Solar Energy 207 (2020) 683–692

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Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Meta-heuristic optimization algorithms based direct current and DC link T

voltage controllers for three-phase grid connected photovoltaic inverter
N. Aouchichea,b,
⁎

a
Renewable Energies Development Center (CDER), B.P. 62, The Observatoire Road, Bouzareah, Algiers, Algeria
b
FCLAB FR CNRS 3539, Femto-ST, University of Bourgogne Franche Comte/UTBM, Belfort 90010 Cedex, France

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This paper deals with improving the effectiveness of the control system for the DC/AC grid connected photo-
Meta-heuristic techniques voltaic (PV) inverter. The three-phase DC/AC grid connected PV inverter control system consists of two main
Photovoltaic control loops: (i) external loop to control the DC link voltage. (ii) An internal control loop for regulating the
Proportional-integral controller inverter current by controlling both direct and quadrature currents (Id, Iq) that are provided by the inverter
Stability
phase-locked loop (PLL). The main component of each control loop is the proportional-integral (PI) controller,
Total harmonic distortion
whose optimal gains are challenging tasks. The optimal PI controller gains should be selected to achieve multi-
objectives such as increasing inverter efficiency, stability and power factor while decreasing the total harmonic
distortion (THD) in the inverter output current as well as voltage. For this purpose, various meta-heuristic
techniques (MHTs) are suggested with a comprehensive comparative study such as: (i) Whales Optimization
Algorithm (WOA), (ii) Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO) algorithm, (iii) Antlions Optimization algorithm (ALO)
and (iv) Moth Flame Optimization (MFO) algorithm. The numerical results attained through MatlabTM-Simulink
reveal that the WOA technique is more superior than the three others studied MHTs in enhancing the inverter
efficiency, stability and power factor with minimum THD.

1. Introduction TW of PV power capacity (Beauvais et al., 2019).

World energy consumption is mainly covered by fossil fuels (oil,
coal, natural gas and nuclear) that have a negative effect on the en-
vironment (Frack et al., 2015; Hammons and Schwarz, 2004; Walker
et al., 2007; Wang and Xu, 2012). Climate change, which is one of the
serious problems facing humanity in this century, is due to greenhouse
gas emissions from the burning of fossil energy (Hammons and
Schwarz, 2004; Wang and Xu, 2012). Given the evolution of the current
standard of living of the human being, the increasing demand for en-
ergy has allowed a remarkable development of renewable energies,
such as photovoltaic (PV), solar thermal and hydro energies. These
clean and sustainable energies have become of great importance be-
cause they are considered as an alternative to fossil fuels, which is in
line with the objectives of the Kyoto Protocol (Nations, 1998; Walker
et al., 2007).
Over the past decade, PV energy has become a reliable source of
energy with a reduced production rate and maintenance cost thanks to
advances in technology and the evolution of the PV market (Aouchiche
et al., 2019; Beauvais et al., 2019). In 2018, the PV market not only
exceeded the annual level of 100 GW but also reached more than 0.5
The development of power electronics technology and the in-
troduction of digitization in the PV field have allowed the rapid evo-
lution of PV applications and especially, grid connected PV systems that
have gone from a few kW to a hundred of MW. For this purpose, these
PV systems must meet a series of international standards to ensure the
safe transfer of energy to the power grid. Among these standards, we
can mention:
• IEC61727 and IEEE 1547-2003, which control the quality of the
injected power and the harmonic distortion rate (total harmonic
distortion (THD)) and verify the interconnections between PV gen-
erators and mains.
• IEC61000 determines the limit values of tolerable harmonic currents
to be injected into the public network.
The performance of the inverters applied in grid connected PV
systems is primordial parameter selection because it has an important
impact on the quality of the electrical energy production and, therefore
the efficiency of the PV system. This work is devoted to improving the
dynamic performance of the PV grid connected inverters by the optimal

⁎
Address: Renewable Energies Development Center (CDER), B.P. 62, The Observatoire Road, Bouzareah, Algiers, Algeria.
E-mail address: n.aouchiche@cder.dz.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.06.086
Received 15 December 2019; Received in revised form 20 June 2020; Accepted 23 June 2020
Available online 14 July 2020
0038-092X/ © 2020 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Aouchiche Solar Energy 207 (2020) 683–692

Fig. 1. 100 kW three-phase grid connected PV system.

