WEEK 1: POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

A. NATURE AND DEFINITION OF POLITICS

“Politics exists because people disagree about the aims and objects of human endeavor and, probably even
more so, about the methods to be used in achieving them” (S. G. Richards, 1978). In his book, The Nature of
Politics and Government. Introduction to British Government, Richards cited that human beings differ enormously
in temperament, in what they want from life and in their reactions to the numerous problems that they have to
cope with. These differences produce different attitudes to public issues and lead to the activity of politics.
Politics therefore involves conflict. This can result in violence, as in many of the developing countries, but in the
Western democracies the differences are usually resolved peacefully. Richards opined that “A disagreement in
which incompatible policies are advocated can only be resolved ultimately by one side obtaining the power to
make its viewpoint prevail over the other. The acquisition of power therefore is a prerequisite of achieving
political objectives.” Thus, is the nature of politics.
DEFINITIONS OF POLITICS
The term “politics” is generally applied to behavior within civil governments, but politics has been observed in all
human group interactions. It consists of social relations involving authority or power, the regulation of political
units, and the methods used to formulate and apply social policy. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/politics-power-and-authority/
Politics is the way in which we understand and order our social affairs, and acquire greater control over the
situation. (B. Pomton and P. Gill, Politics, Introduction. (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1982, p.6.)
Tuibeo, (1998) defined Politics as the strategy for maintaining cooperation among people with different needs
and ideals in life, or for resolving the conflict within the group, whether this is a family, a tribe, a village or a
nation-state. (Amable G. Tuibeo, “Politics and Governance: A Critical Introduction (Makati: Grandwater
Publication, 1998), p.1.
Political Scientist Harold Lasswell, (1936) author of a major study of the distributive consequences of political
activity, gave his book the title, Politics--Who Gets What, When, and How. Lasswell, in effect, defined "politics"
as involving questions as to "who gets what, when, and how." Politics, according to Lasswell, is concerned with
determination, by official governmental decision making and action, of:
1. Who in political society receives what benefits, rewards, and advantages and how much of them they
receive,
2. when they receive the benefits, rewards, and advantages, and
3. the methods by which they receive them.

B. THE STUDY OF POLITICS: POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political science is a classical discipline that deals with the study of political phenomena. Its goal is to deepen
human understanding of the forms and nature of political action and to develop theoretical tools for interpreting
politically meaningful phenomena.
Political science focuses on the theory and practice of government and politics at the local, state, national, and
international levels. (Political Science Department, University of Washington, (2021)
https://www.polisci.washington.edu/
Political Science deals with the systematic study of political structures, political processes and political behavior.
Sartori, G. (1969) pointed out in his book From the Sociology of Politics to Political Sociology, “Political
approaches and research methods are largely decided by the kind of evidence which is available for the units,
and the kind of problems with which one deals." In using the term "approach" we mean a particular orientation or
point of view in looking at and interpreting the world of politics.
1. The Traditional Approach
Traditional approach to the study of political science is a combination of views on and orientations to politics in
philosophical, ethical and institutional terms. Since the time of Plato and Aristotle, the great issues of politics
have revolved around the organization and functioning of the state- the political institution par excellence.
Traditional approaches exhibit certain well-defined features, such as: (a) are largely normative and stresses on
the values of politics, (b) emphasize on the study of different political structures and institutions,
The traditional approach has various forms:
 a) Philosophical-This approach firmly believes that values cannot be separated from the study of
politics and political system. Therefore, its main concern is to judge what is good or bad in any
political society.
b) Historical-As the name of this approach is related to history, it emphasizes on the study of history of
every political reality to analyze any situation.
c) Institutional-This approach is concerned with the study of formal structures and institutions like
legislature, executive, judiciary, political parties, etc.
d) Legal- This approach is concerned with the legal process, legal bodies or institutions, justice and
independence of judiciary.
