DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF 2KW SOLAR

PANEL INVERTER

BY

OMOSANYA, HAFEEZ ABOLADE

Matric NO: 10/ENG04/037

A FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ ELECTRONIC AND

COMPUTER ENGINEERING, AFE BABALOLA UNIVERSITY,
ADO-EKITI.

IN PARTIAL FUFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG)
DEGREE IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC
ENGINEERING

JUNE, 2015.
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this report was prepared and presented by OMOSANYA, HAFEEZ

ABOLADE with student matriculation number 10/ENG04/037 in the Department of

Electrical/Electronic and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, AfeBabalola University,

Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria under my supervision during the 2014/2015 academic session.

Student’s sinature

Supervisor: Date

Prof. Falaki S.O.

Supervisor: Date

Engr. Omitola O.O.

HOD EEE/COMP: Date:

Prof. Olowolafe J.O

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 DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to the Almighty God, the giver of life, the beautifier of destiny and the

dispenser of knowledge for His loving kindness, tender mercies, daily blessing, protection and

journey mercies since the commencement of my programme in this University. I also dedicate it

to my parent through whom God gave my life a shape. They have been there for me since I was

born and never denied me of education. May Almighty God continue to strengthen them

financially and make them healthy to reap the fruit of their labour. I also dedicate this report to the

founder of AfeBabalola University, Are AfeBabalola because without him there is no AfeBabalola

University and without AfeBabalola University, there might not have been this opportunity in my

life and in the life of other students. I also dedicate it to Mrs. Olawumi Kaka who is my tutor since

I have been admitted to this wonderful University.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I appreciate God, the greatest researcher, the creator of all things and the one that has always led

me through the path of the unknown. He has been faithful in the journey of my life. I am so grateful

to Him because His decision for design is not subjected to shear forces or bending moments, His

understanding is more than what human understanding can fathom. I give glory to the Trinity, who

can treat all cases, there is no way I can honor Him enough for all He has done for me.

My special appreciation goes to my supervisors Prof. Falaki S.O. and Engr. Omitola O.O. and to

my lecturers whose fatherly and motherly advice, devotion, guidance, sacrifice, suggestions,

understanding, technical advice, mentoring and patience in reading and correcting my write up

despite their tight schedule at all various stages of the work which have made the success of the

research a reality. Thank you for your valuable contribution.

Many thanks to the provost college of engineering Prof. I.E. Owolabi for his contributions, I am

also indebted to all-academic and Non-academic staff of Electrical/Electronic and Computer

Engineering Department for their immense contribution to my life and to this research work.

My profound gratitude also extends to my colleagues for their moral support and contribution to

my life.

Finally, I will forever be grateful to my parents Alh. &Alh.K.A. Omosanya for their financial,

moral, parental and spiritual support.

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 ABSTRACT

This project is about the design and construction of 2KW 230 volts solar panel inverter at a

frequency of 50Hz.

The device is constructed with locally sourced components and materials of regulated standard.

The basic principle of its operation is a simple conversion of 12V DC from a battery using

integrated circuits and semiconductors at a frequency of 50Hz, into a 230V AC across the windings

of a transformer. A solar panel is used to charge the battery using a solar charge controller.

This project (device) offers a better alternative to Public Power Supply, Generators as well as UPS

considering it is cost effective, noiseless and easy maintainability.

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 shows the circuit diagram designed by SwagatamMajumdar 9

Figure 2.2 shows the IC SG3524 12

Figure 2.3shows the IC 4066 13

Figure 2.4 shows the variable resistor 15

Figure 2.5 shows the fixed resistor 17

Figure 2.6 shows the diode IN4007 18

Figure 2.7 shows the capacitor 19

Figure 2.8 shows the NE555 Timer 20

Figure 2.9 shows the Transistor 21

Figure 2.10 shows the LM393 Comparator 23

Figure 2.11 Shows the LM317 Regulator 24

Figure 3.1 shows the Solar Panel Inverter Block Diagram 26

Figure 3.2 schematic diagram of solar panel connected to the battery 31

Figure 3.3 schematic diagram of solar panel connected to the battery with solar regulator 32

Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of an Inverter 34

Figure 3.4 Show the complete circuit diagram of the 2KW solar panel inverter 35

Figure 3.6 shows the primary and secondary winding of a transformer 40

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Figure 4.1 shows the inverter casing 45