Table 1 tuning of the PI controllers of the DC/AC stage that allows a flexible
Parameters characterizing the proposed grid connected PV system. injection of the energy coming from the PV generator into the electrical
PV parameters Model of PV module SunPower SPR-305-
grid, without distortion or phase shift of the AC current. Several types of
WHT-U research have been conducted in this area. Among these papers, there
PV array power 100.7 kW are: Hamrouni et al. (2017) had proposed an approach to a grid-con-
PV Current 368.28 A nected PV control system that aims to provide an optimal PV power to
PV Voltage 273.5 V
improve the quality of the current injected into the network. The de-
DC/DC converter output 500 V
voltage veloped control combines both the current and voltage control loops of
the DC link using PI regulators (Hamrouni et al., 2017). Dhar and Dash
Parameters DC link Capacitance 0.012 F
DC link Voltage 500 V
(2016) had developed a new control model called finite time back-
Commutation Frequency 5 kHz stepping sliding mode control. This command is implemented in terms
Grid parameters Voltage (Vrms) 25 kV
of the system's reactive power and PV voltage. The aim of the work is to
Current (Vrms) 1.76 A achieve confident dynamic performance and efficient filtering of the
Frequency 50 Hz proposed PV-inverter system for improving the system reliability as
The load parameters Active Power 30 kW well as achieving high power quality (Dhar and Dash, 2016). Lakshmi
Reactive Power 10 kVAR and Hemamalini (2016) had presented a decoupled control of the
Frequency 50 Hz fractional-order PI (FOPI) based PV system. The decoupled control
strategy adopted in this study allows independent control of both active
and reactive powers according to the energy generated by the PV
system and the energy consumed by grid (Lakshmi and Hemamalini,
2016). Farhat et al. (2017) had presented a new Genetic algorithm-
based PI controller for the current and DC link voltage that controls the
total active and reactive powers delivered by the PV system to the
distribution network (Farhat et al., 2017). This paper deals with the
dynamic behavior analysis of the three-phase inverter of a grid con-
nected PV system. The goal is to improve the performance of the in-
verter by the optimal tuning of PI-based controllers for both the current
and voltage. This tuning process is performed using moderated meta-
heuristic techniques (MHTs). Therefore, a comparative study of four
Fig. 2. Phase-Locked Loop. MHTs has been proposed, which will be developed in the following
sections. The simulation will be conducted using Matlab/Simulink

684
N. Aouchiche
Fig. 3. Flowchart of WOA algorithm (Trivedi et al., 2016).
software.
1.1. Highlights
The main contribution of this paper is to adjust the gains of the PI
controllers for the current loop and the DC voltage loop of the inverter
by applying MHTs. For this purpose, four algorithms based on MHTs
have been suggested. Then, a comparative study between these algo-
rithms is carried out to provide the best algorithm in terms of efficiency,
stability and robustness. Grid connected PV system modeling and si-
mulations are performed under MatlabTM/Simulink®.
2. Grid connected PV system under study
The PV system, proposed in this study, is mainly equipped with a PV
array of 66 branches linked together in parallel. Each branch consists of
5 PV modules of 305 kWP. Moreover, an adaptation stage that includes
an MPPT control, a boost converter and a three-phase inverter equipped
with a control device. As shown in Fig. 1, this system has two control
stages: (i) DC/DC control stage which includes a maximum power point
tracking controller (MPPT) that is discussed in the following section.
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Solar Energy 207 (2020) 683–692
Fig. 4. Flowchart of GWO algorithm (Mirjalili et al., 2014).
(ii) DC/AC control stage which has two control loops to improve the
DC/AC conversion process performance. It includes an internal DC link
voltage control loop to regulate the voltage to its optimum value in
order to provide the sufficient required current to the DC link. The
second loop is the external control loop of direct and quadrature cur-
rents (Id, Iq) provided by the phase-locked loop (PLL). All these control
loops depend mainly on PI controllers whose gains are optimally at-
tained by applying MHTs to improve the dynamic performance of PV
system connected to the utility network. According to Fig. 1, the se-
lected PV system in this study is a 100 kW three-phase grid connected
PV system. The main parameters that characterize this PV system are
given in Table.1.
2.1. Phase-locked loop
The structure of PLL used in this work is demonstrated in Fig. 2. The
main task of PLL is to track the frequency and phase of a sinusoidal
signal using an internal oscillator (Rennane and Koussa, 2014;
Sridharan et al., 2017; Teodorescu et al., 2011). The PLL control system
adjusts the frequency of the internal oscillator to keep zero difference
between the input and the output phases. The input signal is mixed with
a signal from the internal oscillator. The DC component of the mixed
signal (proportional to the phase difference between these two signals)
is extracted with a variable frequency average value model (VFAVM). A
N. Aouchiche Solar Energy 207 (2020) 683–692

