of Sedimentaion Tank: Followings are various types of sedimentation tank classified under various condition: 1. Depending up on the shape : a) Square b) circular c) Rectangular 2. Depending up on the direction of flow: a) Horizontal flow b) Vertical flow Depending up on the nature of working: a) Fill and draw type b) Continuous flow type a) Fill and draw type: + Such types of tank are filled by means of inlet valve provided at the top of tank. "Water is kept stand still for the detention period of 24 hours. * During this period of rest, particles in suspension will settle down at the bottom of tank. * The clean water is withdrawn after 24 hours by opening outlet valve. * In order to clean the tank, settled matter is removed, and after cleaning tank is filled again. Continuous flow type tank If velocity of flow is reduced a large number of suspended impurities from water can be easily removed. These is the principle on which continuous type sedimentation tank is working. ‘These are rectangular in plan and consist of large number of baffle walls. ‘The function of baffle wall is to reduce velocity of incoming water to increase effective length of travel of particles and thus, prevent short-circuiting. + These are generally provided with cannel-type inlet and outlet extending on full width.ECHNOLOGY Baffles Sludge = 2.5 COAGULATION + The pro s in water to neutralize the electrical char; form an insoluble, gelatinous, flocculent precipitate for absorbing suspended and colloidal particles or impurities is called coagulation. + Principle of Coagulation : -It has been observed that when certain chemicals are added to water then insoluble, gelatinous, flocculent precipitation called “Flee” gets formed. -Ions from floc possess positive electric charge and colloidal particles possess negatively charged ions. -Thus, this precipitation during its formation and descent through water attracts fine and colloidal particles and binds them together. The complete process makes bigger mass of particles which are easily settleble. + Process steps of coagulation: 1. Feeding - Required dose of coagulant is added to water 2. Mixing ~ for complete and proper dispersion of coagulant in water mixing devices are used. 3. Flocculation - process of formation of compact and fast settleble particle (floc) is called flocculation. 4. Clarification or Sedimentation-during the detention period generated floc under the process of flocculation settles down to the basin of tank under gravity to form sludge. * Coagulants: Coagulants are certain chemicals when added into the raw water forming an insoluble precipitate having ability to remove the very fine suspended matter and colloidal particles. Following are the various types of coagulants commonly used in water treatment plant: of mixing certain chemi 1, Aluminium sulphate or Alum [AL,(SO;}s 18H20] 2. Sodium Aluminate [NavAlO;] 3. Chlorinated Copperas 4. Ferrous Sulphate and Lime 5. Magnesium Carbonate and Lime 6. Polyelectrolytes + Purpose of using Alum as Coagulant: 1, It is cheap. 2. It does not require skilled supervision. 3. It forms good stable floc. 4. It is easy to handle and non-corrosive. 5. It reduce bad test and odour in addition to turbidity. TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) k=ADRI INS (POLYT! Purification of Water 2.6 JAR TEST: 1. To determine the optimum dosage of coagulant, the jar test is performed in laboratory. 2, Four jars are placed in flash mixing device, which works on electric supply. Raw water is poured in each of the four jars. 3. Coagulant dose in varying quantity is added to each jars and the quantity of coagulants added in each of the jars is noted. 4, flash-mixing operation is worked out with the help of electric motor, all paddles are rotated at a speed of 30-40 rpm for 10 minutes. After this, speed is reduced and paddles are rotated for about 20-30 minutes. 5. The formation of floc is noted in each jar. 6. By trial and error, the dose of coagulants which gives best floc is considered as optimum dose of coagulants. 2.7 FILTRATION 1, Definition: The process of removing particulate and bacterial impurities which could not be removed in earlier processes, from water by passing it through a porous medium is known as Filtration. Objects of Filtration: (a)To remove colloidal and suspended matte (b)To remove bacterial load. (c)To remove colour, odour, iron and manganese. (d)To make water sparkling. (c)To alter the chemical characteristics of water. 