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CERTIFICATION i

DEDICATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF FIGURES v

CHAPTER ONE 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Statement of Problem 2

1.3 Aim and Objectives 2

1.3.1 Aim 2

1.3.2 Objectives 2

1.4 Scope of Study 3

1.5 Significance of the Project 3

1.6 Inverters 4

1.6.1 Central Inverters 4

1.6.2 Micro Inverters 5

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 1.7 The BOS (Balance of System) 5

1.8 Solar Panels 6

1.8.1 Solar Panel Poly or Mono 6

CHAPTER TWO 7

LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 INTRODUCTION 7

2.2 Components used for the design 10

2.2.1 IC SG3524 10

2.2.1.1 Description 10

2.2.1.2 Features 11

2.2.1.3 Overview 11

2.2.2 IC 4066 12

2.2.2.1 General Description 12

2.2.2.2 Features 12

2.2.3 Variable Resistor 13

2.2.3.1 Variable Resistor Connection 13

2.2.3.2 Types of Variable Resistor 14

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 2.2.3.3 Uses of variable Resistors 15

2.2.3.4 Preset Variable Resistor 15

2.2.4 Fixed Resistor 16

2.2.5 Diode IN4007 17

2.2.5.1 Features 18

2.2.5.2 Typical applications 18

2.2.6 Capacitor (47uf/50v, 10uf/50v) 18

2.2.7 Transistor (BD139, C1815, A1015) 20

2.2.7.1 Description (BD139) 20

2.2.7.2 Features (BD139) 20

2.2.7.3 Features (C1815) 20

2.2.7.4 Features (A1015) 20

2.2.8 Timer (NE555) 21

2.2.8.1 Description 21

2.2.8.2 Features 21

2.2.8.3 Application Information 21

2.2.9 Comparator (LM393) 22

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 2.2.9.1 Description 22

2.2.9.2 Features 23

2.2.10 Regulator (LM117/LM317) 24

2.2.10.1 Description 24

2.2.10.2 Features 25

2.2.11 MOSFET 25

CHAPTER THREE 27

METHODOLOGY 27

3.1 Block Diagram of the System 27

3.2 System Operation with block diagram 27

3.3 Calculating the load 28

3.3.1 Types of Load 29

3.4 Calculate the Size of Solar Panels to Supply the Load 30

3.4.1 Peak Sun Hours 31

3.5 Solar Panel Positioning 31

3.5.1 Connecting Your Solar Panels – Direct Connection 32

3.6 Solar Regulators 32

3.7 Solar Panel Sizing 33

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3.8 Determination of the Oscillating Frequency 34

3.9 The Drain Current of the MOSFET 34

3.10 Design of the Inverter Circuit 36

3.11 The Battery 36

3.12 The AC Mains Supply 38

3.13 The AC Mains Sensor 38

3.14 The Oscillator 39

3.15 The Driver and the Output Amplifier 39

3.16 The Inverter Transformer 39

3.16.1 Working Principle of Transformer 40

3.16.2 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction 40

3.16.3 Main Constructional Parts of Transformer 41

3.17 The battery Charger 42

3.18 The Change Over 42

3.19 Inverter AC Output 43

3.20 Protections 43

3.21 Indicators 43

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 3.22 Switch 43

CHAPTER FOUR 44

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 44

4.1 Discussion 44

4.2 Testing of the Inverter under load condition 45

4.3 Construction 45

4.4 Casing 46

CHAPTER FIVE 47

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 47

5.1 CONCLUSION 47

5.2 RECOMMENDATION 47

REFERENCE 48

xii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The solar inverter is a critical component in a solar energy system. It performs the conversion of

the variable DC output of the Photovoltaic (PV) module(s) into a clean sinusoidal 50 or 60 Hz AC

current that is then applied directly to the commercial electrical grid or to a local, off-grid electrical

network. A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell) is the smallest solid-state device that converts

the energy of sunlight directly into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. A Photovoltaic (PV)

module is an assembly of cells in series or parallel to enlarge or increase voltage and/or current. A

Panel is an assembly of modules on a structure. An Array is an assembly of panels at a site.

Typically, communications capability is included so users can monitor the inverter and report on

power and operating conditions, provide firmware updates and control the inverter grid

connection.

