COURSE OUTLINE

Chapter I: The Concepts of Politics and Governance

 What is Politics?
 Etymology of Politics
 Politics in the View of Political Scientists/Analysts/Professors
 Politics: Arena vs. Process
 Politics as Human Activity, Power, Conflict, and Decision-making
 Definition of Political Science
 Origins and Evolution of Political Science
 Political Science Today
 Importance and Functions of Political Science
 Meaning of Governance
 Indicators of Good Governance
 Meaning of Government
 Political Activities
Chapter II: States, Nations and Globalization
 Definition of State and Society
 Elements of the State
 Inherent Powers of the State
 Theories of State-Formation
 The Concept of Government
 The Three Branches of Government: An Introduction
 Types of Government
 Principles of Checks and Balances and Separation of Powers
 Government and Globalization
Chapter III: Power
 The Nature of Power
 Different Types of Power
 Authority and Legitimacy
 Three Types of Authority
 Positive and Negative Consequences of Power
Chapter IV: Political Ideologies
 The Meaning of Ideology
 Political Ideology
 Purpose of Political Ideology
 Political Party
 Left and Right distinction of Ideologies
 Liberal and conservative Distinctions of Ideologies
Chapter V: History of Democratic Politics in the Philippines 
 Early Political Systems
 Spanish Era
 American Civil Government
 Japanese Occupation
 Philippine Independence
       
  -MIDTERM EXAMINATION-

Week 1 - Etymology, Origin, Evolution & Functions of Politics

You can call me Sir Bori. I am a graduate of Bachelor in Political Science with Specialization in
International Relations at the Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP). I had my Master in Public
Administration at the Cagayan State University. I’ve been teaching POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE for almost
7 years now and I always like to discuss current issues and concerns and learn more about social and political
activities. I also want to have discussion with you, your opinions and views about issues that are social and
political in nature and that affect you as member of the society. TOGETHER LET US LEARN AND BECOME
RESPONSIBLE CITIZENS!
With this, I will be your guide this semester for you to fully appreciate and understand the concept of
politics and governance. Feel free to contact me in case you have questions about our course subject. 
  Philippine Politics and Governance is a specialized subject for HUMSS students. The course subject
deals with the basic concepts in Political Science, Philippines Politics and Government and the 1987
Constitution. What is important, however, is that students will find this subject a venue for intellectual
discussion on matters of national and local concerns, and as a vehicle for social awareness. This subject also
gives the students a ground for an in-depth analysis of the present political entities, its structure and its flaws.
Furthermore, students will have basic knowledge of their rights and the remedies that they have in case of
violation, under our laws. Lastly, this course enables students to look at the processes making up political
systems that give rise to the nature of the body politic as we know it.
I'm confident to say that you are all teachers, psychologists, lawyers, political scientists/
analysts, journalists and artists IN THE MAKING. There will be thick and thin, downfalls, circumstances and
disappointments as you go through reaching your dreams as HUMANISTAS but what is important is that you
are learning and gaining knowledge, skills and values that are important in becoming responsible citizens and
professionals. And keep this in mind, when you stumble and fall, rise up, fight and become who you want to be!

ARE YOU NOW READY TO BE POLITICIZED???

Don’t get me wrong with the term. When I say politicized, in the view of a political thinker, I mean, are you now
ready to indulge yourselves in politics and become rational thinkers, solution-makers and conflict-solvers in a
society full of challenges, social issues and political turmoils?
ARE YOU READY? ARE YOU READY? HERE WE GO!
What is your view or understanding about POLITICS? Why?
Do you believe that politics is UBIQUITOUS?
I will present to you some situations that will prove politics is everywhere as we go on
with our discussion.

CHAPTER I: The Concept of Politics and Governance

Defining politics and the scope of the study of politics is not an easy task because there is no single
definition of politics and no universal agreement about the scope of the study of politics.
In fact, there is a list of rivals or competing definitions of what constitute politics and the criteria
or standards by which to judge politics. However, there is a common recognition among the competing
definitions of politics and the study of politics, that – THERE IS POLITICS IN EVERY KIND OR
CONTEXT OF SOCIAL INTERACTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS.
Now that you learned that politics is present in all social interactions, you are now also
becoming aware of your disposition and action towards other members of the society.

Politics is UBIQUITOUS!!!

ETYMOLOGY OF POLITICS
            To further deepen our understanding of POLITICS, let us first discuss the etymology of politics.
 It came from the Greek word polis which refers to the Greek city-state.
 Some scholars define politics as the art of government and governance.
 Using this etymology, we can discern that politics refers to the government and in fact, most people
would look at politics as something that the government does.
 Whatever the government does and whatever the people do in relation with the government is
politics. 

THE DUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICS

Be conscious that while there is politics in every kind or context of social interaction, the indicators or
appearances of politics are not the same.
1. Politics can be MANIFEST, LOUD and VISIBLE
 There is obviously politics when lawmakers debate intensely over a bill in Congress, or when the
President declares the country in a state of martial law, or when local governments enforces curfews.
2. Politics can be LATENT, SUBTLE and DISCREET
 Politics can also be silent when we pay more than what is necessary for goods and services that we
purchase, when we accept rules that we are not even aware of how they were made, or when we
comply without necessarily understanding why.
With these, POLITICS professes to be dual in its characteristics.
 
 NARROW AND BROAD INTERPRETATION OF POLITICS
We can also understand politics by differentiating a narrow interpretation and a broad interpretation of
politics.
1. A NARROW interpretation of politics where politics happens, the venue, is labeled as the
ARENA approach to politics
 It is a narrow interpretation because it limits politics to the state and all its instrumentalities, its
hierarchy of offices, laws and policies.
 This approach can be best understood if we acknowledge that politics only happen within the formal
institutions of the state.
 Arena approach to politics also covers activities and actions that are sanctioned by the state, e.g.
elections which serve as the mechanism whereby citizens get the chance to be involved in the election
of individuals who will hold public office.
 Ideally, when citizens vote in elections, they both exercise their right and duty as a citizen
Politics in its narrow/arena interpretation, then, is desirable politics when we see
politics and the activities related to it (either done or executed by the government or the
people or a certain social group or movement) are within the boundaries of legality or
rightfulness.
2. A BROAD interpretation of politics, where politics happens inside and outside the legal
framework, is labeled as the PROCESS approach to politics.
 It provides a comprehensive view of politics.
 It goes beyond what the narrow arena approach offers in order to understand politics.
 Politics in this sense is not limited to formal political institutions of the State but extends to include other
institutions within the society such as the family, the Church, the business sectors, the civil society
movement and other parts of the society.
Politics in its broad/process interpretation, does not only focus on elections and various legal means of
citizen participation and representation (referendum, people’s initiative) but also on organized protests,
rebellion, and other activities that are outside the constitutional and legal framework. The first set of activities is
sanctioned (authorized, allowed) by the state while the second set of activities aim to challenge the powers of
the State. It includes desirable and undesirable politics.
This time, you can ask your parents, relatives and friends what they know about desirable and
undesirable politics and let them give situations related to it.
“Politics comprises all the activities of cooperation and conflict, within and between societies,
whereby the human species goes about organizing the use, production, and distribution of human,
natural, and other resources in the course of production and reproduction of its biological and social
life” – Adrian Leftwhich

POLITICS IN THE VIEW OF POLITICAL THINKERS

1. David Easton
 “Politics is the authoritative allocation of values.”
 Since the government has the authority, then, the one who can use politics is the government.
2. Harold Lasswell
 “Politics is who get what, when, and how.”
 This would refer to the people who have authority and power. Basically, they can decide who gets the
resources, when they get it, and how they get it.
 Looking into this concept, the government and the officials – both elected and appointed – are the ones
who can use politics.
Therefore, POLITICS is really about the activity of the government.
 Although the aforementioned concept of politics is true, it can still be challenged. The reason is that if
politics is limited to government, it will be a reductionist conception.
3. Post-Modern Political Scientists
 “Politics is everywhere.”
 If we use the dichotomy of state and society, it can be argued that politics can be both observe in the
two realms.
 Even in the most basic unit of society – the family- politics is observable.
I challenge you to make assessment of yourself about your view towards politics basing it from the view of
the above-mentioned political thinkers. You can also compare your view of politics to that of your parents,
relatives and friends.
 
POLITICS IS EVERYWHERE!
                In order to appreciate and believe that politics is really present everywhere, let us look into
some instances where we observe and experience the presence of politics.