3. Theory of filtration: ‘The theory of filtration can be explained on the basis of the following four actions: 1, Mechanical straining: "Sand consist of small pores, therefore, suspended particles which are larger in size cannot pass through sand bed and are removed. This process is called as straining. " Unsettled floc from coagulation tank form a mat on the top of the sand bed, which further arrests very fine suspended particles and removes them from water. * Small particles of suspended impurities that move through the pores in sand come in contact with sand surface and adhere causing further reduction in pore size.This ine the straining action 2. Sedimentation and adsorption: + The voids in the sand act like small sedimentation tanks. "The particles of impurities are arrested in voids due to the following reasons: (a) The impurities and sand particles attract each other. (b) The impurities, mainly organic suspensions, stick to the sand particles due to presence of gelatinous matter around the sand formed by colonies of bacteria and colloidal matter caught previous 3. Biological Actio + Suspended impurities contain some portion of organic impurities such as algae, plankton etc. which are food for the various types of micro-organisms. * These organisms feed on the organic matter and convert them into harmless compounds by complex biological reactions. 4. Electrolvtic Actio: " Sand particles and the particles of impurities carry electrical charges of opposite nature. Therefore, they attract each other and are neutralized. TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) k= remaining after sedimentation.ADRI INS (POLYT! Purification of Water ECHNOLOGY 4. Classification of filters: Filters are classified in to following categories: (a) Gravity filter: 1, Slow sand filter, 2. Rapid sand filter. (B)Pressure filter. (C) Domestic filters (A) Gravity filter: 1. Slow sand filters: "Slow sand filters were first introduced in England in the year 1829. They were widely used till the rapid gravity sand filters were invented. * Due to smaller filtration rate, requires large areas and large quantities of filtering materials, these are becoming obsolete now-a-days. * Hence, they become costly and uneconomical, especially for treating water on large scale. + These consists of the following component parts: (1) Enclosure tank, (2) Under-drainage system, (3) Base materials, (4) Filter media of sand, and (5) Appurtenances. Lateral drains Outlet chamoer| \ Inlet chamber sand filters: " Rapid sand filters are also known as mechanical filters. They allows a high rate of filtration usually 3000 to 6000 lit /m2/hour. *\ The following are the main parts of rapid sand filter. (1) Enclosure tank: A watertight tank is constructed either of masonry or concrete. The sides and floor are also coated with waterproof material. The depth of tank is about 2.5 m to 3.5 m. (2) Under-drainage system: There are various forms of under drainage system of rapid sand filter and most of them are patented by manufacture. (3) Base materials: It is gravel palced on the top of under drainage system. The gravel to be used for base material should be clean and free from dust, silt, clay and vegetable matter TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) k=AVSAHYADRI INSTITUTE OF TECH (POLYTECHNIG) aA Chapte: urification of Water Eno (4) Filter media of sand: A layer of sand is placed above gravel. The depth of sand layer varies from 600 mm to 900 mm. (5) Appurtenances: It consists of air compressors wash water troughs and rate controller. + A rapid sand filter consists of a rectangular tank unit of size 3 x 4 m? or of surface area 10 to 80 m? and is provided with media of very hard sand and gravel of different grades in layers. * The layer of sand has an effective size of 0.35 to 0.55 mm and uniformity of coefficient OLOGY of 1.3-1.7. Wash water Ss he compreasr ‘act nossa Hood ose M Water from Water level while fitering indicator coonaion sedimentation [i] wae [PB @ Y i YS i 128 a Head toss Inlet exis yt indicator FY enenmoer 3 x xh Fah} tl ‘Sand 75cm £ ® H © Ke : pone I] dn cain Sesher (main fod) Laterats Fier water (to disinfection unit) Wath water gutter Filter washing * Back washing of rapid sand filter [S - 07, W- 13]: 1, Initially, the valves (1) which admits water to filter and outlet valve (2) are closed and valves (5) which supplies compressed air and valve (6) which provides wash water are opened. 