At the heart of the inverter is a real-time microcontroller. The controller executes the very precise

algorithms required to invert the DC voltage generated by the solar module into AC. This controller

is programmed to perform the control loops necessary for all the power management functions

necessary including DC/DC and DC/AC. The controller also maximizes the power output from

the PV through complex algorithms called maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The PV

maximum output power is dependent on the operating conditions and varies from moment to

moment due to temperature, shading, soilage, cloud cover, and time of day so adjusting for this

maximum power point is a continuous process. For systems with battery energy storage, the

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controller can control the charging as well as switch over to battery power once the sun sets or

cloud cover reduces the PV output power. (Aditee P. Bapat et al 2013)

1.2 Statement of Problem

If there is one factor that has perpetually maintained the status of Nigeria as a less developed

country, it is its electricity sector.Till date, many households and businesses cannot be guaranteed

of 24 hours supply of electricity from the public grid. At this stage of Nigeria’s social and economic

development, the country cannot deliver adequate energy to the citizens despite huge financial

resources that have been expended in the sector.

Rather, Nigerians have continued to rely on electricity generators for their power supply, fuel

marketers are taking significant portion of households’ and businesses’ incomes to supply power,

noise pollution from regular humming generators have become integral part of living for many

Nigerians with imaginable consequences on their health. Because of these problems, there is a

need to design and construct the solar panel inverter which will complement the electricity supply

from the public grid. It is less noisy and does not have any consequence(s) on human health.

(Lookman Oshodi 2014)

1.3 Aim and Objectives

1.3.1 Aim

The aim of this project is to design and construct a 2000Watt solar panel inverter.

1.3.2 Objectives

The objectives of this project are;

1. To provide efficiency, steadiness in the use of power appliances, by ensuring continuous

availability of power supply even in the absence of mains.

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 2. To eliminate all suspense from mains outage during the execution of an important and

urgent assignment as may be required.

3. To design a simple and rugged technology; this will utilize the appropriate use of home or

local electrical appliances.

1.4 Scope of Study

This solar power source makes it possible to provide a clean reliable supply of alternative

electricity free of sags or surges which could be found in the line voltage frequency (50Hz). This

project design aims at creating a 2000watts power source which can be utilized as a regular power

source by remote rural industries and private individuals at home or in the office. This project

involves the design and construction of a 2000Watt Solar PV (photovoltaic) system which involves

a solar panel, car battery and an inverter. Furthermore, as a consumer is generating his or her own

electricity they also will benefit from a reduction in their electricity bills.

1.5 Significance of the Project

The solar inverter is the second most important (and second most expensive) component of a solar

PV system. It’s important because it converts the raw Direct Current (DC) solar power that is

produced by your solar panels into Alternating Current (AC) power that comes out of the wall

sockets. Inverters also have technology that maximizes the power output of that DC energy.

The use of solar power has many advantages. First, the energy from the sun is free and readily

accessible in most parts of the world. Moreover, the sun will keep shining until the world's end.

Also, silicon from which most photovoltaic cells are made is an abundant and nontoxic element

(the second most abundant material in the earth's crust).

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Second, the whole energy conversion process is environmentally friendly. It produces no noise,

harmful emissions or polluting gases. The burning of natural resources for energy can create

smoke, cause acid rain and pollute water and air. Carbon dioxide, CO2, a leading greenhouse gas,

is also produced in the case of burning fuels. Solar power uses only the power of the sun as its

fuel. It creates no harmful by-product and contributes actively to the reduction of global warming.

1.6 Inverters

The inverter takes DC power from the charged battery bank and converts it to AC power for the

typical household lights and appliances. Once the number of watt-hours required for a day is

determined, the peak loads need to be ascertained to properly size the inverter. This is the amount

of watts used based on all appliances and loads that will be running at one time. A water pump

and washing machine motor is an example of what may be the peak load requirements. A 1/2 HP

(horse power) pump and washing machine will use about 1875 (adjusted) watts per hour. If this

represents the total peak loads, an inverter that will be able to supply at least 1875 watts of

continuous power from the battery bank; say one in the 2000 watt range will be needed. It's a good

idea to start out the system with the size of inverter you plan to grow into, as upgrading to newer,

larger models is costly. (Pure Energies 2014)

There are two basic types of inverters.