Situation 1. Friends
 Friendship can become political in many aspects.
 In a group of peers, there will always be a possibility of CONFLICT among them.
 One person may not agree with the other because it rivals/opposes his interests or wants or beliefs.
 Although it can be assumed that a group of friends may have an “aggregate interests”, it will still be
possible that they will clash on certain issues.
 Hence, conflict will always arise; politics is needed here to resolve the conflict.
 There is a need for COMPROMISE.
 In this light, politics is present in a group of friends.

Situation 2. The Church

 Although there is a wide agreement on the separation of the Church and the State, at least in the
context of the Philippines, and the church not meddling into political affairs, the Church cannot deny
that there is politics inside it.
 The structure of the Catholic Church & other churches can be juxtaposed to the structure of the
state.
 The Church also exhibits some kind of political power that can be likened to that of the state.
 The Pope himself is a head of state of Vatican; In addition, the simple situation inside a Church during a
Mass would show hierarchy; the priest or the minister would have some kind of influence to the
congregation.
 Politics, then, is undeniably existent in religion.
Situation 3. Simple Everyday Objects (Classroom)
 Let us look at a classroom; the usual contents of a classroom would be chairs for students and a table
and chair for the teacher.
 What is so political about these objects? Let us talk about the chair, usually chairs in a classroom
have a desk, most often, the desks are at the right side of the chair since it is assumed that
students are right-handed.
 At first glance, there is nothing political about the design of the armchair, however, if you think
deeper, you are going to realize that this kind of design  discriminates left-handed people.
 This can be an example of TYRANNY of the MAJORITY.
 The majority makes decision that can be wrong and may discriminates the minority; the reason may be
is that most of the people in the world are right-handed or the one who designed it is a right-handed, or
because the most powerful people in the society are right-handed.
 Whatever explanation you believe in, the point is that the “Politics of the armchair” is real and must be
addressed to avoid discrimination. 

DISSECTING POLITICS
            We can give a lot more situations wherein politics is really UBIQUITOUS and it is unquestionably true
that politics is NOT LIMITED to the activity of the government. With this, understanding politics should be in a
broader manner.
Here is a definition of POLITICS that can serve as our starting point:
POLITICS is a HUMAN ACTIVITY that deals, to a certain extent, with POWER, CONFLICT, and
DECISION-MAKING.
POLITICS AS A HUMAN ACTIVITY
 The first thing that we have to establish when we talk about politics is that it is purely a human
activity. WHY?
 Human beings have rationality.
 Rationality refers to the ability of a person to think and reason out.
 Thus, such ability is used by human beings to determine what is RIGHT and Wrong and make
decisions.
 Through our rationality, we do not commit anything against society’s rules; if ever we do, we
know that we would face consequences.
Can we consider some ANIMALS to be POLITICAL? Like in the case of ants, they have
their queen, drones, workers, and soldiers - they have Division of Labor.
 Can this be considered rationality? No.
 This is just based on their instincts because each ant cannot deviate from its role, they cannot think for
themselves; unlike humans who can think for themselves and can control their instincts, as said by
Sigmund Freud.
  This gift (rationality) is what make humans different from animals; animals only follow their instincts
(although humans have instincts too, but it is dominated by rationality), although sometimes we become
irrational because we allowed ourselves to be dominated by our instinct (aggressiveness) rather than
our rationality.
 Hence, only human beings can engage into politics because of this rationality.

HOW IS RATIONALITY RELATED TO BEING POLITICAL?

            The answer can be seen in the work of Aristotle (Father of Political Science) in his book The
Politics.

ARISTOTLE
o He discussed the relationship of rationality and politics.
o He believed that rationality is the starting point of politics.
o To Aristotle, human beings are rational and teleological. Human beings have telos or
goal that he wants to achieve, and the telos of man is to achieve happiness.
 Human must use his/her rationality to achieve the goal, and he/she will realize that to achieve the telos
he/she must have to make relationships with other human beings, it would then compel him/her to
interact with another human being.
 Thus, man will transition from being a rational being to becoming a social being.
 In that situation, man will interact with others because he cannot do everything alone, and since
he cannot do everything alone, then he needs the help of others so that they can all have a
chance to achieve happiness.
 Man will form his own group with other individuals with the same goal, but after some time, man’s
rationality will dictate that a small group will not be enough to achieve happiness. There is a need for
the group to interact with other group to form a bigger group so that they can do more and have a better
chance of achieving their telos.
 However, there will come a point wherein the group will be too big enough (given the increase of
population) that there is already a need for some leadership or governance.
 Then there must be a creation of the STATE.
  The STATE is created by the natural rationality of man and therefore transforms man from being a
social being to what Aristotle called a political animal (political being) or zoon politikon.
 Aristotle believed that the state is the ultimate organization that helps man in his achievement
of happiness. He is implying that man can never achieve happiness without the state.
If we apply it in our times, that claim of Aristotle remains correct. Do you agree?  We, as individuals,
cannot do everything alone, we need other people and the state; the state can provide us with public goods
and services like security and social services that we cannot achieve without the state.
Although the fact that we often view the state and its government as an arena of corruption due to our
experiences, it cannot be denied that the state is a necessity and the reality that politics is an exclusive human
activity is undeniable.

POLITICS AS POWER
What do you know about power? Can we really not talk about politics without knowing the concept of
power? Is power a negative concept that makes politics a term that is unpleasant to know and to talk about?
            Many scholars have viewed that politics is synonymous with POWER. Power is a very important
element in politics.

HANS MORGENTHAU
 He viewed politics as the struggle for power.
 He is implying that all political activities have something to do with power and individuals who are part
of a political community aim for more power.
To know more about Hans Morgenthau and his scholarly works on power and politics, you can read his
book The Balance of Power.
What is POWER then?
 It is the ability of a person to make someone do something that someone would otherwise not
do.
For example, in a classroom, the teacher has power over the students. If the teacher will require the
students to read numerous pages of readings, the students will have no choice but to do it, or failed grades.
 
Have you ever done something that you would not rather do, but you still did it? Have you ever
benefited from it? Have you also made someone do something that he/she would not want to do? Have you
benefited from it? Was it just?
  On the governmental level, the government has the power to legislate. They can make policies
or laws so that they can influence/control/limit the behavior of their constituents under the
sovereignty of the state.
What if the government would pass a law that would criminalize taking selfies? And the reason of
the govt in passing this law is that the government may use the increasing crimes in relation to people
being victimized in social media. A lot of people who are part of this social media culture would react
negatively, however, this is legislation, they would not have any choice, if they would want to question
the law, they should undergo the due process required by law.
 Basically, the examples given above are clear illustrations of how power works. In relation to
power, the concepts of authority, legitimacy, influence and coercion are important in
understanding power better. We will have a separate discussion of these concepts at a later
time.

POLITICS AS CONFLICT
 Conflict will always be part of politics. In fact, shall always be part of human life. Why is this so? The
reason can be attributed to human rationality.
 Since human beings are rational, we have our own interests. This cannot be avoided since human
beings used their rationality in different ways. So, there is always a possibility that the interests and
perspectives of happiness by human beings will contradict each other, thus conflict is inevitable among
human beings.
How do we resolve conflict then?
BY USING POLITICS TO RESOLVE IT.
 Politics involve the concept of COMPROMISE which would refer to both parties “meeting
halfway”.
 It would mean that the two parties must sacrifice a part of their interest so that they would come up with
an  agreement that is beneficial to both parties. To come up with a compromise, the conflicting parties
can resolve this among themselves or they can invite an outside party that can help them in achieving
the compromise.
 The resolution of the conflict is very important so that society will be harmonious.

POLITICS AS DECISION-MAKING
When individuals make decisions, it is important to consider all possible alternatives, meaning, to make
a good decision, an individual must weigh all his alternatives to come up with the best decision. Being rational
being, humans use their rationality to make decisions
 According to Rational Choice Theory, human beings make decisions based on their utility since
they are utility-maximizers.
 This means that it is assumed that a decision that an individual make is the most utility-maximizing, for
example, when it comes to choosing a product, an individual must consider which product will produce
the best result for him/her.
 In the context of government, it must consider the interest of all social organizations in
society. It must be able to balance these interests so that they can come up with a decision
that considers the common good.
The difficulty of the decision made by the government is that there is a possibility that it will
contradict with the interests of some social organizations. The solution to this is to make the decision-
making process democratic and deliberative so that we could come up with a decision wherein most
people, if not everyone, are involved.
 This is what make decision-making a very important political activity.