Fig. 6. Flowchart of MFO algorithm (Allam et al., 2016; Mirjalili, 2015b).

3.1. Whales optimization algorithm

Fig. 5. Flowchart of ALO algorithm (Mirjalili, 2015a; Mirjalili et al., 2016;
Prasad and Ram, 2016).
PI controller with automatic gain tuning maintains zero phase differ-
ence by acting on a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) (Rennane and
Koussa, 2014; Sridharan et al., 2017; Teodorescu et al., 2011). The PI
output signal corresponding to the angular velocity is filtered and
converted to the frequency that is used by VFAVM.
WOA is a novel meta-heuristic optimization algorithm inspired by
the hunting behavior of humpback whales called spiral bubble-net
feeding method (Lin et al., 2017; Mirjalili and Lewis, 2016; Prakash and
Lakshminarayana, 2016; Trivedi et al., 2016). As shown in Fig. 3, the
research agents (whales) track the prey randomly concerning each re-
search agent position (Lin et al., 2017; Mirjalili and Lewis, 2016). This
behavior is based on shrinking encircling approach and spiral update
position as presented in Eqs. (1)–(3) (Ebrahim et al., 2019; Mirjalili and
Lewis, 2016; Qais et al., 2020; Trivedi et al., 2016).

3. Meta-heuristic optimization techniques X (F ) A ·D if p < 0.5

X (F + 1)
'
D ·e bl ·cos(2 l) + X (F ) if p 0.5 (1)
In this paper, four MHTs have been proposed to study the dynamic
behavior of the three-phase grid connected PV system (see Fig. 1). D = | C · X (F ) X (F )| (2)
These approaches are Whale Optimization Algorithm (WOA), Moth-
Flame Optimization algorithm (MFO), Grey Wolf Optimization algo- A = a ·C a (3)
rithm (GWO) and Antlion Optimization algorithm (ALO). These algo-
rithms are detailed below. A, C: coefficient vectors.
a: random vector.

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Table 2
Meta-heuristic approaches parameters and the attained PI controllers’ gains.
WOA MFO ALO GWO

search agents Number 20 20 20 20

Iterations Number 10 20 20 30
Gains minimal values [6 600 0.1 18] [6 600 0.1 18] [6 600 0.1 18] [6 600 0.1 18]
[Kp_VDC Ki_VDC Kp_I Ki_I]
Gains maximal values [8 1000 0.6 24] [8 1000 0.6 24] [8 1000 0.6 24] [8 1000 0.6 24]
[Kp_VDC Ki_VDC Kp_I Ki_I]

Table 3
Comparison of different optimization algorithms-based PI controllers.
Approach Time Taken (Min) Current Error Voltage PI Controller gains Current PI Controller gains Power grid dynamic response

Id Error Iq Error Kp_VDC Ki_VDC Kp_I Ki_I THDi (%) D (%) Ts (s) Power Static Error (kW)

WOA IAE 250,7 0,0026 0,0052 6 600 0,38 18 1,73 5,416 0,02 0.0516
ISE 280,3 0,0008 0,0063 6 685,3 0,44 18 2,38 6,298 0,02 0.0428
ITAE 244,9 0,0003 0,0004 6 600 0,25 18 1,48 4,852 0,02 0.00958
ITSE 366,1 4E-05 0,0001 6 600 0,34 18 1,46 4,763 0,02 0.00531