2. The Behavioral Approach
The behavioral approach to political science mainly emphasizes on scientific, objective and value free study of
political phenomenon. This approach stresses upon the use of empirical as well as scientific methods of study
political behavior. This approach shifts its emphasis from the study of the state and government to the day-today
problems, activities and behavior of individuals and groups.
The Behavioral Approach has the following characteristics:
a) Regularities -believes that there are certain uniformities in political behavior which can be expressed in
generalizations or theories in order to explain and predict political phenomena.
b) Verification -emphasizes testing and verifying everything. According to the behaviorists, what cannot be
verified is not scientific.
c) Techniques -put emphasis on the use of those research tools and methods which generate valid, reliable
and comparative data.
d) Quantification -After collecting data, the researcher should measure and quantify those data.
e) Values -believe that to do objective research one has to be value free.
f) Systematization -research in Political Science must be systematic. Theory and research should go
together.
g) Pure Science -believes that the study of Political Science should be verified by evidence.
h) Integration -Political Science should not be separated from various other social sciences like history,
sociology and economics, etc.
C. IMPORTANCE OF POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
The Centre Daily Times, a daily newspaper located in State College, Pennsylvania in the United States, held an
opinion survey (2016) on The Importance of Politics and gathered several responses. Alexis Mortensen, made
the most incisive and meaningful response. Here is the transcript of her answer to the survey question:
It is very important to care about politics because you should know what is going on around you. Also, it
is important to have a say in what is going on around you. The political decisions people make will affect many
lives. Many people see politics as the government and the laws being made, and that is true, but it is way more
complicated than that. Every law that is made will impact many. Sometimes the decisions will affect people in a
bad way. Every vote that you make will either break people or make people.
One reason you should care about politics is because you should always know what is going on around
you. For example, if a new law is made is made in your area, you might want to make sure that you and the
people around you know that a new law has been made so that no one breaks the law without even knowing it.
Also, if something dangerous is happening around you or someone you know, you want to be aware if someone
is breaking the law. It is very important to know what is happening around you.
Another reason you should care about politics is because you should have a say in what will happen.
Everyone should have a say in what will happen, because we all live side by side with each other, and it would
not be fair if someone was left out. Also, each vote makes a difference in the ways that we live. It is always
important to share your opinion. The way you vote will affect many people, and their everyday life.
Finally, you should care about politics because the decisions people make will affect many lives. For
example, if someone wanted to build on land, it might be good for the people who worked in the area, but
residents who lived nearby and loved the land and relied on the land for water and food, might be devastated.
Sometimes things that sound like good ideas might be very devastating later.
These are just a few reasons why you should care about politics. Politics are very important and very
complicated. Some people might not care about politics, but when something bad happens, they will regret not
voting.
In 2018, the Quora, an American question-and-answer website where questions are asked, answered, followed,
and edited by Internet users, either factually or in the form of opinions, asked the question Why Are Politics
Important in This Society? The most notable answer was given by a certain Vaibhav Narula, Autodidact
Philosopher. (August 15, 2018)
Because politics affects our daily life more than we know. Politics is the science of optimum allocation of
resources for the betterment of everyone. It requires great understanding and skills. Common man too needs to
have a basic grasp of politics specially in a democracy - which is essentially a system of check and balances. A
democracy is not run by the government alone but by both the citizens and the government. A society that is
politically aware is a society that cares about its people’s well-being. As best put in the words of Bertolt Brecht:
“The worst illiterate is the political illiterate, he doesn’t hear, doesn’t speak, nor participates in the political events.
He doesn’t know the cost of life, the price of the bean, of the fish, of the flour, of the rent, of the shoes and of the
medicine, all depends on political decisions. The political illiterate is so stupid that he is proud and swells his
chest saying that he hates politics. The imbecile doesn’t know that, from his political ignorance is born the
prostitute, the abandoned child, and the worst thieves of all, the bad politician, corrupted and flunky of the
national and multinational companies.”
D. MEANING OF GOVERNANCE

The World Bank defines governance as the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a
country's economic and social resources for development. ... Governance has been defined as the rules of the
political system to solve conflicts between actors and adopt decision (legality).