2. The wash water and compressed air are thus forced upwards from the under- drainage through the gravel and sand bed thereby loosing up the sand and washing the accumulated solid in the sand. 3. Valve (5) is closed after supplying the required amount of air. The dirty water, resulting from washings, overflows into the wash water troughs and is removed by opening the valve (3) through inlet chamber. 4. Once washing is complete valve (3), (SJand (6) are closed and valve (1) and (4) are opened. It removes the remains of wash water and makes a mat on sand. 5. Finally, valve (4) is closed and valve (2) is opened. 6. The entire process takes around 15 minutes. TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes ‘By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer)‘ADRI INSTITUTE OF HNOLOGY (POLYTECH. » Chapter Purification of Water Ea 7 Point of comparison | Slow sand filters| Rapid sand filters 1 Construction (a) Base material (gravel) 3-65 mm 3-40 mm SizeDepth 300-750 mm 459-600 mm (b) Filter medium 0.2.0.4 mm 0.35-0.6 mm Effective size 23 L217 Uniformity coefficient (c) Under-drained system _ | Simple drain Perforated manifold pipe 2 Rfficiency (a) Loss of head 0.8-1.2 m 33.5m (b) Cleaning method Scraping top layer| Back washing with or 15.25 without compressed air, mmthickness, easy toclean, timeconsuming __| takes 15 minutes (c) Period between cleaning | 1-3 months 2.3 days (a) Bacterial suspended _| Very efficient Less efficient matter removed (e) Rate of filtration sq.m__ | 100-200 litres/hour | 3000-6000 litres/ hour Flexibility in operation _ | Not possible Possible Suitability ‘Suitable for smait| Suitable for big cities as towns where land| land cost is high and is cheap _and| rate of demandis rateofdemand — is| high less () Amount of water required | 0.2-0.6% of filtered | 2-4% of filtered water ‘for back-washing water 3 Economy (a) Area required for Large ‘Small installation (b) Coaguiation Not essential Very essential (c) Skilled supervision Not essential Very essential (a) Cost Less ‘More (B) Pressure Filte: + These filters work on the same principle as that of rapid sand filters. "These are closed vessels and must be air tight. + In pressure filter, sand bed is usually provided with 450 - 600 mm thickn «Pressure filters are of two types according to their position, i.e. (a) Vertical pressure filter and TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes(b) Horizontal pressure filte In pressure filters, the pipe grids, under-drains and gravel layers are arranged similar to that of rapid sand filter. The horizontal pressure filters are available in sizes from 2 m to 2.5 m, whereas the size of vertical type of pressure filter varies from 0.4 m to 2.5 m in diameter and length upto 2.5 m to 7.5 m. Suitability of Pressure Filters : These filters are not suitable for public water supply scheme. Pressure filters are suitable for industrial plants and swimming pools. ‘They are less efficient in removing bacteria and turbidity in comparison with rapid sand filter. ‘These filters treat about 6000 to 15000 lit/hr./m2 of filter area. ‘They can be also used in colonies with few houses, railway stations ete, Fig, 1.36 shows Horizontal and Vertical pressure filter. Manhotes Mannoies os Raw water init 4 Todrain + Tooran ‘nder Gamage ‘Concrete ning Under aranage Filtered conerete ning water (a) Horizontal pressure filter (©) vertical pressure filter A= Raw water inlet valve, B= Wash water inlet valve, C= Filtered water valve, _D = Wash water drain valve 2.8 DISINFECTION ‘The process by which harmful (pathogenic) bacteria are destroyed to make water safe for drinking is called disinfection. Chemicals used for this purpose are called disinfectants. Even filtered water contains a small percentage of diseases producing bacteria and therefore the disinfection becomes n¢ ty which destroy bacteria. Sometimes, source is of good quality and municipality can not offer treatment of water or in case of emergencies when the complete treatment is not possible to be given to the water, it is a final safeguard after filtration Disinfection is a process in which the total and complete destruction of all types of bacteria takes pla Objects of Disinfection: Disinfection is done to remove the following: (a) Bacterial Impurities: * The filters are unable to remove all the disease causing bacteria. Therefore, the water which comes out from the filter may contain some disease causing bacteria in addition to the useful bacteria. TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) _a(POLYT! Purification