1.6.1 Central Inverters

Central inverters are well-tested and reliable systems that have been around for decades. These are

the most common types of inverters. With central inverters, every solar panel is wired in a “string”

to the inverter box. The conversion from DC to AC occurs at one central location, such as a garage.

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Because the solar panels are wired in “series,” each panel’s power output depends on all of the

panels working. For example, In a string of Christmas tree lights. If one bulb goes out, the whole

string of lights go out until the bad bulb is replaced. So, if shade from a tree covers one panel, it

can seriously diminish the power produced by the whole solar system until the shade clears. This

is why an accurate shade analysis is so important.

1.6.2 Micro Inverters

Micro inverters are relatively new to solar. Instead of converting the DC to AC power at a central

location, micro inverters are installed right under each solar panel. The main advantage to micro

inverters is the ability for each solar panel to transmit power into the house. In other words, each

panel produces its own solar power and keeps producing out solar watts regardless of what

happening to the panel beside it. The down side of micro inverters is that they can be more

expensive and take more labour cost to replace each inverter. Also, because they are so new, micro

inverter reliability is unproven outside of lab testing. (Pure Energies 2014)

1.7 The BOS (Balance of System)

There are many other less well known and less expensive parts to a solar system. Installers

typically wrap these up into “The BOS” or “Balance of System.”

The balance of system includes components such as wiring, emergency DC disconnects, system

monitoring hardware, the frames or “racking” that holds your panels to the roof and at the right

angle, nuts, bolts, roof “flashing” to prevent leaks, and more. (Pure Energies 2014)

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1.8 Solar Panels

Solar Panels can be used for charging your batteries. They provide a good solution for those that

want to be self-sufficient and go on long camping missions through remote areas. They are

available in various voltage and power ratings. More than one solar panel can be used in parallel

to combine their power output. Solar panels joined in parallel work most efficiently if they are the

same. If they are the same, you can design it so that they both generate power at their optimal

operating points. Mixing different panels together gives a compromised operating point. It will

work but the panels will not operate as efficiently.

1.8.1 Solar Panel Poly or Mono

Silicon solar panels have two basic construction methods – polycrystalline or monocrystalline.

There are slight differences between poly and mono cells. Mono are slightly more expensive,

require more energy to make, and are slightly more efficient. Poly are slightly cheaper, use less

energy to make so are better for the environment, are slightly less efficient but have a slightly

better temperature coefficient. That means at elevated temperatures the poly cells become more

efficient.

The differences are only slight. It is largely irrelevant. A solar panel with good efficiency and good

temperature coefficient is to be used whether it is poly or mono, it does not matter.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The use of the sun’s energy is nothing new and dates back to the beginning of time. In recent years

however, the focus on energy consumption worldwide rapidly encourages the research and

development of an alternative fuel source including the sun, wind, hydro, wave, geothermal,

hydrogen and other forms of energy. And today, because of that focus, the use of solar energy is

expanding by leaps and bounds especially since sunlight is free, unlimited, readily available, clean

and reliable.

A solar power system is one which is capable of converting the absorbed sun energy; store it in a

lead acid cell to be used on the load. In this part of the world, where power supply is not effective

and efficient, the use of solar power supply is of immense value and advantage considering the

fact that we are blessed or rich in sun light i.e. high degrees of temperatures which is the main

thing that feeds a solar power supply unit for uses. It is low cost compared to other alternative

sources of power supply in this society e.g. the use of generators which consume fuel or diesel and

are really expensive, and its life span is better and reliable when used under or within or above the

stipulated rating of the solar power device. (Ezugwu 2012)

SwagatamMajumdar, 2012 did a homemade 2000 VA power inverter circuit. He explained that

making a power inverter rated above 500 VA is always difficult, mainly because of the involved

transformer dimension which becomes quite huge, unmanageable and difficult to configure

correctly.

Power inverters in the range of KVA, requires huge current transferring capabilities for

7
implementing the required operations as per the desired specifications of the unit.

