UNIT I.

FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL
SCIENCE
PREPARED BY:
LEVY RICHARD B. ISIDRO
 Overview

This unit delivers you the

basic concepts in Political
Science. This includes the
different areas under the
discipline and the changing
focus of politics and the
different political thoughts and
theories which led to the
evolution of modern political
thoughts and ideas. The
different fields of political
science, methods and
approaches in political research
are also tackled.
 
Learning objectives:
 
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. understand the meaning and concepts of politics;
2. appreciate the role of politics as a subject and discipline;
3. enumerate and explain branches of politics;
4. differentiate good from bad politics;
5. define and understand the areas under political science;
6. appreciate different ideologies and their role in politics as
well as different political system;
7. discuss different political philosophies which served as
foundation of varied political concepts;
8. and understand the role of united nations in the international
community.
WHAT CAN YOU SAY
ABOUT THIS?
 Political Science and the Study of Politics

What do you think is POLITICS OR POLITICAL SCIENCE?

As a student, do you have your own political ideology?
Do you know that political science is a systematic study of
governance through applying scientific methods of analysis?
Some literature says that it is a body of knowledge dealing on how
people live as a human society and form a government to decide
on their common destiny. It includes the analysis of power and
its distribution among individuals. Political science is also
concerned on articulation of collective disputes and their
resolution by the use of public decisions promulgated by the
government.
 Political Science and the Study of Politics

You as students of politics must take considerable interests on

the government and constitution, analysis of political parties,
interests groups and other formal structures in society and look
into how their interests are asserted, demands articulated, and
transformed into public goals and policies having political
repercussions both in the international and domestic arena.
For its application of universally accepted tools for scientific
research, it is considered as a systematic analysis of political
phenomena and government framework. The use of logic in the
interpretation, explanation and understanding of behaviour and
events, elevates itself to the level of scientific study.
 Changing Views on Politics

Political Science is the study of politics.

Politics is as old as human civilizations. However,
its formal study began only with the Greeks. As a
discipline, it has gone through dynamic process.
It started from traditional self-centered approach
to community welfare.
Harold Laswell

asserts that politics considers the question of

“who gets what, when, and how.” What can
you get rather than what can you give. This
definition treats politics as an art of dealing
with the struggle for advantage.
Aristotle
believed that man seeks some form of association.
Man as a rational being interacts with his fellowmen,
and where there is interaction, he asserts there is
politics. He believes that man’s association is greatly
influenced by human reason. The same reason for
him to do good and evil, consequently, the state is
formed as a natural result of man’s political being.
The state is the highest form of human association
aimed for the highest “good.”
Aristotle
Participation in the affairs of the government is what
made man a good man. The goodness and badness of
politics depends on the goodness and badness of
individuals. He believes that politics is the “supra
structure of society,” thus the destiny of human
society depends on political structures formed by the
goodness of human reason. Further, he believes that
state is a logical necessity of human association and
paternalistic rule and a mere reflection of the
“goodness” or “badness” of its members and leaders.
Aristotle
There is no doubt on the pervasiveness of politics as a human
activity, not surprisingly, scholars of the discipline seldom
agree on the precise definition of politics. Some say that
politics is an art of gaining advantage and avoiding
disadvantage. It is considered as: “an activity of the
government,” “art of compromise” horse trading or exchange
of benefits and ordinarily, material benefits; “struggle for
advantage,” Politics is an instrument to attack others or good
as in using it to promote the collective welfare.
The dynamism of politics is rooted from the dynamism of
human behaviour and activity which bring about changes and
shift in the focus of the study of politics.
David Easton
politics is, “the authoritative allocation of
values” he did not mean moral values. He
refers to all things considered important to
men like benefits and gains which people
value of desire. It is through politics that
prevents social tension and maintain social
control. It allocates “values” and allocates it
with binding force and effects.
Jacobsohn
considers decision making as the focus of the
study of politics saying that it is the: “Art that
deals with the resolution of disputes settled by
means of making binding decisions
implemented through the instrumentality of
government.”
Politics is the “systematic analysis of the state
and the relations of people with the
government.” This definition considers
politics as a tool to understand the interaction
and participation of citizens with the state.
This includes the study of laws and electoral
process.
At present, the modern view of politics focuses on
the promotion of the interest of the entire polity. The
study focuses on the public and the public good. It
moves away from the individualistic orientation to
general welfare orientation. This concept of politics
enters on how politics improves the lives of the
people and place general welfare over and above
individual interests and parochial benefits. Politics is
becoming a tool to promote the common good
transformed into public policies demands and interest
of the community.
Miriam Defensor Santiago
treats politics as: “a body of
knowledge dealing with the activities
associated with the government and
of the country especially the debate
between parties hoping to achieve
power.”
Miriam Defensor Santiago
She summarizes the following views on
politics:
1. Politics as the art of government
2. Politics as public affairs
3. Politics as a means to achieve
consensus and compromise
4. Politics as a means to distribute power
The above definitions proved that political science
as a discipline has undergone evolution and
development – a shift in the focus of study. It is
not surprising to a student of politics because
political science deals with the study of human
behavior and as such unpredictability prevents
him from formulating exact and accurate
processes applicable to all conditions and
situations. The way one views politics affects how
he solves and interprets political problems and
events.
 