of Water * Before the water is supplied to the public, it is utmost nec disease causing bacteria using the chemicals called disinfectants. (b) Colour, Taste and Odow + Disinfectants have been found to remove the colour, taste and odour from water in addition to removal of harmful bacteria. The following disinfectants are used in water purification: (a) Chlorine, (b) Potassium permanganate, (c} Ozone, (d) Ultraviolet rays, (c) Iodine and bromine. + Out of these, chlorine is widely used as disinfectant because of the following advantages (a) Chlorine dose is precise and there is no chance of overdose and under dose. (b) Pure chlorine is very powerful and it highly efficient in killing the bacteria. (cjInitial cost of plant as well as cost of disinfection is comparatively less. (d)Working plant is simple and skilled supervision is not necessary. (elt can be stored for a longer time without any scope for deterioration, + The Requirements of Good Disinfectants : The following are the requirements of good disinfectants: 1) They should be economical and easily available. 2) They should not require high skill and costly equipments for their application. 3) They should destroy all the harmful pathogenic organisms from the water and make it perfectly safe for use. 4) They should not take more time for killing pathogens, but do their task within the required time at normal temperature. 5) After their treatment, water should not become toxic and objectionable to the user. 6) Their dose should be such that it should leave some residual concentration for protection against contamination in the water during its conveyance and retention. + Methods of Disinfection : [s- 11] Following methods are available for disinfection: 1) By the boiling of water: When water is boiled for 15-20 minutes, the harmful bacteria are killed and water becomes safe for use. idvantag (a) Boiling changes taste of water. (b) Impractical to boil water for large treatment plants. Use: Above method is applicable to industries and homes at time of emergency. 2) By ultra-violet rays: Ultraviolet rays are powerful disinfectants. They are produced by passing electric current through mercury vapor lamp. Water is allowed to flow in thin layers. idvantage: (a) Treatment is costly. (b) No residual action. (c) Ineffective when turbidity is greater than 15 ppm. Z sed to disinfect swimming pool ete. 3) By the use of iodine and bromine: It has been seen that addition of iodine and bromine in the water kills all the pathogenic bacteria. Thequantity of iodine and bromine should not exceed 8 ppm and they can kill bacteria in minimum contact TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) _a ry to kill all theADRI INS (POLYT! Purification of Water period of 5 minutes. These disinfectants are easily available in the form of pills and are very handy. tly. Produces certain taste and odour. 4) By the use of ozone: Ozone is an unstable isotope of oxygen. It contains three atoms of oxygen and one easily breaks away. This produces nascent oxygen which is a powerful disinfectant. It does not produce any taste or odour. Disadvantages: Treatment is costly. Ozone is unstable and cannot be stored for long time. No residual disinfecting action. 5) By the use of excess lime: Lime is usually used at the water works for removing the hardness of water. In addition, excess lime in the water increases the pH value of the water. It has been noted that at pH value more than 9.5 all the bacteria a killed. 6) Potassium permanganate treatment: This is very effective in killing cholera germs. But not very effective for other bacteria, Widely used for disinfecting village wells. Disadvantag Not effective for all bacteria. Produces coating on porcelain vessels and if stained, difficult to remove. 7) By silver or electro-katadyne: In this method, the metallic silver ions are introduced on the water by passing it through solid silver electrode tubes and passing the current through D.C. 1.5 V battery. This method is highly disinfectant. It kills all the bacteria. But not used at the water works as it is very costly method of disinfection. * CHLORINATION _[S - 10] The process of applying chlorine to water is called chlorination. This is most commonly and widely adopted method of disinfection. * The process is economical and cheap. * For public water supply, chlorination has several advantages over other methods: (a) The process is cheap and economical (b) It is harmless to