Week 2 - Introduction to Political Science, Governance

and Government 
THE SCIENCE OF POLITICS
           Defining political science is complex because there is no single definition same as politics but the
science of politics has a basic knowledge and understanding of the state. It deals extensively with the theory
and practice of politics.
Knowing that politics is a science, learning will become fascinating and indulging. Who doesn’t love
science, right?
 DEFINITION of POLITICAL SCIENCE
In social science, it refers to the systematic study of state and its elements, deals with
the systems of government and the analysis of political activity and political behavior.
It means that the real concern of political science is all about the STATE and its ELEMENTS which we
will have a discussion on the following weeks to come.
 In reference to our agreed definition of politics, Political Science is the study of human activity that
deals, to a certain extent, with power, conflict, and decision-making.
This discipline, therefore, focuses on how politics is conducted in the society, it aims to describe,
analyze and explain political phenomena, and from these phenomena, the end point is to predict political
phenomena.

ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION of POLITICAL SCIENCE

            Now that we had a concrete knowledge and understanding of political science, we must also have to
trace and go back to the time where POLSCI started and evolved through time.
            How did political science become as it is today? The inception of political science is debatable.
Most of us believed that the study of politics began in Ancient Greece because of the dominance of the West
but we also had our share, in the Orient, in the study of politics during the ancient time.
 The term “political science” is derived from the Greek words polis (Greek city-states) and scire,
meaning “to know”.
 The science of politics, therefore, has a basic knowledge and understanding of the state.
 The discipline before can be considered as part of philosophy (political philosophy), Greek political
thinkers like Thucydides, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle contributed to many ideas that are
prevalent until today.
 In fact, Aristotle is the one who coined the term political science as the mother of all sciences. He
argues such because he believed that politics is the way for a man to achieve his telos/goals.

Political Thinkers of Greece

 They contributed their ideas on the IDEAL SOCIETY.
 They prescribed what kind of order is best for society.
 They tried to answer the question “what is ought to be?”
It can be discerned that political science before involves moral judgment. Knowing what is right and
wrong and doing the right thing.

Empirical Positivists
                As the centuries went on, the development of sciences affected political philosophy. They
used scientific method to further explain why events, political, happen in the society, they did not simply rely
on ideas and what ought to be done.
 Political thinkers became more inclined to using the methods of the natural sciences to develop
explanations to political phenomena.
 Political philosophers like Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Marx were among the contributors
of empirical positivism.
Tale of the Tape Hobbes Locke Rousseau
Man is… …evil …good …good; society screwed
us up
Gov is… …needed to protect …wanted to benefit public …needed to enforce
public Social Contract
Gov should be… …all powerful; cannot …conditional; can …arbitrary; can overthrow
overthrow overthrow
Power should be… …not shared; exec. Is …shared; legislative and …shared and direct (reps
absolute exec. not needed)
You may look on the contributions of the political philosophers mentioned to know more about their
works and contributions to political science.

Behavioral Movement
            The behavioral approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and
their environmental determinants.
 It focuses in the use of statistics and emphasized the study of  individual behavior to predict
collective behavior.
 Behavioral approach is also an attempt to improve understanding of political science using systematic
method with emphasis on empirical data, so that political process could be interpreted
 The problem being thrown to this approach is that many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-
dimensional approach to understanding human behavior.
 Behaviorism tends to be “superficial” or shallow in explaining behavior and learning.
  This means that it only considers what is observable and measurable, well in fact there are various
unseen aspects of an individual that are very vital in his or her personalities and learning capabilities.

Post-Behavioral Movement
             The Post- Behavioral Approach is a future oriented approach which wants to solve problems of both
present and future.
 To this approach, the study of Political Science should put  importance on social change.
 It accepts that political science needs to study all realities of politics, social change, and values.
 It aimed to include values and moral judgments so that the studies in political science may help in
establishing a better society.
So, we can see the changes that happened in the discipline. In the beginning, the study of politics is
purely moral and value-oriented. It aimed to make society better through its philosophical prescriptions
When modern era entered, development in sciences and technology affected the discipline and
relies heavily in statistical data rather than moral judgments, but was criticized, and then wanted to bring
political science to its roots – prescribing the good for society.
 
Goals in the Study of Political Science
The mission of Political Science is to continually improve and protect the quality of life within a
group, community, state, country, and the world. It deepens our knowledge and understanding of an
individual not just as a social being but also a political one.
1. Education for citizenship
 The primary objective of the political science curriculum is to equip students to discharge the
obligations of democratic citizenship.
 An individual like you is molded in becoming a law-abiding citizen, instilling sense of nationalism and
bravery.
 You become an advocate of equality, justice, freedom, and peace.

2. Essential parts of liberal education

 A knowledgeable and educated citizen will bring good deeds to the society and for the society.
 Remember that intelligent, responsible citizenship can save democracy but ignorance and
negligence can lose it.
 The study, information, and understanding of the complexities of the modern government and politics
are necessary for us to be vigilant and be aware of the activities of the government so that we will not
be discriminated and oppressed.

3. Knowledge and understanding of government

 The “good” citizen knows how his government operates, what his rights and obligations are, who
his elected representatives are, and what they stand for.
 There are parts of the world where people are longing to have this right, and yet here we are, endowed
with this right and privilege but we take it for granted.
The goals in the study of political science are indeed very important for us as HUMANISTAS because
these will make us become more aware of our rights and privileges as well as our duties and responsibilities as
citizens.
 GOVERNANCE
What is your understanding about GOVERNANCE? Is it something related to government? Is it a
way on how people do things? Is it about people who are given power and authority to promote peace
and order in the society?
 If you have one of these concepts of governance in mind, you are correct! But to have a deeper
understanding of GOVERNANCE as well as GOVERNMENT, we should know the meaning of these concepts
in general and in relation to politics.
MEANING of GOVERNANCE
 The word “governance” came from the Latin verb “gubernare,” or more originally from the Greek word
“kubernaein,” which means “to steer.”
 Basing on its roots, governance refers to the manner of steering or governing, or of directing and
controlling, a group of people or a state.
This would mean that governance includes all the processes of governing, having the power and
authority to conduct affairs whether done by the government of a state, by a market or by a network – over a
social system and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society.
 Is GOVERNANCE also present in the basic unit of the society? In what instances?
GOVERNANCE and POLITICS
 Governance is essentially related to politics, in that politics is often defined as the art of
governance.
 Just as politics talks about governments, institutions, power, order, and the ideals of justice,
governance also deals with the public sector, power structures, equity, and ideals of public
administration.
 However, they are distinct from each other in the sense that politics is broader than governance.
 Traditionally, the study of politics entails the concept of the “good life” and the “ideal society,” which are
so broad they include a web of subjects and every possible form of government.
 The study of governance, on the contrary, is generally attuned to the concept of democracy, and
on how the government and the civil society arrive at a decision in meeting their needs.
Governance, in the affairs of the State, is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority
by political leaders for the well-being of the country and its citizens including the people residing in it.
The process of governing is complex by which some members of the society use the power and
authority, pass and execute policies intended for holistic development of the society and the citizenry. The
power exercised by policy-makers of the society is always for the common good, as it is essential for
demanding respect and cooperation from the citizens and the state. A great deal about governance is the
proper and effective utilization of resources.

GOVERNANCE and GOVERNMENT

Another concept that is very important in the study and understanding politics and governance is
the GOVERNMENT. Governance is traditionally associated with government. In fact, they are often used
interchangeably.
 In the 1980s, political scientists broadened the meaning of governance as including, not just
government actors, but also civil-society actors.
 Today, governance includes three sectors:
 the public sector  (state actors and institutions)
 the private sector (households and companies)
 the civil society (non-governmental organizations).
 These three sectors are said to work hand in hand in the process of governance. This new use of
the term focuses on the role of “networks” in the achievement common good, whether these networks
are intergovernmental, transnational, or international.
 In other words, governance is broader than government in that other sectors are included in it.
Today, as we observe the undertakings of all the sectors of the society, there is a need to move from
the “traditional hierarchical exercise of power by the government” to the new notion of a “dispersed and
relational power in governance” – from government to governance. To govern should now mean to facilitate
or regulate, not to dominate or command.
We will have a separate discussion of government and governance as we go to another chapters in
politics and governance. 

POLITICAL ACTIVITIES
            How do you participate in politics? What are the political activities that you think you can join and
contribute for the development of the society? Do you consider yourself a POLITICAL ACTIVIST?
 Political activities are sets of activities that organize individuals, systematically resolve disputes and
maintain orders.                                                
 These activities range from developing thinking about  social issues at the individual or family
level, joining people's organizations or other groups and organizations, and campaigning at the
 local, regional or national level, to the process of formal politics, such as voting, joining a political
party, or standing for elections.
The political outcomes of political activities can be achieved when there is political
participation which includes a broad range of activities through which people develop and express their
opinions on the world and how it is governed, and try to take part in and shape the decisions that affect their
lives.