Fields of Political Science
Political science is a discipline
belonging to the general discipline of
Social Sciences.
The fields of political science are
as follows:
Political theory – deals with the scientific
study of origins of state and government
including philosophical thoughts, value
judgments and standards or political norms of
society in relation to political events,
government and state and the study of
political ideology.
The fields of political science are
as follows:
Government and state – primarily dealing
with the relations of government with the
inhabitants of a territory. It involves the study
of the structure and framework of
government, the distribution of political
powers, and the institutions taking charge of
the affairs of the State.
The fields of political science are
as follows:
Public administration and policy – it deals
with the study of the formulation,
implementation of and evaluation of
governmental policy. The political impact on
polity and other governmental operation of
binding political decisions translated into
bureaucratic rules and policies.
The fields of political science are
as follows:
Methodology – this area deals with the study
and formulation of scientific approaches to
the study of political phenomenon. It employs
state of the art tools for analyzing political
data/facts to come up with a binding political
conclusion.
The fields of political science are
as follows:
International Relations and politics –
primarily dealing with the “interaction” or
analysis of the overall behavior of
independent state among independent states.
The central concern is foreign policy analysis
and its impact on the distribution and fusion
powers in the international community.
The fields of political science are
as follows:
Comparative Government and Politics – concerned
with the study of politics on the macro level. The
similarities and differences of a political system,
political culture, and political socialization, form of
government, its structures and political practices are
the main concern of this area as they are compared
with other independent state/polity.
The Key Concepts of Politics

POWER comes from the Latin words “potere”

to be able. It is the ability of a person to achieve
what one wants employing means ranging from
influence to coercion. It is the capacity of
political actors to achieve their goals despite
opposition. It is the way one imposes his will
over the will of another.
The Key Concepts of Politics

INFLUENCE is the ability to persuade or

convince others to accept certain objectives or
behave in a certain way. It is the means to
overcome the will of another without the use of
force, intimidation, or threat. It is an important
component of political relations.
The Key Concepts of Politics

COERCION is the contrary outrageous of

effect and is characterized as any type of
impulse and requirement which instigates an
individual to act in any case than openly. It
includes control by physical power, disciplines
or dangers. The government has the imposing
business model of the coercive force in the
public arena.
The Key Concepts of Politics

AUTHORITY is the power of government to

make laws and enforce the same upon persons
within its political control. It is a foundation of
power. Authority makes the people believe that
the government is backed up by law, hence they
follow orders on a voluntary basis lest they will
suffer the consequence legal structure provides.
The Key Concepts of Politics