Etymology of Governance
The word “governance” came from the Latin verb “gubernare,” or more originally from the Greek word
“kubernaein,” which means “to steer.” Basing on its etymology, governance refers to the manner of steering or
governing, or of directing and controlling, a group of people or a state.
Governance is essentially related to politics, in that politics is often defined as the art of governance. Just as
politics talks about governments, institutions, power, order, and the ideals of justice, governance also deals with
the public sector, power structures, equity, and ideals of public administration. Nevertheless, they are distinct
from each other in the sense that politics is broader than governance. Traditionally, the study of politics entails
the concept of the “good life” and the “ideal society,” which are so broad they include a web of subjects and
every possible form of government. The study of governance, on the contrary, is generally attuned to the concept
of democracy, and on how the government and the civil society arrive at a decision in meeting their needs.
Definition of Governance
Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political leaders for the well-being of
their country’s citizens or subjects. It is the complex process whereby some sectors of the society wield power,
and enact and promulgate public policies which directly affect human and institutional interactions, and economic
and social development. The power exercised by the participating sectors of the society is always for the
common good, as it is essential for demanding respect and cooperation from the citizens and the state. As such,
a great deal about governance is the proper and effective utilization of resources.
E. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE
There are Eight Indicators of Good Governance
Good governance is understood through its eight indicators or characteristics: (1) Participatory; (2) Rule of Law;
(3) Effective and Efficient; (4) Transparent; (5) Responsive; (6) Equitable and Inclusive; (7) Consensus-Oriented;
and (8) Accountability. They are inextricably related to each other. For instance, without active participation
among the various actors in governance, there would be a concomitant lack of responsiveness. Likewise, if
decision-making is not transparent, then inevitably there would be no participation, accountability, and decisions
are not consensus oriented. These indicators should, however, be understood in the context of good
“democratic” governance. Some of the indicators cannot be applied in other forms of government. For example,
good communist governance could never be consensus oriented or genuinely participatory.
It must also be emphasized that good governance and development should not be based exclusively on
economic growth. Through global persuasion, good governance and development signify a broader spectrum of
things, such as protection of human rights, equitable distribution of wealth, enhancement of individual capabilities
and creation of an enabling environment to foster participation and growth of human potentials. As it evolved
today, sustainable development necessitates “people empowerment” and “respect for human rights.”[5] After all,
economic prosperity or the minimization of poverty and unemployment depends on how the state unleashes the
full potential of its human resource by recognizing their vital roles and according full respect for human rights.
1. Participation
Good governance essentially requires participation of different sectors of the society. Participation means active
involvement of all affected and interested parties in the decision-making process. It requires an enabling
environment wherein pertinent information is effectively disseminated and people could respond in an
unconstrained and truthful manner. It also means gender equality, recognizing the vital roles of both men and
women in decision-making.
More fundamentally, the need for participation is a recognition of the limits of a “verticalized system” of
governance. A verticalized system, or the top-down approach, refers to a state or government monopoly both of
powers and responsibilities. While the government is still the most potent actor in the process of governance, the
participation of other sectors is already a necessity because of the always evolving complexity and ever growing
needs of the societies, especially in the financial sphere. What should now be utilized is the so-called “horizontal
system” where the government works hand in hand with other sectors of the society. The different sectors are
considered partners of the government in attaining development goals. Governance should no longer be
government monopoly but government management or inter-sectoral participation.
Participation in representative democracies may either be direct or indirect, and recommendatory or actual. It
could be indirect and recommendatory because in principle the form of government is based on delegation of
powers. In the Philippines, which possesses features of both direct and indirect democracy, indirect participation
is done through public consultations or hearings, while direct participation is through elections, initiatives and
referendums.
The management of highly complex societies and of their ever-growing needs requires a participatory form of
governance by diffusing power. The move for decentralization is a response to this as it widens the base of
participation and allows local government units to exercise governmental powers directly within their respective
districts. Service delivery is enhanced because of the proximity of local government units to their constituents,
and because of the linking which happens between the national government and regional concerns.