MFO IAE 235,1 0,0492 0,0084 7,2 829,1 0,36 18,3 1,83 5,726 0,074 0.0455
ISE 238,9 0,0251 0,0023 6,17 715,9 0,17 23,2 1,68 5,237 0,156 0.00370
ITAE 248,8 0,0011 0,0011 6,07 782,8 0,23 23,2 1,49 5,571 0,075 0.0479
ITSE 237.9 7E-05 0,0002 6.9328 715.29 0.202 22.836 1,51 4.2009 0.076 0.0032

ALO IAE 249,1 0,0092 0,0093 6,86 606,6 0,23 23,6 2,25 3,675 0,089 0.0529
ISE 238,2 0,0024 0,0023 6,18 745,6 0,32 18,8 1,6 5,43 0,075 0.468
ITAE 236,8 0,0011 0,0013 6,29 752,7 0,44 23,8 2,74 5,619 0,074 0.0478
ITSE 268.8 5E-05 0,0001 7,96 836,2 0.399 22.757 1.5 3.0838 0.074 0.0036

GWO IAE 389.2 0,0161 0,0231 7.9991 950.15 0.288 19.973 1,68 20.4519 0,156 0.0505
ISE 403.8 0,0208 0,0301 7.9991 950.15 0.288 19.973 1,64 20.4519 0,155 0.0513
ITAE 376.1 0,0011 0,0106 7.6294 862.29 0.319 22.507 1,84 24.3860 0,153 0.0381
ITSE 391.3 0,0002 0.0256 6.5659 606.12 0.415 18.124 2,1 20.3689 0,095 0.0028

X*: best solution position. X1 = X A1 (D ) (6)

D: distance between whale and prey (best solution).
P: random number. X2 = X A2 (D ) (7)
F: iteration.
X3 = X A3 (D ) (8)
3.2. Grey wolf optimization
X1 + X2 + X3
GWO was developed to mimic the grey wolves’ social hierarchy and X (t + 1) =
3 (9)
their hunting behaviors (Mirjalili et al., 2014; Mohamed et al., 2016;
Yahiaoui et al., 2017). In Fig. 4, the GWO uses four kinds of wolves’ A, C: coefficient vectors.
populations. The α wolves which conducted hunting are considered as X: wolf position vector.
the best solutions. The β and δ wolves that represent the second and Xp: Prey position vector.
third best solutions, respectively, might assist the α wolves in decision D: distance between wolf and prey positions.
making. The ω wolves are the followers (Babu et al., 2015; Mirjalili
et al., 2016; Mohamed et al., 2016; Punnathanam, 2016; Yahiaoui
3.3. Antlions optimization algorithm
et al., 2017).
The GWO is based on the main hunting phases that are:
ALO is a stochastic algorithm that was enthused from the antlions

• Recognition of prey position and encircling it as in Eq. (4) and (5)

hunting behavior (Mirjalili, 2015a). According to Fig. 5, the ants that
represent the preys moves randomly over research space using Eq. (10)
(Mirjalili et al., 2014).
• It is harassing the target until it stops moving. Therefore, wolves'
(Mirjalili, 2015a). The ants random walks are affected by antlions’ traps
as in Eqs. (11) and (12) (Mirjalili, 2015a). Depending on the fitness
positions are updated to converge to the best positions obtained so
function, the ALO uses roulette wheel to allow the antlion to catch their
far, as presented in Eq. (6) (Mirjalili et al., 2014).
•
prey (Dubey et al., 2016; Mirjalili, 2015a; Saxena and Kothari, 2016).
Attack towards the prey.
One the ants attain the bottom of the pit, their positions are the best
D = |CXp AX (t )| (4) positions that correspond to antlions positions as in Eq. (13). The up-
dating antlions positions is performed to run the process until the ter-
X (t + 1) = Xp (t ) AD (5) mination criterion is satisfied(Mirjalili, 2015a; Mirjalili et al., 2016;

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Fig. 7. FFT analysis of PV grid current.