human beings. (¢) It is reliable and effe (@) Residual Cl. can be maintained in the water. + The quantity of chlorine to be applied should be correct. Too much of it will cause bad taste and odour. * Chlorination is done by chlorinator. +) The chlorine is fed into the water in proportion to the quantity of water flowing. + The chlorine should be in contact with water for at least 20-30 minutes before it reaches the consumers. The reasons for it are : (a) It gives time for chlorine to kill the pathogenic bacteria. (b) It reduces the effects of possible over-chlorination, which causes odour and taste. TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) _n(POLYT! Purification of Water * Chlorine Demand * The difference between the amount of chlorine added to the water and residual chlorine is called chlorine demand. .ds on the amount of chlorine, time of contact, pH and temperature. + Application of Chlorine * Chlorine and its compounds are applied for disinfection in one of the following ways depending upon its requirement: (a) Free chlorine. (b) Chloramine: (c) Bleaching powder. (a) Free Chlorine: Free chlorine is available in gaseous or liquid form. Chlorine is stored in cylinders. 80% of the chlorine is fed to a water supply by means of a device led chlorinator. Advantages of using free chlorine: (a) It can be stored for long time without loss of quality. (b) It is very powerful and effective disinfectant, (c) It is available cheaply. (d) Initial cost of chlorination plant is low. (e) There is no sludge formation. (0) Skilled supervision is not necessary for applying i (b) Chloramines : Chlorine is not stable in water. Hence, it is sometimes mixed with ammonia to form stable compound called chloramines. These have good disinfectant quality. These are useful for disinfection in swimming pool ete. (c) Bleaching Powder : Bleaching powder is a compound of chlorine and contains about 35% chlorine. When bleaching powder is used as disinfectant, it is called hypochlorination. Bleaching powder is available in the form of powder. It is unstable and loses chlorine when exposed to atmosphere. Hence, it has to be stored carefully. * This dey + DIFFERENT FORMS OF CHLORINATION : [S - 09, W- 10, 12] (a) Plain Chlorination : + Water from deep wells, lakes, reservoirs etc. is comparatively clear with turbidity less than 30 ppm. * In such cases, no treatment such as sedimentation, coagulation ete. is necessary + When no other treatment except chlorinationis given to waterbefore supplying it to the consumers is called plain chlorination. + About 0.5 ppm of chlorine is added for disinfection of such water. (b) Super Chlorination *\ This is adopted in case of an emergency like outbreak of epidemics or in case of waters which are heavily polluted. * It may be used when there are chances of water having cysts of Histolytica. + The huge quantity of chlorine is added in super-chlorination which is about 1 to 2 mg/of residue beyond break point. (¢) Dechtorination: + When water contains excess chlorine, as in the case of super chlorination, it gives a strong odour or taste. * Thus, dechlorination is done to remove excess undesirable chlorine greater than residual chlorine, which is not objectionable. * This is done by the addition of sulphur dioxide or by aeration. TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) _=ECHNOLOGY (POLYT! Purification of Water (@) Bresie point chlorination : [8 -07, 09. 10, 18, W- 10 Break point chlorination represents the dosage beyond which any further addition of chlorine will appear as free residual chlorine. * Chlorine which is added to water performs the following two function 1. kill bacteria from water. 2. Oxidize the organic matter present in water. * When chlorine is added to water, it first reacts with ammonia present therein to form chloramines. With increase in the addition of Clo, the residual chlorine also increases. * The slight reduction in the residual chlorine after point B is due to the fact that some chlorine is used for killing the bacteri * Also, addition of chlorine beyond point B results in rapid oxidation of organisms and the residual chlorine content reduces drastically. This stage is sometime accompanied by bad smell. * When chlorine is added beyond point C, it will equally appear as free chlorine. Thus when point C is reached, bad smell and taste suddenly disappears. + Thus point C on the curve is known as Break point as any chlorine that is added beyond this point breaks