How does POLITICS organize individuals?

1. When people go to their polls to elect their leaders or participate during elections.
 When the time comes for you to elect our leaders in the government, be HUMANISTAS, responsible
and duty-bound citizens who advocate justice, equality and peace.
2. When people come together to protest certain anomalies  of the government.
 It isn’t wrong to join a protest. In fact, it is the duty of every citizen to undergo protest when it is needed.
But bear in mind that there is such limitation to this kind of political activity.
3. When representatives discuss bills that affect their constituents.
 Be aware of your representative in your respective districts and their platforms in bringing development
and progress to their jurisdiction. 
How does POLITICS resolve disputes & maintains order in society?
1. It helps maintain order through passing and enforcing laws governing individual behavior.
 The maintenance of peace and order can be fully achieved when people know to follow laws and when
enforcers implement these laws in a manner that is acceptable and just.
2. Mobilizing and channeling mass participation.
 The government, through political strategies, can facilitate  and persuade the people to participate in
the programs, agenda and development but the government must be very careful in mobilizing the
people. Persuading the people must be through the essence of legitimacy not by force or intimidation.
3. Socializing individuals to support the political system.
 Maintaining order in the society can be successfully achieved by letting the people speak and voice-out
their opinions about certain social, political or economic problems.
 Another thing is letting the people to be aware of the  programs and policies of the government, if the
government itself, wants the people to support the political system.
Keep in mind that ordinary people can participate in politics, and every individual has the right to
participate, including people with disabilities. Public  participation may be regarded as a way of empowerment
and as vital part of democratic governance. Thus, be ACTIVE, EMPOWERED MATURE political being!

Week 3 - The Concept of State, It's Elements and

Formation Theory
THE CONCEPT of STATE
STATE
Some see the STATE as an ancient institution and some see it as modern with the development of rule
of law, citizenship rights and broad economic and social responsibility. But a STATE is more than a
government; governments change but states endure.
 State is derived from the Italian term “lo stato” to describe the  whole of the social hierarchy that
governs and rules a country.
 Coined by Machiavelli in his book the Prince in the 1500s.
 The modern, formal, legal definition is, it is a community of persons, more or less numerous,
living in a specific territory, having a government that commands obedience within the territory
and is free from external control.
 Our country is a state same as the neighboring countries and countries around the world.
            If you noticed, the formal definition of the state describes the 4 elements needed in the formation of
the STATE. We will emphasize these elements later as we move further in our discussion of the state.

How does the State differ from a Nation?

  At first glance, the use of state and nation may be the same. They can be used interchangeably, but
distinct from each other.
 A nation can be defined as group of persons belonging to one community, having one culture and
language, and  living the same experience.
 On the contrary, a state can be defined as a patch of land, with a sovereign government of the people
and free from external control.
        It does not necessarily mean that a nation would automatically have a territory and government. It
exclusively refers to the people like the Filipinos, the Japanese, the Americans. 
 A nation may comprise several states like the Arab Nation  comprised of Egypt, Iraq, Arabia, Lebanon,
Jordan and Algeria.
 On the other hand, it is also possible for a single state to be made up of many nations like USA which
was a melting pot of many nations, whose populations consist of Malays, Chinese and Africans.
 What about the Philippines? Are we a single state that is made up of many nations? Or are we a nation
made up of many states?
How does the State differ from a Nation-State?
Another concept confused with the state is the nation-state. But basically, we can say that this is closer to the
real concept of the state.
 Nation-state also includes all the elements of the state.
 The main difference of a nation-state to that of the state lies in the characteristics of the
populace.
 In a nation-state, the people are homogenous.
A nation-state is an ideal one because it is close to impossibility. This means that the population has
one culture, one language, one experience, one ethnicity, thus a country can be called a nation-state only
when the population living in the state has no or almost no difference. It requires a population with no variety.
Can you name a state that is close to the characteristics of a nation-state?

Four Elements of the State

1. PEOPLE
 It refers to the number of people living within a state.
 It must be small enough to be governed and large enough to be self-sufficing.
 It is said to be the most essential and indispensable element of the state.
How many people does it need in order for the state to have the people as an element?
There is no law requiring the number of people a state must have but it should neither be too small nor
too large. This involves all the citizens of a state, but at certain point, it even includes the foreigners staying in
the state since they are also covered by the sovereignty and protection of the state.
2. TERRITORY
 This is where the people of a state live.
 It refers to the jurisdiction of the state and basically it has 3 domains: aerial, terrestrial and fluvial.
 The determination of territory can be seen under United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas
(UNCLOS).
           Territory is one of the fundamental attributes of a State. The exercise of sovereignty is
predicated upon territory. With territory, the State could perform acts and be subject to duties and
limitations.
Modes of Acquiring Territory
a. Discovery & Occupation
 To be valid and effective, discovery must be accompanied by
1. Occupation
2. Management
3. Administration of the land discovered.
 It is the oldest mode of acquiring territory.
 Up to the 18th century, discovery alone was enough to establish  a legal title.
Occupation, thus, implies the establishment of sovereignty over a territory not under the authority of any
other State (terra nullius) whether newly discovered or abandoned by the State formerly in control (which is
unlikely to occur).
Terra nullius means a land that is legally deemed to be unoccupied or uninhabited.
b. Prescription
 It is the continued and uninterrupted occupation of territory for a long period of time by one State
actually and originally belonging to another State.
 It differs from occupation.
 The doctrine legalizes the de facto (in fact or in effect) transfer of sovereignty caused in part by the
original sovereign's extended negligence and/or neglect of the area in question.
 It was applied in the Island of Palmas and the Miniquiets and Ecrehos cases. (Read the cases)
         Prescription is a mode of establishing title to territory which is subject to the sovereignty of
another State (not terra nullius) through peaceful exercise of de facto sovereignty over a long period of
time.
         It is the legitimization of a doubtful title by the passage of time and the presumed agreement of the former
sovereignty.  It relates to territory which has previously been under the sovereignty of another State. It must be
peaceful and uninterrupted in the sense that the former sovereign must consent to the new sovereign.
There are four requirements of prescription:
 the possession must be exercised in the form of actual exercise of sovereign authority;
 the possession must be peaceful and uninterrupted;
 the possession must be public; and
 the possession must be for a long period of time.
The peaceful and continuous display is also an essential element although as compared to occupation,
prescription requires a stricter proof and longer period of the display of authority. Moreover, any protest or
objection by the losing state destroys the peaceful display of authority of the claiming state.  
c. Conquest
 It is the acquisition of territory by the use of force, which reduces the vanquished territory into
submission to the conquering State.
 This mode of acquiring territory is violative of the  United Nations Charter as it involves the use of force.
        The acquisition of territory through the use of force is outlawed by paragraph 4 of article 2 of the
Charter of the United Nations, which obliged the member States to refrain from the use of force against
the territorial integrity or political independence of any State.                          
d. Cession
 A bilateral agreement whereby one state transfers a definite portion of its territory over another State.
 Cession of territory may be voluntary as a result of a purchase, an exchange, a gift, a voluntary
merger, or any other voluntary manner, or it may be made under compulsion as a result of a war
or any use of force against the ceding State.
History provides a great number of examples of cession. Examples of voluntary cession are the United
States’ purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867, the exchange of a portion of Bessarabia by Romania to
Russia in exchange for Dobrudja in 1878, the France’s gift of Venice to Italy in 1866, and the voluntary merger
of the Republic of Texas into the United States in 1795. 
Examples of cession as a result of a war are the cession to Germany by France of the region of Alsace-
Lorraine in 1871, and the merger of Korea into Japan in 1910.
You may also look some historical events where cession is manifested.                    
e. Accretion
 It is a geographical process by which new land is formed mainly through natural causes and becomes
attached to existing land.
 Examples of such a process are the creation of islands in a river mouth, the drying up or the change in
the course of a boundary river, or the emerging of island after the eruption of an under-sea volcano.
 When the new land comes into being within the territory of a State, it forms part of its territory, and this
causes no problem. 
          Where a new territory is added, mainly through natural causes, to territory already under the
sovereignty of the acquiring State, the acquisition and title to this territory need no formal act or
assertion on part of the acquiring State.  