Saxena and Kothari, 2016). Allam et al., 2016; Aouchiche et al., 2018). A logarithmic spiral me-
chanism is used to update the moth position as in Eq. (14) until the
(Xit a ) (d i cit )
Xit = + ci termination criterion is satisfied (Algabalawy et al., 2017; Jangir et al.,
(dit ai ) (10)
2016; Mirjalili, 2015b).
cit = Antlionit + ct (11) M(i, j) = S(M(i, j), F(i, j)) = Distance(i) exp(b. t). cos
dit = Antlionit + dt (12) (t. 2 pi) + F(i, j) (14)

Antlionit = Antit iff (Antit ) >f (Antlionit ) (13) Distance(i) = |F(i, j) M(i, j)| (15)

Distance: distance between the moth positions and the corre-

3.4. Moth flame optimization algorithm (MFO)
sponding flame.
S: spiral function (Allam et al., 2016; Li et al., 2016; Mirjalili,
MFO algorithm is based on the moth behavior that depends on the
2015b).
transverse orientation process (Mirjalili, 2015b). The moths seek
n: Moths number.
around flames, which are considered as the best moths’ positions.
d: size of the search space in which the moths and flames positions
According to Fig. 6, MFO begins with random initialization of Moths
vectors operate.
and Flames populations. The MFO's primary function is moving the
moths in research spaces to attain flames (Algabalawy et al., 2017;

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Fig. 8. Dynamic response of direct and quadrature currents and DC link voltage.

4. Performance indexes
Several objective functions based on error performance index are
used to estimate the above algorithm. The performance index is cal-
culated over a time interval. To define the best MHT that gives the best
parameter tuning, a comparison of PI controller dynamic performances
is achieved based on the fitness function that depends on the four
commonly used performance measures. These criteria indices are in-
tegral squared error (ISE), integral absolute error (IAE) and integral
time-weighted absolute error (ITAE), and are as in Eqs. (16)–(19):
t i=2
IAE = |e (t )| dt
0 (16)
whose dynamic response quickly reaches the steady-state while mini-
mizing the error [15]. The paper suggests MHT-based PI controller to
achieve this task. This type of controller is widespread because it is
simple and it gives good accuracy. The PI is used to control the AC
current injected into the grid. As shown in Fig. 1, the PI of the DC link
voltage regulation loop acts on the DC voltage error to generate re-
ference currents (Idq ref). The current control loop PI provides an AC
current injection in phase with a low THD, which is given by Eq. (20).
n
Hi2
THD =
F1 (20)

ISE =
t
e (t )2dt Hi: efficient value of the harmonic i.
0 (17) F1: efficient value of the fundamental component.
t
ITAE = (t |e (t )| dt (18) The aim of this work is to introduce an algorithm that improves the
0
characteristics of PI controllers. This algorithm is based on MHT that
t
ITSE = t· e (t ) 2dt assigns the optimal gains values to the PIs of the two control loops, as
0 (19)
presented in Table.2. A comparative study of four MHTs (WOA, MFO,
ALO and GWO) has been proposed. Table.2 shows the parameters of the
5. Simulation results selected algorithms that were applied during the simulation.
Table.3 gives the values of the PI controllers gains (Kp_VDC,
According to the PV inverter nature, its integration into the PV Ki_VDC, Kp_I, Ki_I), the rate of distortion of the AC current injected into
system connected to the grid requires a good performance controller the grid (THDi), the first overshoot (D %), the Settling time (Ts) and the