through water and appears as residual free chlorine. Advantages: (1) It completely oxidizes the ammonia and other impurities of water. (2) The colour of water is removed. (3) 1t completely destroys all the disease causing bacteria. (4) It removes taste and odour from the water. (5) It prevents growth of weeds in water. + Points of Chlorination * Chlorination of the water supply system occurs right from raw water collection to the distribution network. * Depending on the stage at which chlorine is applied, chlorination is classified as : (1) Pre-chlorination : © When chlorination of raw water is done before any treatment is given to it, it is called pre-chlorination. © The point at which the chlorination has to be applied and the dosage depends on the following TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) _aADRI INS (POLYT! Purification of Water ECHNOLOGY (a) The amount of coagulants required. (b) The amount of objectionable taste and odour. (c) The bacterial load and filters. (d) The purification of sludge in sedimentation. (2) Post-chlorination: © Post-chlorination is application of chlorine to water before it enters the distribution system to maintain the required amount of free chlorine. © Thus, when the water enters in to the distribution system it should contain residual chlorine to the extent of 0.2 to 0.3 mg/l. © This ensures that water will be safe from contamination when flowing in the distribution system. (3) Re-chlorination: © When the distribution system is long and complex, it may be difficult to maintain the residual chlorine content of 0.2 mg/litre. At the farthest point, very high dosage of chlorine at the post-chlorination makes the water unpalatable and also costly. © Therefore, chlorine is applied at different stages in the distribution system. © This is called re-chlorination and is carried out in service reservoirs, booster pumping stations or at points where main water supplies to zones. stage + RESIDUAL CHLORINE : [W- 12, 15] + Definition: When the chlorine is added to watet and there is no further demand of for chlorine i.e. water is pure, then any chlorine that is added to water will come out as a residual chlorine, * Importance: 1. After the completion of chlorination at treatment work, the treated water may get contaminated due to faulty pipes in distribution system and exposure to atmosphere. 2. To take care of the contamination, it is ensured that the residual chlorine of 0.2 mg/l is present at consumers end. 3. Also during chlorination, the organisms like cysts of Ehystolytica are not destroyed but are deactivated. It takes about one hour to deactivate certain viruses. 4. Hence residual chlorine should present in water. + Amount of residual chlorine left in the chlorinated water after required contact period can be determined by 1] Orthotolidine test and 2] Starch iodide t * Orthotolidine Test : © This is the most easy and common test for determining the residual chlorine. © In this test, 100 ml of chlorinated water sample is collected in the test tube and 0.1 ml of orthotolidine solution is added in the test tube. © The colour formed is noted and the value of the residual chlorine is directly determined by comparing the colour so obtained with the standard colour of known chlorine residuals. © But as this test gives the value of total residual (free and combined) chlorine, should be taken while performing this test. © The free residual chlorine forms the yellow colour during the first 5 seconds of the addition of orthotolidine while the combined residual chlorine goes on forming the colour for about 5 minutes. TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) _=ay therefore, care(POLYT! Purification of Water ‘The formation of yellow colour after 5 minutes normally indicates the presence of chlorine (either combined or free). © The quantity of free chlorine, when subtracted from the total quantity, will easily give the quantity of combined chlorine. o The presence of iron-manganese nitrate greatly affects the yellow colour. So, under their presence, the orthotolidine test does not give correct results. 2.9 MISCELLANEOUS WATER TREATMENTS + After the normal treatment processes, coagulation, disinfection (i.e. chlorination), some other treatments are required to remove special minerals, taste, odour, colour ete. from water. + These treatments are water softening and defluoridation. 