3. GOVERNMENT
 It refers to the aggregates of persons or institutions which rule the society.
 It is the agency of the state wherein the will of the state  is manifested.
 It refers to the organization in charge of the management,  administration, and governance of the
people within the jurisdiction of the state and the resources within it.
 An institution over which the will of the state is formulated, expressed, and carried out.
          In democratic countries, the will of the state is the will of the people. In authoritarian countries,
the will of the state is the will of the few, elite aristocrats.  
4. SOVEREIGNTY
 It refers to the supreme power of the state.
 It is the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without any interference from
outside sources or bodies.
 Two Aspects/Dimensions of Sovereignty
a. Internal Sovereignty
 The absolute power of the state to rule its people, supreme power of the state to command
obedience within its territory.
b. External Sovereignty
 The freedom or independence of the state from foreign and external control.

Inherent Powers of the State

           Being a STATE, it automatically grants certain inherent powers that come from a state’s
sovereignty. These are outright, absolute and complete. It is said that these powers are inherent because
they need not be expressly conferred by constitutional provision as they are supposed to co-exist with the
State.
Are the Inherent Powers of the State subject to limitation?
          Despite being inherent and indispensable, these powers have restrictions. These powers may not be
exercised to trample or step upon the rights guaranteed under the Bill of Rights. These fundamental powers
are subject at all times to the limitations and requirements of the Constitution.
 1. POWER of EMINENT DOMAIN
 It refers to the ability of the state to acquire private property that will be used for public purposes
through just compensation.
 Also known as the power of expropriation.
 It means that when a property is owned by a private person or corporation but the state is
interested in it, the state can acquire it by paying the right amount of money based upon the fair
market value. The value will be determined by the assessor so that the compensation is just.                               
If the State really needs the property for public use, can it force the owner to sell his property even if
he does not want to sell it?
 NO! If the owner did not agree and there is no agreement, the property will remain in the ownership of
the private owner, hence it will remain private property.
 The state cannot force its sale because it will violate the right to private property, this means
that even if this inherent power is powerful, it still has limitations.
 If the owner agrees, then, the property will be acquired by the state and become a public property.
 If the property is already a public property, it must be used for public purposes; the property should be
used for the good of the people.
Who may EXERCISE the Power of Eminent Domain?
The power of eminent domain is primarily lodged in the law-making body. But it may validly delegate to
other government entities and to private corporations (quasi-public corporations) serving essential public needs
or operating public utilities.
 Under the law, the following may also exercise the power of eminent domain:
o The President
o The Local Legislative Bodies
o Certain public corporations (LRA and MWSS)
o Quasi-public corporations (PNR, PLDT, MERALCO)

 Requisites of Taking the Property

a. Necessity
 There is a need to acquire a private property for public use given that it is being taken with just
compensation.
b. Private Property
 The property to be taken must be private subject to expropriation
c. Just Compensation
 There is full and fair equivalent property taken from the private owner.

2. POLICE POWER
        The police power is based on the Latin maxim: the welfare of the people is the first law.  It is the
power vested in the Legislature to pass reasonable laws to promote the health, peace, morals, education and
good order of the people, and to increase the industries of the state, develops its resources, and add to its
wealth and prosperity.
 It is the ability of the state to use its police force to enforce peace and order.
 It aims, basically, to promote the common good.
The state can use the police force to control any kind of disorder in its territory. Police power is the right to
protect the country and its population from threats to the public health and safety.
Police power describes the basic right of governments to make laws and regulations for the benefit of
their communities. Police power describes the basic right of governments to make laws and regulations for the
benefit of their communities.
3. POWER of TAXATION
         The right of taxation is inherent in the state. The state is established for the advancement of the people
and hence it must have means with which to carry out it works. The state was established because only
through its existence can human beings attain their greatest well-being, and for that reason the people must
give up part of their income to the state.
 It is the ability of the state to levy required contributions from its constituents.
 it is the lifeblood of the state.
 The mandatory contributions must be used for the good of the society
          The power of taxation is described by the Supreme Court as a symbiotic relationship whereby in
exchange for the protection that the citizens get from the government, taxes are paid. Taxes are collected to
deliver social services to the people.
Purpose and Importance of Taxation
 The purpose of taxation is undoubtedly to raise revenues  of funds to support the government
and its services.
 The importance of taxation derives from the unavoidable obligation of the government to protect the
people and extend them benefits in the form of public projects and services.
Although not specified in the Constitution, the inherent powers of the State are reasonable powers that are a
logical part of the powers delegated to Congress and the president.
          Are the inherent powers of the State being exercised by the government for the common good?
What do you think?
Definition of Inhereited Powers
Inherent Powers – the powers that are necessary for a branch of government to get its job done.
        WHY ARE STATES FORMED? States were first created many thousands of years ago, mainly to
fight wars and defend territory. Today, states do more than this. They provide a form of central control for
public services, and look after the welfare of their citizens.
There are different theories on how states are formed; essentially, these theories will explain the origins
of the state.
1. Divine Right Theory
 Assumed that the state is created by God, thus, the leader is also chosen by God.
 This theory can explain the situation during the Medieval era in Europe.
 These monarchs justify their leadership and absolute power by the rights given to them by God, and
that disobeying them means disobeying the will of God, and the punishment is hell.
Make a study on the life of King Louis XIV and his infamous “L’etat c’est moi” and relate it to the
theory of Divine Right.
 2. Force Theory
 Force theory is the process of establishing a new government or country through the use of force.
 This process involves one group of people entering into an area and making everyone else within that
territory submit to the new government and social system.
 It maintains that the State is founded because the weak seeks protection and the strong ones
protect and rule them in return.
          For the force theorists, they believe that the world changes from time to time, the world will
always have conflicts and wars, and because of these conflicts, states are created. For example, the
Philippine state was created after the Revolution of 1896.
Leaders should protect everyone. Protect the weak from the strong & the strong from themselves.
3. Instinctive Theory
 This theory is associated to Aristotle.
 States are created because of human instincts and rationality.
 Man must have to associate himself to others to  achieve his telos.
 As they become big enough, it will reach to the point of becoming a state.
         Man cannot achieve his happiness alone. He realizes  and considers the importance of other people and
would start to interact with other people to work towards telos. With this interaction, they would start forming
groups until these groups would become big enough and complex enough, it would become a state.
The state, to Aristotle, is the most complex of all social organizations, and it will be the one that
can help man achieve its telos. 
4. Patriarchal Theory
 It believes that the State is a mere expansion of family.
 Family grew into clan, clan into tribe, tribe into nation and  nation into State.
       It believes in a system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership,
moral authority, social privilege and control of property. Some patriarchal societies are also patrilineal, meaning
that property and title are inherited by the male lineage.      

5. Social Contract Theory

 It believes that the State was founded by man’s covenant or contract.
 States are formed through agreements among human beings,
The general idea in this theory is that there was a time wherein there is no government. There is no
government – the state of nature. In this state of nature, the rights of man are absolute. Therefore, they
can do anything they want without any authority regulating or limiting them, disorder and violence are rampant.
           People come together to create a social contract wherein they will give up some of their rights to
form the state, and in return, security and protection are given to them.  Thus, this is how the state is
created through an agreement among people.
There are three variations of this this theory. Three political philosophy thinkers discussed this
theory but with differences.
A. Thomas Hobbes and the Leviathan
 He started with the idea of a very violent state of nature.
 He even described that the life of man is  short, brutal and nasty.
 And because of too much chaos, people who are rational will think of coming up with a
compromise and have an agreement.
 They would create a social contract to create the Leviathan.
        The LEVIATHAN is basically a mythical sea monsters who is considered to be the most powerful in his
domain. To Hobbes, the Leviathan refers to someone who has supreme power over everyone. He is
referring to the MONARCH.   
         It does not matter what the monarch does, good or evil, people cannot overthrow him because they are
the ones who created him; rebelling against the Leviathan would mean rebelling against themselves.  The
purpose of the state is for the maintenance of peace and order.
B. John Locke and the Two Treatises on Government
 He views the state not as chaotic but as a  moderate nature.
 The state of nature has a potential for chaos rather than real chaos.
 In that situation, men, because of their rationality, would make a social contract.
          Unlike Thomas Hobbes who argued that the Leviathan, whatever he does, cannot be overthrown,
John Locke argued that the STATE is purported to protect the natural rights of the people and the right
to rebel against unjust laws.
          He said that the people can rebel against a government that is not doing its duty and abuses its power,
because it is part of their rights. This type of state that Locke constructs is related to democracy.
 C. Jean Jacques Rousseau and The Social Contract
 He argues that the introduction of a society is  the reason why people become evil and insecure.
 He said, “man is born free and yet everywhere he is chained”.
 For him, the construction of a social contract is not exactly good.
          The arguments of Rousseau are a little different compared to the previous two. For Rousseau, the
STATE OF NATURE is NOT ACTUALLY BAD, and that man is basically free and good prior to the
groupings of people.
But since the contract is already there, the purpose of the state is to protect the common good
and that if the state, through a government, will not do its responsibilities, the people may overthrow
the govt, and this cycle will go on.
To Rousseau, overthrowing the government can be avoided until such time that there will be a
government that will adhere to the protection of the common good.
           Isn’t it astonishing and at the same time intriguing to know that there are theories on State formation
and that they sound somewhat logical and realistic? If you are to ask, what theory do you think is accurate
with regard to the formation of a state? Why? Do you have your own theory on STATE formation?
Did you know…
The Philippines has 7,641 islands
For decades, Filipinos thought their country was made up of 7,107 islands. But in 2013, the National
Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA), which is part of the Philippines’ Department of
Environment and Natural Resources, obtained a new technology that allowed them to better assess land
formations. As a result, NAMRIA discovered more than 500 previously unknown islands.
After the discovery, controversy ensued. Some critics alleged that the new found “islands” were in fact
just large rocks, islets, reefs, or sandbars, and that they did not meet the legal definition for an island.