LEGITIMACY is the general belief that the

government has the legal and political basis to
implement laws and command obedience from
people within its territory. Legitimacy involves
the belief of people on the moral ascendency of
the government to rule and on the validity of
leaders’ means to acquire political power.
The Key Concepts of Politics

SOVEREIGNTY is the right of the state /

government to exercise effective control over
the territory of a particular country. In
international politics, it is the right of an
independent state to be free from external
control. It is the supreme power of the state to
govern which may be subject to restrictions,
express or implied.
Approaches to the Study of
Politics
The Traditional Historical Approach. The
proponents of this approach consider
legal/formal description of governments as
essential to the study of politics. The emphasis
is on the chronology and the historical
development of government structures and
institutions.
Approaches to the Study of
Politics
The Scientific/Behavioralist Approach. The
emphasis in the study of politics is on the
“observable” or facts rather than on value
judgments. The behaviorists employ scientific
methods in political inquiry and apply and tests
of hypothesis to come up with political
conclusion.
Approaches to the Study of
Politics
The General Theory Approach. The
proponents of this approach argued that to form
general theory on politics, focus must be on the
analysis of the different “structures” and
processes of society and their interaction
making governmental outcomes.
Approaches to the Study of
Politics
Systems Approach. This approach treats politics as a
result of cause and effect. It can be analyzed by
identifying three important variables of analysis:
inputs, process and output. The input variables consist
mainly of demands and interests while the conversion
of those demands takes place within the political
system transforming them into output consisting of
governmental policies, rules and programs.
Approaches to the Study of
Politics
The Structural and Functional Approach. It focuses
on the organs and parts of government and the way
they perform their functions which maintains to a
certain degree the stability of the political system.
Methods of Political Research

Case Study method – investigates on

political phenomenon from one area of
political activity. It is limited in focus such
as the study of political behavior of a
specified segment of polity.
Methods of Political Research

Comparative method – focuses on the similarity and

difference of political structures, systems of
government of several populations so that researcher
may identify the best and most suited to the present
condition. It can be an inquiry into the topics on
political behavior, citizens, organization, parties and
interest groups of one polity with another.
Methods of Political Research

Statistical Method – compares data statistically

and determines any significant variations. This
method utilizes modern mathematical tools to
support qualitative findings by quantitative
computations.
Political Theories

Political theory is a compilation of

political doctrines, principles, concepts,
ideas and thoughts explaining political
phenomena/events and their relationship to
the operations of government or state.
Political Theories
Political thoughts not only serve as a guide
to the interpretation and explanation of
political behavior, political participation
and activities but sometimes explain why
things are and provide solution to the
recurring socio-economic and political
problems.
Political Theories
Political thoughts not only serve as a guide
to the interpretation and explanation of
political behavior, political participation
and activities but sometimes explain why
things are and provide solution to the
recurring socio-economic and political
problems.
Political Theories
Plato led the writing of political
theories. His writings of the “The
Republic” are the first serious
attempts to study politics as a practice.
He believed that man is born with
natural inclination to perform a
specialized role in society.
Political Theories
Plato led the writing of political theories.
His writings of the “The Republic” are
the first serious attempts to study politics
as a practice. He believed that man is
born with natural inclination to perform
a specialized role in society. A man’s
personality determines his future role in
society.
Political Theories