1) WATER SOFTENING: Water softening is defined as the process of removing the hardness of water. ‘The hardness in water is due to the presence of Calcium and Magnesium, ‘There are two types of hardness : 1, Temporary hardness or carbonate hardness: Calcitim carbonates, Magnesium bicarbonates.[Ca(HCOs}2, Mg(HCOs)2, MgCOs] 2. Permanent hardness or non-carbonate hardness : (i) Calcium sulphates, chlorides and nitrates. (i) Magnesium sulphates, chorides and nitrates. «Methods of Water Softening: 1. Zeolite Metho 2. Lime Soda Proc 3. Demineralisation Process such a dimentation, filtration and 1. Zeolite Method: This is also known as the base-exchange or ion-exchange process. The zeolite process is compounds of aluminium, silica and soda, they have got the excellent property of interchanging b: + The most common artificial zeolite is the permutit. + The permutit is white in colour and its chemical formula is 2Si02A1203.Na20. + The chemical composition is as follows. Sodium oxide-----13.6% + The exchange value of permutit is 35000gm to 41000gm of hardness per m3 of zeolite the chemical reaction involved in the process when permutit is used. 2Si02A1203.Na20+Ca(HCO3}2 12Si02A1203 Ca0+2 Na HCO3 28i02A1203.Na20+CaS041 2Si02A1203Ca0+ Na2 S04 28i02A1203.Na20+CaCl2' 2Si02A1203Ca0+2 NaCl + Thus hard water comes into contact with zeolite the calcium and magnesium are + removed is given in exchange. Thus the hard water is softened and its sodium content is increased as indicated by the above process. + After some process, the sodium present in zeolite ed as the zeolite has been converted to calcium zeolite and magnesium zeolite. This is regenerated by passing a solution of salt through the zeolite. TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) —_= exhaust entire sodium(POLYT! Purification of Water 2) DEFLUORIDATION © Definition: the process 0 removing excess amount of fluoride is known as defluoridation. ‘The presence of some amount of fluoride is necessary in the water. ‘The surface waters may sometimes contain lesser amount of fluoride present in them If the fluoride concentration in the treated water is less than 1.0 mg/litre, it will be harmful to the teeth, it is useful for teeth growth in children. ‘The process of adding fluoride in water is called fluoridation. © Following are the common compounds, which may be used for adding fluoride to the water Sodium fluoride (NaF), Sodium silico fluoride (Na2SiF6), Hydro-fluosilicic acid (H2SiF6). © From the above, sodium fluoride is most commonly used, and is generally fed under pressure, in the form of a solution through chemical feed equipment. © The presence of excess fluoride (above 1.5 to 2 mg/l) is also harmful, a spotting and discolouration of teeth. Hence, the dose of fluoride should be carefully worked out. © The concentration of fluoride above 5 mg/I may even cause deformation of the bones and other skeletal abnormalities. © If the fluoride content in water is above the permissible limit, then it becomes necess to remove the excess fluoride from the water, so as to make it safe for drinking purpose. "The following methods are used for defluoridation : (i) During lime soda process of water softening, the fluorides are also removed along with the removal of magnesium (ii) By bringing the water in contact with tricalcium phosphate ~ Ca3(P04)2. (iii) By a cation exchanger. (iv) Hydroxy apatite - 3Ca3(PO4)2.[Ca(OH)2} ry * DEFLUORIDATION TECHNIQUES : (i) Absorption by Activated Alumina or Prasanti Technology: The raw water containing high contents of fluoride is passed through the insoluble granular beds of substance like activated alumina. (ii) Ion Exchange Adsorption Method : In this method, transport of ions from a salt solution through ion exchange membranes takes place due to an applied electrical field. The cations and anions migrate towards the cathode and anode through cations and anion exchange membranes respectively leaving the deplete in s while the neighbouring/compartment becomes concentrated. (iii), Nalgonda Technique : In this method, raw water is added to rapid mixing unit. In this unit, lime and alum added to it and flocculation carried out for nine minute then it is transported to sedimentation tank. In this, tank bleaching powder is added to it and then it is transported to filtration unit. After filtration, the water is stored in ESR. (iv) Reverse Osmosis Process : Pressure applied to water is greater than osmotic pressure, then water from Solute diffuses from solution through the membranes to fresh water side, this is rever Generally, there are two type of membranes namely cellulose acetate and aromatic polymide. Members are assembled in modular unit that impact a large membranes surface in a cylindrical container fitted with inlet and outlet arrangements. Pre-treatment may consists of coagulation and TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) —_=NAVSAH ‘ADRI INST TE OF TECHNOLOGY (POLYTECHNIG) Chapter-2: Purification of Water Ea filtration to remove turbidity, suspended matter, iron, manganese, softening to remove hardness, reducing the potential of calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate precipitate. 