        So much has been said and discussed for this week but I hope you are still motivated and inspired to
move forward in knowing more about politics and governance. With this, you are now ready to answer the
activity given to you and to have an advance reading about the CONCEPT of GOVERNMENT. Good luck God
bless! Have a great weekend. You deserve a treat! See you next week!
             

Week 4 - The Concept of Government and Governance

THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNMENT AND GOVERNANCE
GOVERNMENT DEFINED
 The government is entrusted of the power given by the state. The basis of how and when the
government uses the power is through the existence of a constitution. But what is GOVERNMENT? Why
government EXISTS?
 It is the agency through which the state expresses its will.
 A state cannot exist without a government.
 But even if a government may change, its form may change, but the state, as long as its essential
elements are present, remains the same.
Why do GOVERNMENTS exist?
        Imagine the world without government? Imagine our country without government especially this time of
pandemic? Government exists and should continue to exist for the benefit of the people
governed. Government is necessary for the:
 protection of society and its members.
 security of persons and property and for the administration of justice.
 preservation of the state from external danger.
 for the advancement of the physical, economic, social and cultural well-being of the people.
 A World without Government: A Scenario
 There will be anarchy and disorder.
 General feeling of fear and insecurity will prevail.
 Progress and development will not be possible.
 Values will be taken for granted.
 Truth, freedom, justice, equality, rule of law, peace and human dignity can never be enjoyed.
HOW DOES THE STATE DIFFER FROM GOVERNMENT?
State and government are usually regarded as synonymous because “the acts of government are the acts
of State” but they are not identical, therefore, distinct from one another.
 The government is just an instrument or agency through which the will of the state is
articulated, manifested or expressed.
 In a wider conception, government consists of all organizations charged with reaching and
implementing decisions for the community.
 The government includes only the functionaries of the state occupying a small portion of the population.
CLASSIFYING GOVERNMENT
With “government” defined, we can turn to the question of how governments should be classified. We
must begin with the most influential classification ever devised: Aristotle’s analysis of the 158 city-states of
Ancient Greece.
         Diversity provided an idea for Aristotle to consider which type of political system provided what
he sought in a government: an optimal combination of stability and effectiveness. Aristotle based his
scheme on 2 dimensions:
 First, the number of people involved in the task of governing: one, few, many
 Second, whether ruler governed in the  common interest (genuine form) or in their  own interest
(perverted form).
 For Aristotle, the significance of the second dimension was that a political system would be more stable
and effective when its rulers governed in the long-term interests of the community, rather than in the
narrow interests of their own social group.
 Cross-classifying the number of rulers (one, few, many) with the form of rule (genuine or perverted),
yields the six types:
 Polity is the rule of the enlightened majority.
 Democracy is dubbed as mob rule; Aristotle considered this as perversion type because this is the
reason why Athens fell – due to too much democracy.
 The tyranny of the majority can also be introduced to democracy.
 Rule by
One Few Many
F Genuine Monarchy Aristocracy (ruled Polity (rule by the
(Common (legitimate) by the virtuous) moderate
O interests) enlightened middle
class, exercised
through law)
R Perverted Tyranny Oligarchy (rule by Democracy (mob
(Own (dictatorship) the rich) rule)
M interests)
Unknown to Aristotle, liberal democracy is the most familiar category today. In this format, rulers
are chosen through free, fair, and regular elections. The government is subject to constitutional limits.
Individual rights are effectively defended in courts.
THREE BRANCHES of GOVERNMENT: An Introduction
Generally, a government has three branches. This system revolves around three separate and
sovereign yet interdependent branches: the legislative branch (the law-making body), the executive branch
(the law-enforcing body), and the judicial branch (the law-interpreting body).
1. Legislative Branch
 The Legislature is the law-making branch and has  an important role in the adjustment of the
Constitution.                                                                    
 It is a deliberative body where matters of social, economic and political concerns are discussed,
debated and decided.
 The Congress of the Philippines is the legislative branch of government.                     
        The duty of this branch has something to do with rule-making. They make laws and policies that are
essential in keeping society in order.
 2. Executive Branch
 The Executive is involved in the process of rule- implementation.
 It is the duty of the executive to enforce the laws passed by the Legislature.
 The President and its Cabinet is the executive branch of government.
The duty of this branch is to enforce the laws and rules in society. Some of the powers and functions of the
executive involve enforcement of law, maintenance of peace and order, building friendly relations with other
states, implement schemes and projects to improve the social and economic condition of the people.
 3. Judicial Branch
 The Judiciary is in charge of rule-adjudication or  rule-interpretation.
 It is the duty of this branch to resolve conflicts on the rules and laws being implemented.
 The Supreme Court and its Lower Courts is the  judicial branch of government.
        The duty of this branch is to serve as an arbiter of parties in case of different interpretations and conflicts
in relation to the law. Some of the functions of the judiciary include administration of justice, determining what
is law and its scope and meaning, issuing orders or writs for the purpose of preventing violation  of rights and
laws, and act as guardian of the constitution.

SEPARATION of POWERS and CHECK AND BALANCES

        The main reason why the government is divided into different branches is to follow the concept
of SEPARATION of POWERS. The duties and responsibilities of the three branches  are evidently done
independently. There is no overlapping of roles and duties since it would violate the principle in the first place.
This means that no branch is higher than the other.

       Moreover, if there would be interactions among them, the interplay would be following THE PRINCIPLE
OF CHECKS AND BALANCES. The reason behind this checks and balances is to avoid the abuse of power
of one branch.
      For example,
 When the legislature makes a law, it should be approved by the executive before it can be
implemented.
 If there will be cases wherein the executive did not like the law or part of the law, the executive has veto
power – a power that rejects a bill or part of the bill.
 In response, if the legislature did not agree with the veto, the legislature can override the veto by getting
the number of votes required, then the bill becomes a law.
 In the case of the judicial branch, it can declare a law made by the legislature or a decree made by the
executive as constitutional or unconstitutional since it is their duty to interpret if the law or decree
consistent with constitution. In response, the legislative can impeach a member of the Supreme Court
or the President is in charge of appointing the members of the judiciary. In short, each branch can
counteract other’s powers to prevent any abuse by one.                                       