“Man’s personality is composed of the

souls-appetite, courage and reason.
Defending on the dominant element in his
character determines his responsibility
and role to play in society.”
Political Theories
Hence an ideal society is one that reflects the
innate differences in man. It is formed by the
association of men with diverse ability. This
creates a society where there are social classes.
The social groupings where each person is
endowed with natural inclination to excel in any of
the following functions: as guardian of the
commonwealth, the labouring class, and a
philosopher – king. Plato is the oldest known
advocate of aristocracy.
Political Theories
His theory on justice revolved around the
idea of performance of one’s function in
society as his natural skill dictates. A “just
man” is one who performs his role in
society. Justice is what makes a just
society. It is the philosophical origin of
division of labor which gained support
and popularity among political scholars.
Political Theories
Plato’s ideal society is one where private
ownership is abolished and citizens are
trained in a specialized “academy” to hone
inborn talent in preparation for his
contribution to the overall good of society.
Equality of men and women, and abolition
of the family are some of his political ideas
which characterized him as the earliest
advocate of egalitarian society.
Political Theories
Following Plato is his student Aristotle. His book
“Politics” contains his value free and scientific ideas
on politics. He treats politics as the supra-structure of
every society with the good life as the object of every
city-state and the great end of man’s association. The
state is a natural phenomenon evolving from family to
community and ultimately, forming city-state or
polis. He coined the term Political Science to refer to
the discipline dealing with the study of government
and state.
Political Theories
His idea of the rationality of man creates duality of
tendency in man’s actions; left a great influence on the
analysis of state and government. Thus state and
government is a mere reflection of the goodness or
badness of its ruler. He believes that man by nature is
a “political animal” and the ultimate expression
of his political nature is his participation in political
activities taking place within a “polis” or the city-
state. The greatest end of every man is to be able to
control his desire by the use of reason.
Political Theories
Good government is greatly
influenced by the importance of
the political mean as the balance
between extremes which he
believes as a function of reason.
Political Theories
Among the renaissance philosophers,
Niccolo Machiavelli was perhaps the
most controversial and influential in
theory building and formation. His study
of politics is a complete contradictory of
the famous and dominant rule of
theocracy in the affairs of the state during
the age of Christianity.
Political Theories
Among the renaissance philosophers,
Niccolo Machiavelli was perhaps the
most controversial and influential in
theory building and formation. His study
of politics is a complete contradictory of
the famous and dominant rule of
theocracy in the affairs of the state during
the age of Christianity.
Political Theories
He is one of the scholars misunderstood by
his contemporaries because of his radical
and revolutionary notion on the need to form
a state which he considers the end of
politics. He treats politics and the state as “a
work of art” requires no morality and a value
free practice, his idea on politics is perceived
as more on cunning, manipulation, and
disguise.
Political Theories
The ends of politics are more important than
the means employed to achieve certain ends.
He was considered a “devil in the person of a
philosopher.” His famous writing “The Prince”
offers new and practical way of grabbing
political power and how to remain in control of
the position acquired through deceit,
propaganda and force. His discussion on the
methods of fighting made him both a beast and
a man.
Political Theories
As a ruler, a prince must exert effort to make
his governed “loved and feared” him at the
same time. But because of the impossibility of
the two traits to go together, a ruler must
choose to be feared than to be loved. More
advantageous is to be feared by the governed;
hatred and fear and may go together. The
importance of being feared rather than loved is
derived from his theory that man tends to
preserve his selfish interest.
Political Theories
“For men in general are
ungrateful, voluble, dissemblers
and have the natural tendency for
self-preservation”
Political Theories
Thus, for him, fear of punishment
would prevent the governed from
deceiving the prince or from
plotting against his leadership.
Political Theories
His ideas of a lion and a fox as qualities of a good
leader made him the philosopher of the modern day
dictators. Learning the character of a beast and a man
and the dominant character reflects the manner on
which a prince must struggle for struggle for power.
He differentiated what is and what ought to be in
politics. Many modern day dictators used his political
ideas as their model. A good example is the late
President Marcos who employed Machiavellian
methods e.g. in order to remain in power, he declared
martial law and put the military under his control.
Political Theories
Thomas Hobbes lived during the time of
civil war in England. The civil war he
witnessed became the social laboratory from
which he based most of his political ideas. His