2. - ADVANCED WATER TREATMENTS _[W - 14] ‘The water, which contains common salt or sodium chloride dissolved in it, has a peculiar salty or brackish taste and therefore it is named as salt water or brackish water. Since, such water has a brackish taste, it cannot be used for drinking. Hence, it becomes necessary to remove the salt from the water. Desalination is the process of removing the extra common salt or chloride from the water. Methods of advanced water treatment: (1) Electrodialysis method, (2) Reverse osmosis method, (3) Desalination by evaporation and distillation, (4) Freezing process, and (5) Solar distillation method. Electrodialysis Method : It refers to the transport of ions from a salt solution through ion exchange membranes as a result of an applied electric field. ‘The electrodialysis stack consists of a number of cation and anion exchange membranes arranged alternately. ‘The saline feed is fed through the manifold in alternate components of cation and anion exchange membranes viz. the leaving the feed depleted in salt, while neighbouring compartments become concentrated, Fig. 1.38 shows electrodialysis stack. In electrodailysis, the power requirement increases linearly with feed salinity from about 2 kWh/m3 (for 300 ppm) to about 20 kWh/m3 (for sea water). Pretreatment of the feed is required for removal of multivalent ions and foulants. Since, power requirement rise sharply with higher initial values in this method compared to distillation and freezing, this process is adopted only for waters containing less than 10,000 mg/I of dissolved solids. Fig : Electrodialysis TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer) —_=aECHNOLOGY 2) (a) The cost of installation and operation of the plant is economical. (b) It is the most compact unit. (c) If the electricity is easily available, electrodialysis where water is obtained from well having saline water. (a) If 100% purification is not required, this is the best method than the all other methods. method is the best suited method Reverse Osmosis : In this method, the s cellulose acetate membrane. ‘The water is passed under 30 to 50 atmospheric pressure above the osmotic pressure, ‘The pressure to pass the water through the membrane directly depends on the percentage of salts present in the water, higher the salt percentage, more will be the pressure required. In this method, the water molecules and the salt solution are separated by forcing the salt solution against a ‘semi-permeable membrane’ barrier, which permits the flow of water through itself but stops the salt. Reverse osmosis does not work below 900 psi (600 kg/cm2) and is usually operated at about 1500 psi (1000 kg/cm2). If the pressure is high, the membrane passes water with difficulty. ‘The semi-permeable membrane used in this process is thin but strong enough to withstand the high external pressure. It is supported by a grid, and the salty water circulates on its surface. Fig. shows the principle of reverse osmosis. ‘The efficiency of the water filtration capacity is very low ie. 0.1 to 5.0/m2 of the membrane surface /day /excess atmospheric pressure. ‘This method is not suitable due to its low capacity and hence not used anywhere line water is trea 1g through a polyvinyl alcohol or by pas =LELL Fig. Reverse osmosis TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes By Mr. Ankit Agrawal (Lecturer)CHNOLOGY (POLYTECH. Purification of Water Ea 2.11 CONVEYANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER + Conveyance of water means carrying water from the source to the water treatment plant and from there to the consumers. + Following fig. shows schematic arrangement of water supply scheme. ‘Source of water ‘Surface source Ground source Intake Treatment works Distribution system Consumers Waste Fig. Schematic arrangement of water supply scheme TY CIVIL -Public Health Engineering Notes