TYPES of GOVERNMENT
Traditionally, there are 5 ways to determine the types of GOVERNMENT.
1. According to the Number of Rulers
2. According to the Relationship between the Executive and the Legislative
3. According to Distribution of Authority
4. According the Number of Legislative Chambers
5. According to Legitimacy
In modern politics, another way to consider the type of government is according to political ideology.
1. According to the Number of Rulers
Monarchy
 The supreme and final authority is in the hands of  a single person.
 One person has the hereditary right to rule as head of state during his or her lifetime.
 It has 2 classifications:
a. Absolute Monarchy in which the ruler rules by divine right and has absolute power.
b. Limited Monarchy which is also known as Constitutional Monarchy in which the ruler rules in
accordance with the constitution.
Monarchs are the royal, regal and imperial rulers which include such rulers as kings and queens, emperors
and empresses, tsars, and Kaisers.
Aristocracy
  Derived from 2 Greek words aristos, “best”;  kratos, “power”
 It is a type of government in which the sovereign power is vested in a small number of citizens who are
theoretically the best qualified to rule.
        In aristocracy, political power is exercised by a few privileged class. Although the power of government
wielded by a few, theoretically the administration of government is carried on for the welfare of the many.
Whenever the interests of the people as a whole are made subservient to the selfish interests of the
rulers, aristocracy becomes a form of government known as OLIGARCHY.
Democracy
 The term was derived from 2 Greek words demos, “the people”; kratein, “to rule”.
 It is a system of government in which all the people of a state are involved in making decisions
about its affairs through elections.
 It has 2 classifications:
a. Pure Democracy in which no medium of delegates or representatives chosen to act for them; The
will of the state is expressed directly and immediately through the people in a mass meeting or
assembly; It may lead to mobocracy, or the government of the crowd who are strong, physically,
mentally and socially.
b. Representative Democracy in which the will of the state is formulated and expressed through the
representatives chosen by the people.
What type of government is the Republic of the Philippines according to the numbers of
rulers? If monarchy, what classification? If Democracy, what classification? 
2. According to the Relationship between the Executive and the Legislative
This category basically looks into the relationship between 2 branches of the government that usually
interacts with each other. The type of government will be determined by how independent or how dependent
are the ones who make the law and the one who implements the law.
Parliamentary Government
 The relationship of the executive and legislative is fused; the one who makes and implements
the law are fused into one body.
 The members of the parliament are also the ones who implement the law; the duties are done together;
this would resolve the weakness of the presidential type – slow process of policy making and deadlock
(disagreement between the two branches).
 The state confers upon the legislature the  power to terminate the tenure of office of the executive.
        The weakness of Parliamentary is the presence of instability. The Prime Minister (PM) who
serves as the primus inter pares (prime among equals) is voted by the Members of the Parliament
(MP) and can also be changed/removed by the MP anytime by a vote of no confidence.
Voters Members of the Lower Prime Minister Cabinet Government Departments
House in the Parliament Members and Agencies
Presidential Government

 The state makes the executive constitutionally independent of the legislature.

 The executive and legislative are seen as independent of each other; their interactions are seen as for
the purpose of checks and balances                     
        There are few issues in this type of government that can be considered as weaknesses. The
possibility of deadlock when there are disagreements, the slow process of making laws and
approving it, since there are separate entities. They need to undergo a very long process before a bill
becomes a law, unlike in a parliamentary.

The illustration below shows the process on how leaders are being elected in a parliamentary and
presidential types of government.
           To further understand how these two systems work, we should know the distinction between HEAD of
STATE and HEAD of GOVERNMENT. Basically, when you say head of state, it would mean that you are
the “symbolic representation” of a state. It does not necessarily mean that you have real power or you are
in charge of governing the state. A head of state is symbolic in nature.     
          The head of government is different. When you are the head of government, it means that you have
real political power and you are tasked to govern the state. Hence, you are the one who really governs the
state. Consequently, this distinction is important in comparing the two systems that belong to this category.
In presidential system, the head of state and head of government is the same person. The President
serves as the symbolic representation of the state. He is also the one who has power and in charge of real
governance.
        In parliamentary system, however, the head of government and head of state is different from each other.
The head of state depends from one country to another.     Some have a king, queen, or a president as their
heads of state. Their power is only limited to being symbols of their country. The head of government in a
parliamentary     system is the Prime Minister.
        I challenge you to name some countries and  identify them according to the relationship between
their Executive and the Legislative branch of government.

3. According to Distribution of Authority

  In this category, there are 2 types. The difference lies on how power is distributed between the national and
local government.

a. Unitary Government
  It has more centralized type of government because the national government is still the center
of power and local governments have limited autonomy and power.
An example of a unitary type of government is that of the Philippines. The Philippines, although there is
somewhat decentralization of powers, the national government is still the center of power because supervises
local governments. What do you know about decentralization of power?
b. Federal Government
 This type of government is structured like a group of different states with different cultures and
traditions.
 The purpose of federalism is to unite different cultures into one nation.
Federalism gives relatively high autonomy to the states within the federal government. In effect, it
allows each state to have its own laws for as long as it still follows the general framework of federal laws and
the constitution of the country.              
Unlike the unitary government, federalism is more applicable to fragmented nations? Is our
country a fragmented nation? Do you think federalism is more applicable than unitary as type of our
government? Why?
4. According to the Number of Legislative Chambers
This category of the different types of government relies on the number of legislative chambers a state might
have. Generally, there are 2 types of government under here.
a. Unicameral Legislative
 This type of government would have a single chamber.
 An example of a state with a unicameral legislative is Germany.
 Does not divide members into separate assemblies, chambers or houses.
b. Bicameral Legislative
 It has two chambers, the Upper House and the Lower House.
 An example of this type of set-up would be the Philippines; Our Congress is composed of two houses:
the Senate (Upper House) and the House of Representatives (Lower House).
 Two chambers: House of Representatives and Senate
Just like the types of government according to the relationship between the executive and legislative, the
strengths and weaknesses of the unicameral and bicameral legislatures seem to complement each other.
One strongpoint of unicameral legislature is the speed of policy-making. Since it has only one
house, policy-making is faster as compared to bicameral legislature. Another strength of a unicameral
the prevention of deadlock.
On the other hand, a bicameral system has an advantage with the way the law will be examined.
Since it will be examined by two houses, the law that can come out is more thoroughly examined rather than
just passing through one house. Another strength would be the existence of checks and balances between the
two houses which would prevent one house from abusing its power. The people are also more represented
in a bicameral system.
5. According to Legitimacy
        In light of this category, governments can be classified into two when it comes to its legitimacy.
a. De jure
 Basically, this type of government is founded on formal  and constitutional means,
 If a leader is chosen through an election, the government that will be established is a de jure one. 
b. De facto
 This type of government relies on informal and unconstitutional
 If a President is put into position by a military junta or people's revolution, then, it will be considered as
de facto.
On the basis of the above types of government, it can be said that the Philippine Government is:
 Representative democracy
 Unitary Government
 Bicameral Congress
 Presidential and
 De jure
It also embodies some aspects of pure democracy such as on the constitutional provision
on initiative and referendum (these concepts will be discussed when we have our discussion of the
1987 Constitution).
The Philippine government takes place in an organized framework of a presidential,
representative, and democratic republic whereby the president is both the head of state and the head
of government.
 
GOVERNMENT and GLOBALIZATION
 Political globalization is when governmental action takes place on a global level, where responsibilities,
such as the welfare of the citizens and economic growth, are acted upon by an international political body.
In the past, governments typically served the citizens of their own nations, but now, the world is much
more globally connected, and politics oftentimes take place in a globally connected setting.
The membership of the Philippines to international organizations, such as the UN, ASEAN and
APEC, is vital not only on the aspect of economic growth and development but also on the aspect of
global peace and order and the respect of human rights.

DID YOU KNOW?

PHILIPPINE PRESIDENTS
The Presidents who were elected while serving the remaining term of a predecessor were Elpidio
Quirino in 1949, Carlos Garcia in 1957 and Gloria Macapagal- Arroyo in 2001.

Week 5 - Power in Politics

This week, we are going to talk about POWER and its nature and how are we going to use this power in
relation to the government and to the members of the society! So, brace yourselves because we are again set
to journey into the world of  POWER IN POLITICS!

If you are given the chance to have POWER, what is this power? Why?
Do you AGREE with the words of Lord Acton about power?
“All power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely” – Lord Acton
How about the words of John Steinbeck?
“Power does not corrupt. Fear corrupts… perhaps the fear of a loss of power” – John
Steinbeck
THE NATURE of POWER in POLITICS
As discussed earlier, Hans Morgenthau viewed politics as struggle for power and in this context, he is
implying that all political activities have something to do with power and individuals who are part of a political
community aim for more power.
If politics involves “who gets what, when and how”, then when and how people get what they want
depends to a large extent on their power. The capacity of an individual to influence the actions, beliefs or
conduct (behavior) of others is greatly affected by power that the person holds.
It is therefore impossible to understand politics without comprehending the concept of power.
Defining power can be difficult as it is understood and interpreted in several ways, but simply put:
 Power is the ability to influence the behavior of others  to get what you want.
 Gerald Salancik and Jeffery Pfeffer concur, noting, “Power is simply the ability to get things done the
way one wants them to be done.”
 Power can be seen as evil or unjust. However, power can also be seen as good and as something
inherited or given for exercising humanistic objectives that will help, move, and empower others as
well.                                                     