ideas of the nature of man, the nature of society
and the need for a sovereign power to end the
chaotic condition in England brought about by
civil war were based mainly on his experiences.
Political Theories
His idea of the “leviathan” is the most logical and systematic
discussion to end war in British political history. His concept of state
and government as a supreme mortal god created by a “social
contract” is a way to end the violent conflict in society. The
government as a product of social contract secures and protects
citizens for them to live a life under the rule of law and social order.
Its influence is found in the section 4 Article II of the 1987
Constitution when it says, the prime duty of the government is to
serve and protect the people. Assurance of the individuals is resulting
from an implicit agreement between the state and the residents. It is
also considered by Hobbes as an entity created by surrendered
powers of citizens for the purpose of exercising sovereign authority
and maintains peace and security in society other than moderate
man’s unending desire for power.
Political Theories
Hobbes notion of the morality of what is good
or evil in things and actions hinged on how his
action or things provide pleasure but avoid
pain. He asserted that act is adequate if it gives
satisfaction and it is noxious when the eventual
outcome of such act would acquire naughtiness
or cause passing. The object of his hunger is
acceptable and the object of his repugnance is
malevolent.
Political Theories
Hobbes believes that man has the passion for power which
corresponds to the level of his wit. He said that man has a
perpetual and restless desire for power after power that cease
only in death. From this arise the sources of quarrel among
men; glory, competition and difference. That the role of
government is to maintain social order and control by
preventing social tension arising from man’s exercise of his
inherent rights and desire for power which if remained uncheck
will likely create social disintegration. Hobbes believes that the
primary role of the government is to settle disputes between
members of society and act as the final arbiter and determine
what is “good,” moderating man’s exercise of power while
ensure his enjoyment of rights.
Political Ideology
Political theories laid the foundation
for political practice and political
world views. The way you look at
society in general and the means to
effect change depends on your
political ideology.
Political Ideology
The study of politics cannot be separated from
the study of ideology. Ideologies are sometimes
referred to as the ISMS of politics. Political
ideologies are essential to the study and
analysis of political life. It performs both
structural and functional purposes in the
analysis of political system and the state. They
are commonly referred to as left, center, and
right.
Political Ideology
Historically, the terms “left, right and center” originated from the
French parliament and demonstrate more than positional directions of
the members of the parliament. The terms represent the position of
the legislators on a particular issue or party principles. The more
progressive advocating equality, revolution and social justice seated
at the left of the session hall and treated as the “lefts.” On the right
was the arch opponent who never believed in the principles
advocated by those at the left treat themselves as the rightist or the
conservatives. Finally, those who are neither progressive in views nor
conservatives occupied the vacant center seats. Hence the words,
right center and left became associated with one’s political beliefs
and philosophy. As time went on, the terms received gradual
acceptation as philosophical principles and became a category in
itself.
Political Ideology
An ideology is a developed social philosophy or world
view. It is sometimes treated as a group of matured ideas
aimed at improving society. It presupposes commitment to
change a political system. Ideologies are sometimes
treated to change society for it contains belief system that
can present solution to some social problems. They are
“blue prints for political actions. It is similar to a pair of
eyeglasses used by politicians/political scientist to view
society and interpret political phenomena. It provides
explanation, interpretation, and suggests solutions to some
political and socio-economic problems of polity.
Political Ideology
“Rightists” avoid drastic change. They believe
that traditional customs, order, religion, and
practices are better preserve rather than
introduce drastic change. It is evolutionary
rather than revolutionary. Its tendency is to
maintain the great tradition of monarchy and
aristocracy. It protects the “status quo” in
government, politics, and social system
preserving the great traditions of elitism in all
spheres of life.
Political Ideology
The “centrist” on the other hand, focuses
on the ideas of constitutionalism, civil
liberties, equality of opportunity, free
enterprise economy. They are considered
the moderates. Being moderates, they
have the tendency to resist drastic change
and adhere to conservatism.
Political Ideology
Finally, the so-called “leftists” believe in
the need for a revolution (drastic change
whether by means of bullet or ballots, to
change social order and to end the
exploitation of the majority by the few but
powerful elite group. It advocated
equality, social welfare and state control
of vital industries.
To be continued…