Participation is one of the strengths of Philippine governance. The 1987 Philippine Constitution is replete of
provisions dealing with relational and inter-sectoral governance. The Local Government Act of 1989 was borne
out of the need for decentralization in Philippine governance. As such, these and other related legislations may
be considered as normative standards for good governance.
2. Rule of Law
Democracy is essentially the rule of law. It is through the law that people express their will and exercise their
sovereignty. That the government is of law and not of men is an underlying democratic principle which puts no
one, however rich and powerful, above the law. Not even the government can arbitrarily act in contravention of
the law. Thus, good democratic governance is fundamentally adherence to the rule of law.
Rule of law demands that the people and the civil society render habitual obedience to the law. It also demands
that the government acts within the limits of the powers and functions prescribed by the law. The absence of rule
of law is anarchy. Anarchy happens when people act in utter disregard of law and when the government act
whimsically or arbitrarily beyond their powers. In more concrete terms, rule of law means “peace and order,”
“absence of corruption,” “impartial and effective justice system,” “observance and protection of human rights,”
and “clear, publicized, and stable laws.”
What the law seeks to promote is justice. When there is dearth of legislation for curbing social evils, or even if
there is, but the same is ineffectual or unresponsive, and when there is no faithful execution of the law, then
justice is not attained. When the justice system is biased and discriminatory, when it favors the rich and the
influential over the poor and lowly, or when the legal processes are long, arduous, unavailable or full of delays,
then justice is not attained. Then when the actors of governance can minimize, if not eliminate, these injustices,
then there is said to be rule of law.
Rule of law also requires that laws are responsive to the needs of the society. Archaic or irrelevant laws must be
amended or repealed to cater to modern demands.
The Philippines does not fare well in this aspect of good governance. In spite of being one of the oldest
democracies in the region, the Philippines ranked as last among seven indexed Asian countries according to the
World Justice Project Rule of Law Index. Generally, the reasons for ranking last are “lack of respect for law,”
“pervasive and systemic corruption in the government,” and “circumvention of the law.” Lack of respect for law is
generally caused by distrust on the integrity of law enforcement agencies. Order and security are compromised
and criminal justice is rendered ineffectual.
Systemic corruption has long been a problem in the Philippines that like a malignant tumor it keeps on sucking
the life out of the country. Allegedly, it is the key officials in the government who direct the perpetration of this
crime. What became clear from a long string of corruption and plunder cases is the true motive of many aspiring
politicians – money. The huge amount of money spent during election campaigns are but mere investments for a
more profitable return during their term in office.
In addition, the justice system is flooded by legal practitioners who are experts at circumventing the law.
Circumvention happens when there is compliance with the letter of the law but violation of its spirit and purpose.
Due to technicalities, for instance, highly paid lawyers can find ways for their rich and powerful clients to evade
the law. Although apparently there is observance of law, it is only superficial as the real end of the law is
forfeited. As such, there is a concomitant violation of fundamental rights of the people and ineffective
administration of justice.
Nevertheless, the Philippines has exerted efforts in promoting the rule of law. The series of cases filed against
high-ranking officials, previous Presidents, members of the judiciary, and high-profile persons for graft and
corrupt practices prove one thing clearly: the honest drive of the current administration to clean the government
from corrupt traditional politicians. In addition, legislations were made to hasten the legal process. The
“Alternative Dispute Resolution Act of 2004” (R.A. 9285), for instance, seeks to unclog the court dockets by
promoting a speedy, efficient, and less expensive resolution of disputes. The “Judicial Affidavit Rule” issued by
the Supreme Court in 2013 also lessened to a great extent the time and expenses of litigation.