DIFFERENT TYPES of POWER

        There are diverse types of power that are essential in politic. These types of power will manifest that
politics is inseparable from power and illustrate how power works in different context.
1. Coercive Power
 This kind of power involves the usage of threat to make people do what one desires.
 In the organizational set up, it translates into threatening someone with transfer, firing, demotions etc.
 It basically forces people to submit to one’s demand for the fear of losing something.
 Actions of the government or a group that include extortion, blackmail, torture, threats to induce favors,
or even sexual assault are examples of this power.
        This type of power is also called dominating power which is considered as the lowest form of
power. This can be used by the government or by a group through the force of guns and intimidation. It is the
tyrannical use of power.
2. Reward Power
 As the name suggests, this type of power uses rewards, perks, new projects or training
opportunities, better roles and monetary benefits to influence people.
 A person is able to compensate another – financially or  otherwise – for complying with his/her
demands.
 It is conveyed through rewarding individuals for compliance with one's wishes.
 Our parents have this kind of power.
 Compensation incentives (raises, bonuses, profit sharing, bonus) and recognition incentives (thanking
employees, praising employees, presenting employees with a certificate of achievement, or announcing
an accomplishment at a meeting) done by the government or a group is an example.
 However, an interesting aspect of this type of power is that, it is not powerful enough in itself, as
decisions related to rewards do not rest solely with the person promising them, because in organizations, a lot
of other people come into play like senior bosses and board.
3. Expert Power
 This is a personal kind of power which owes  its genesis to the skills and expertise possessed
by an individual, which is of higher quality and not easily available.
 In such a situation, the person can exercise the power of knowledge to influence people.
 It is the perception that a certain person has an elevated level of knowledge or a specific skill set that
others in an organization don't have.
 An administrator of the government or a group influencing his fellow workers to strive more though his
expertise and knowledge.
   This type of power has more credibility and respect since skills and expertise are enhanced through
time.                          
4. Referent Power
 This is a power wielded by celebrities and film stars as they have huge following amongst masses
who like them, identify with them and follow them.
 Hence, they exert lasting influence on a large number of people for a large number of decisions like
from what car to buy to which candidate to choose for a higher office in the country.
 Politicians who are running for public office employs celebrities during the campaign or a celebrity who
runs in the election uses his fame and recognition are examples of this power.
It is a leader's ability to influence a follower because of the follower's respect, admiration, and
personal identification with the leader.
5. Legitimate Power
 This power emanates from an official position held by someone, be it in an organization,
bureaucracy or government.
 It is related to the position or status of the person in the organization. The person believes that he has
the right to make demands on others and expect them to compliment because he is in position.
 The president appointing officials to be part of his Cabinet is an example of this power because he is
entrusted, with authority and legitimacy, the power to appoint.
The duration of this power is short lived as a person can use it only till the time, he/she holds that
position, as well as, the scope of the power is small as it is strictly defined by the position held.
          In politics, government leaders can pass laws that prohibit certain actions and come up with
punishments for those who break the law. Rewards are commonly used instruments of power as well. Many
government programs redistribute money. Such financial rewards can lead individuals to behave in ways
government official’s desire.
          In democracies, at least, this is not a one-way power relationship. Citizens also hold some power in
their ability to reward and punish government officials at election time. But in authoritarian and totalitarian
political systems, officials can punish those who threaten their rule, even if they don’t break a formal law.
          In practice, if you observed it, people often follow rules because those making them have both
coercive and non-coercive power. Rules are followed by many citizens for fear of punishments, however, a
system that is legitimate will be able to produce policies, and enforce them, more effectively than a system that
lacks legitimacy.

AUTHORITY and LEGITIMACY

The examples given on the types of power are clear illustrations of how power works. In relation to
such, the concepts of authority and legitimacy are important in understanding power better.
 Authority is the state of possessing power.
o This is a situation wherein when you are  given authority over someone, you have power over them.
o It is the right of someone to exercise power.
o Authority is noncoercive in a democratic country for the reason that the authority given to the
government emanates from the people. The use of authority is bounded by  constitutional provisions
and can be taken away when there is abuse to it.   
 Legitimacy is the acceptance of authority.
o It is a situation wherein the authority of someone is legitimized by some way.

 For example, the President commanding the people to stay home during this time and the people follow the
command. The power of the President to command is the AUTHORITY, people obeying the President is
the LEGITIMACY. What makes the authority of the President legitimate is his POSITION as PRESIDENT
elected by the people.
o Legitimacy is the acceptance of the power by those who obey it - not acceptance at the level of
fear, but acceptance at the level of agreeing that someone's authority is morally valid.
o Legitimacy is important for all governments. Legitimacy sustains political stability as it establishes the
reasonableness of a government, or say, provide reason for the government to exist.

THREE TYPES of AUTHORITY

Max Weber (pronounced “Vayber”) outlined three types of authority throughout history.
1. Traditional Authority
 This refers to the kind of authority wherein the leader and his/her government is legitimized by traditions
and customs.
Monarchies often hold this type of authority.  When a monarch dies, he/she is succeeded by the child. A
person becomes a leader because it is part of the tradition and not because people want you to become the
leader.
          Legitimacy in traditional authority comes from the masses’ belief that a particular family deserves the
throne. On the other side, ordinary people believe that the monarch has been chosen by God to lead or even
that the monarch has a “divine right to rule”.
 For example, with the help of Russian Orthodox Church, Russian tsars presented themselves as a link
between God and the general population. In this kind of setting, one can certainly understand why the
masses follow the political system’s rule. To disobey them would mean to disobey God.
 2. Formal-Legal Authority
 This refers to the authority one receives from a certain legal process.
          In this kind of authority, one becomes a leader because there is a process that was followed  for him to
be recognized as the leader.
          Legitimacy in formal-legal authority is based on an established constitution – a political system’s
set of rules for making new rules – to which the political leaders adhere.
 For example, a President of a democratic country has authority because it is legitimized by elections.
The process of selecting leaders through election adds to the legitimacy of the policies that the
government produces.
3. Charismatic Authority
 In this case, a leader, his authority and the system as a whole becomes legitimate because of the
leader’s ability to inspire or because the people like or feel attached to the leader.
          For Weber, this is the most difficult type of authority because there is no clear reason why a leader’s
authority is legitimized. The only explanation is that a person becomes a leader because of his/her “inner
charisma” which is “God-given grace” according to Weber.
          Thus, a person becomes a leader not because of any tradition or legal process but because of who
he/she is.
 An example of a charismatic leader, regardless of what he did, was Adolf Hitler. Due to his charisma,
he was able to rise to power and implement whatever he wanted because people believed in his
charisma.

Positive and Negative Consequences of Power

     The importance of power is emphasized by many scientists who view it as a key behavioral
construct. Power distinguishes itself as an effective tool in coordinating   and promoting
harmonious relationships, solving conflicts, and enhancing performance. But the fact that we
can see and succumb to power means that power has both positive and negative consequences.
 On one hand, powerful  leaders can align an entire organization to move together to achieve
goals. They can motivate the people to work towards harmony. When power is used effectively and
fairly, it can change the lives of thousands of individuals in a country; promote justice, equality and
peace.
 On the other hand, the use of power to pursue self-interest and neglecting the common good can
destroy the society. The phrase, “Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely” is a
warning that when power is used negatively, it will bring negative consequences. 
Power in politics had traditionally been defined as force, dominance, assertiveness, strength,
invincibility, and authority.  As we observe others rise to higher levels leadership, we ask ourselves “How do
they do it?”
 Our observations can easily lead us to conclude that the most powerful (most dominant) make it to the
top.
 The rule of thumb is that to rise to a leadership  position, we must bring into play our behaviors
of force, dominance, aggression, and strength.
However, power and leadership are being redefined.
 No longer are we comfortable equating leadership with force, and power with dominance.
 In forward-thinking politics, power is shifting from I-centric to We-centric, and this shift requires a
commitment and a plan of action.

DID YOU KNOW?

The Bayanihan
From their Austronesian ancestors Filipino are their famous “bayanihan”; a warm spirit of
camaraderie and kinship they exhibit as a culture. From the Chinese comes their close emphasis on
family ties and support. Their Catholic religion comes from the Spaniards who brought their
Christian faith with them in the 1500s.
          Wow POWER! What a challenging task to study and be aware of power in politics, indeed!
Knowing and understanding the nature of power in politics and other notions related to it is really
mind-blowing. It is really true that if politics involves “who gets what, when and how”, then when and
how people get what they want depends to a large extent on their power. The capacity of an
individual to influence the actions, beliefs or conduct (behavior) of others is greatly affected by power
that the person holds. It is therefore impossible to understand politics without comprehending the
concept of power.