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N. Aouchiche
Fig. 9. Power factor of the grid, load and inverter.
static error for the four selected algorithms. Table.3 shows that ap-
plying GWO with the ITSE index, to optimize PI gains, gives the lowest
static error = 0.0028 kW and an overshoot (D) of 20.3689% that re-
mains high compared to those obtained by applying the other proposed
techniques. It is also noted that THD is 1.64%, which is the highest
although it complies with IEC and IEEE standards. It is remarked that
the ALO improves the performance of the PIs because D is reduced to
3.0838% which is the lowest and the corresponding static error is
0.0036 kW. The MFO using the IAE index has the shortest simulation
time (235,1 Mn). PIs based on the MFO offer a static error of
0.0036 kW, a settling time (Ts) equal to 0.076 s. These parameters are
slightly improved by the application of WOA. The gains obtained by
WOA permits to have the lowest values of THD = 1.46% and
Ts = 0.02 s. According to Table 3, the static error D are equal to
0.005 kW and 4.763% respectively.
Dynamic precision is characterized by the overshoot (D %). This
parameter is the occurrence of the transitory value exceeding the
steady-state value. La GWO using the ITSE index gives a low static
error = 0.0028 kW and the highest values of overshoot and settling
time equal to 20.3689% and 0,095 s respectively. This control system PI
is a slow one with a high precision. La ALO using the ITSE index gives
low values of static error, overshoot and settling time that equal to
0.0036 kW, 3.0838% and 0.074 s respectively. This control system PI is
a rapid one with a high precision. Fig. 7 shows PI current controller Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis of the current. Fig. 7 reveals that the
algorithms give good THD values that remain below 5% according to
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Solar Energy 207 (2020) 683–692
IEC 61,727 and IEEE 1547 standards (Chatterjee and Mohanty, 2018;
Long et al., 2019). In terms of the distortion rate, the WOA is the best
compared to the other algorithms with a THD = 1.46%.
Fig. 8 shows the signals of the direct current (Id), the quadrature
current (Iq) and the DC coupling voltage (VDC) that is regulated at
500 V. The PI, whose gains are adjusted by the WOA, forces the VDC to
stabilize at t = 0.026 s with D equal to 18.8%. It is observed that Id and
Iq reach steady-state rapidly in the external control loop using the PI
controller adjusted by WOA. According to the Table. 3, the Id and Iq
errors are equal to 4 * 10–5 and 0.0001 respectively, using this con-
troller. So, the WOA is superior compared to the ALO, MFO and GWO in
terms of dynamic performance and efficiency.
Fig. 9 presents the power factor curves of the inverter, load and the
power injected into the grid. According to Fig. 9, the power factor of the
grid stabilized at unity, while the load power factor is 0.952. Real and
reactive powers control during load variation is achieved by regulating
the direct and quadrature currents components. By applying the WOA,
the load and the network inverter power factor signals quickly reach
the steady-state with the smallest overshoot compared to other MHTs.
Fig. 10 gives the dynamic responses of the active and reactive
powers injected into the grid as well as those of the load and the PV
inverter. The PV inverter provides power distribution because it has
met the need for an active and reactive power load of 29.68 kW and
9.325 kVAR respectively. The additional active power (69.49 kW) is
injected into the power grid. The simulation results reveal that the PIs
gains, that are optimized by the WOA, allow having the best grid
N. Aouchiche
Fig. 10. Active and reactive powers dynamic behavior of grid, load and inverter.
connected PV system in terms of stability, performance speed, effi-
ciency and robustness compared to MFO, ALO and GWO.
6. Conclusion
This paper is devoted to enhancing the grid connected PV system
dynamic behavior. The aim is ameliorating the quality of the current
injected into the grid and to have a more robust PV system by im-
proving the performance of DC/AC control system that includes an
external DC coupling voltage control loop and an internal loop of direct
and quadrature current control (Id, Iq) provided by PLL. Each of these
two loops is controlled by a PI controller whose gains are modified by
applying MHTs to improve the dynamic response of the grid connected
PV system. So, the gain values of PI regulators are adjusted using four
proposed MHTs: ALO, MFO, WOA and GWO. Therefore, a comparative
study was conducted between the selected MHTs to define the best one
that allows having the best gains of the PI controllers. The simulation
results reveal that the WOA provides the best power factor and THD
values. Hence, the WOA is superior to other proposed MHTs in terms of
efficiency, dynamic response, stability and robustness.
The forthcoming research will suggest replacing PI controllers by
Fractional Order PI (FOPI) controllers. The same tests will be performed
to compare the performance of the FOPI and PI controllers. Also, it
would be interesting to achieve this study for different scenarios of
environmental conditions.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
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Solar Energy 207 (2020) 683–692
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
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