3. Effectiveness and Efficiency
Good governance requires that the institutions, processes, and actors could deliver and meet the necessities of
the society in a way that available resources are utilized well. That the different actors meet the needs of the
society means that there is effective governance. That the valuable resources are utilized, without wasting or
underutilizing any of them, means that there is efficient governance. Effectiveness (meeting the needs) and
efficiency (proper utilization of resources) must necessarily go together to ensure the best possible results for the
community.
Concretely, effectiveness and efficiency demand “enhancement and standardization of the quality of public
service delivery consistent with international standards,” “professionalization of bureaucracy,” “focusing of
government efforts on its vital functions, and elimination of redundancies or overlaps in functions and
operations,” “a citizen-centered government,” and “an improved financial management system of the
government.”
Public service delivery, especially of front-line agencies, must promptly and adequately cater the needs of the
citizens. Doing so requires simplified government procedures and inexpensive transaction costs. Cumbersome
procedures and expensive costs trigger corruption and red tape. “Red Tape” refers to the disregard for
timeframes in procedures by government agencies through procrastination in public service delivery or under-
the-table or unofficial transactions. To further curb such possibilities, the government agencies must comply with
their citizen’s charter and use up-to-date information and communications technology to reduce processing time.
There must also be coordination among various government agencies to eliminate redundant information
requirements.
Professionalism in Philippine bureaucracy requires competence and integrity in civil service. Appointments to
civil service must be depoliticized and must be based solely on merits. Effectiveness and efficiency also demand
that the programs and objectives of the various government agencies are aligned with individual performance
goals. The increases in compensation are likewise necessary for the economic well-being, sustained
competence and boosted morale of the civil servants.
Although still insufficient, efforts were made to attain effectiveness and efficiency in Philippine governance. The
Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007 (ARTA), for instance, was passed to require the setting up of Citizen’s Charter for a
simplified procedure and to facilitate governmental transactions. Also, many government departments and
agencies pursued a rationalization program to check excessive and redundant staffing.
4. Transparency
Transparency, as an indicator of good governance, means that people are open to information regarding
decision-making process and the implementation of the same. In legal terms, it means that information on
matters of public concern is made available to the citizens or those who will be directly affected. It also means
that transactions involving public interests must be fully disclosed and made accessible to the people. It is
anchored on the democratic right to information and right to access of the same. Transparency is necessary not
just from government transactions but also in those transactions of the civil society and private sector imbued
with public interests.
The reason why there should be transparency is to promote and protect democratic ideals. When there is
transparency, people are placed in a better position to know and protect their rights as well as denounce corrupt
or fraudulent practices in the public sector and in the private sector.
Although again insufficient, efforts were made in pursuit of transparency in Philippine governance. As far as the
government sector is concerned, the current administration, consistent with its drive of curbing corruption,
promotes honesty and integrity in public service. It is currently pursuing the passage of the Freedom of
Information Bill and other related legislations, as well as intensifying people’s engagement in local governance.
Transparency in budget and disbursements are, however, still far from being substantially implemented.
5. Responsiveness
Responsiveness means that institutions and processes serve all stakeholders in a timely and appropriate
manner. It also means that actors and structures of governance easily give genuine expression to the will or
desire of the people. In other words, the interests of all citizens must be well protected in a prompt and
appropriate manner so that each of them can appreciate and take part in the process of governance. While
responsiveness is also a characteristic sought from the private sector and civil society, more is demanded from
the government or the public sector.
Gender equality is engrained in the egalitarian principles of democracy. Gender concerns that respond to the
women and their community must always be part of the agenda of public sector and civil society. Thus, emerging
as important areas in the study of democratic governance are “Gender and Development” and “Gender
Responsiveness.” The participation of women in governance within the context of “gendered socialization” rests
on how responsive the structures and processes are to their roles and needs.
Some of the important efforts made to attain responsive governance in the Philippines are decentralization,
creation of citizen’s charter in all frontline agencies (as required by ARTA), and gender sensitivity programs.
First, through decentralization, local governments, which are more proximate to their constituents, serve more
promptly the people, who in turn become more involved in decision-making. Second, every government agency
now has it Citizen’s Charter, which provides timeframes for every step in attaining frontline services. Agencies
now must also respond to written queries sent by the stakeholders or interested parties within a period of ten
days, otherwise there will be delayed service. However, this aspect of governance still remains to be one of the
causes for the decline of public’s confidence in the public sector. Although the ARTA has been passed, there is
still so much delay in public service delivery. The failure of the government agencies to explain the charters to
the stakeholders is one of the main reasons why there is still delay.
6. Equity and Inclusiveness
Equity and inclusiveness mean that all the members of the society, especially the most vulnerable ones or the
grassroots level, must be taken into consideration in policy-making. Everyone has a stake in the society and no
one should feel alienated from it. Particularly, those who belong to the grassroots level must not only be the
subject of legislation but they must be given the opportunity to participate in decision or policy making.
Social equity refers to a kind of justice that gives more opportunity to the less fortunate members of the society. It
is based on the principle that those who have less in life should have more in law. Good governance demands
that the actors must give preferential attention to the plight of the poor. Laws must be geared towards this end
and the society must actively participate in the promotion of the same.
The Philippine Government has done extensive efforts in promoting equity and inclusiveness. The Constitution
makes it as one of its state policies the promotion of social justice. Pursuant to this, the Congress has enacted
social legislations like the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law which aims at freeing the farmer tenants from
the bondage of the soil. Also, representation in the Congress, under the party list system, is constitutionally
mandated to have sectoral representation of the underprivileged. Gender and Development programs are in the
process of being integrated with the various structures and institutions in the country. But legislation is one thing;
implementation is another. It is in the faithful implementation of these laws that the country failed. Inequality is
especially felt in the justice system, electoral system, and even in the bureaucracy itself.
7. Consensus-Oriented
Governance is consensus-oriented when decisions are made after taking into consideration the different
viewpoints of the actors of the society. Mechanisms for conflict resolution must be in place because inevitably
conflict that will arise from competing interests of the actors. To meet the consensus, a strong, impartial, and
flexible mediation structure must be established. Without such, compromises and a broad consensus cannot be
reached that serves that best interest of the whole community.
Fundamentally, democratic governance is based on the partnership of the actors of the society in providing
public services. Decisions-making must therefore entail recognition of their respective interests as well as their
respective duties. The essential of governance could never be expressed in a unilateral act of policy making by
the public sector or other dominant sectors. Public hearings or consultations in arriving at a consensus are
therefore inherently necessary in the process of governance.
Among the things done by the Philippines in promoting a consensus-oriented governance are: (1) creation of a
wide-based of representation in the Congress; (2) a two-tiered legislature or bicameralism which subjects
legislation to the evaluation of national and district legislators; and (3) necessity of public hearings or
consultations of various governmental policies and actions.
8. Accountability
Accountability means answerability or responsibility for one’s action. It is based on the principle that every person
or group is responsible for their actions most especially when their acts affect public interest. The actors have an
obligation to explain and be answerable for the consequences of decisions and actions they have made on
behalf of the community it serves.
Accountability comes in various forms: political, hierarchical, and managerial accountability. Political
accountability refers to the accountability of public officials to the people they represent. Hierarchical
accountability refers to the ordered accountability of the various agencies and their respective officers and
personnel in relation to their program objectives. Managerial accountability refers to employee accountability
based on organization and individual performance. A system of rewards and punishment must be in place to
strengthen the processes and institutions of governance.
The Philippines in the recent years had endeavored to comply with the requirements of accountability. It had put
in action the concept of political accountability as it held answerable erring public officials involved in graft and
corruption and for acts contrary to the mandate of the constitution. It had also strengthened parliamentary
scrutiny through legislative investigations and creation of special committees exercising oversight functions. The
Office of the Ombudsman, considered as the public watchdog, has become ever so active in investigating and
prosecuting graft and plunders cases. Citizen’s Charter, as required by ARTA, was also an important tool in
promoting professional public service values. In this area, Philippine governance has done relatively well.