Transformer being the main power making component of such an inverter, requires high current

handling secondary winding if the used battery voltage is at the lower side, for example 12 or 24

volts. In order to optimize the transformer at lower currents, the voltage needs to be pushed at

higher levels which again becomes a problem, because higher voltage means putting batteries in

series. The above problems can definitely demoralize any new electronic hobbyists or anybody

who might be planning to make a rather big inverter design, may be for controlling the whole

house electrical. An innovative approach for making things simpler even with huge power inverter

designs has been discussed which uses smaller discrete transformers with individual drivers for

implementing a 2000 VA inverter circuit. He studied the circuit diagram below and its operations

with the following points: Basically the idea is to divide the power into many different smaller

transformers whose outputs can be fed to individual sockets for operating the relevant electrical

appliances. This method helped him to avoid the need of hefty and complicated transformers, and

the proposed design becomes feasible even for an electronic novice to understand and construct.

Four IC4049s have been employed in this design. A single 4049 consists of 6 NOT gates or

inverters, so in all 24 of them have been used here.

Two of gates are wired up for generating the basic required square wave pulses and the rest of the

gates are simply held as buffers for driving the next relevant stages. Each transformer utilizes a

couple of gates and the respective high current Darlington transistors which function as the driver

transistors. The associated gates conduct alternately and drive the transistors in accordance.

The MOSFETs which are connected to the driver transistors respond to the above high current

signals and start pumping the battery voltage directly into the winding of the respective

transformers. Due to this an induced high voltage AC starts flowing through the complementary

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output winding of all the involved transformers, generating the required AC 220 V or 120 V at the

respective outputs. These voltages become available in small sockets, so only the relevant

magnitude of power can be expected from each of the transformers. The 555 section takes care of

the square wave output generated from the oscillator stage such that these are broken into sections

and optimized for replicating a modified sine wave output. All the parts after POINT X in the

circuit diagram below should be repeated for acquiring discrete power output sections, the

common input of all these stages must be joined to POINT X. Each of the transformer may be

rated at 200 VA, so together, 11 stages (after pointX) would provide roughly outputs up to 2000

VA. Though using many transformers instead of a single transformer might look like a small

drawback, the actual need of deriving 2000 VA using ordinary parts and concepts finally becomes

easily achievable from the above design. (SwagatamMajumdar2012)

Figure 2.1 shows the circuit diagram designed by SwagatamMajumdar(SwagatamMajumdar

2012)

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Ezugwu (2012) designed and constructed a 200W solar system. The 200W solar system was

determined by load assessment, solar panel number determination, battery requirement and then

inverter sizing. A complete solar panel rated at 200w was however purchased, together with 2

number 150A solar battery, 1500W inverter and also 10A charge controller. These were assembled

together with necessary protective gadgets like cut out switches; to give the 200W expected. The

solar panel was mounted outside a building to allow for maximum collection of sun energy. It is

expected that the system will help her department meet up with its office duties even when central

power is not available.

2.2 Components used for the design

For this project to be completed there is a need to know the components used for the design. These

include:

2.2.1 IC SG3524

2.2.1.1 Description

The SG3524 and SG2524 devices incorporate all the functions required in the construction of a

regulating power supply, inverter, or switching regulator on a single chip. They also can be used

as the control element for high-power-output applications. The SG3524 and SG2524 were

designed for switching regulators of polarity, transformer-coupled dc-to-dc converters,

transformerless voltage doublers, and polarity-converter applications employing fixed-frequency,

pulse-width modulation (PWM) techniques. The complementary output allows either single-ended

or push-pull application. Each device includes an on-chip regulator, error amplifier, programmable

oscillator, pulse-steering flip-flop, two uncommitted pass transistors, a high-gain comparator, and

current-limiting and shutdown circuitry. (Texas instrument 2014)

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2.2.1.2 Features

1. Complete Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) Power-Control Circuitry.

2. Uncommitted Outputs for Single-Ended or Push- Pull Applications.

3. 8mA Standby Current.

2.2.1.3 Overview

SG3524 is a fixed-frequency pulse-width-modulation (PWM) voltage-regulator control circuit.

The regulator operates at a fixed frequency that is programmed by one timing resistor, RT, and

one timing capacitor, CT (capacitor terminal). RT (resistor terminal) establishes a constant

charging current for CT. This results in a linear voltage ramp at CT, which is fed to the comparator,

providing linear control of the output pulse duration (width) by the error amplifier.

The SG3524 contains an onboard 5-V regulator that serves as a reference, as well as supplying the

SG3524 internal regulator control circuitry. The internal reference voltage is divided externally by

a resistor ladder network to provide a reference within the common-mode range of the error

amplifier as or an external reference can be used.

The output is sensed by a second resistor divider network and the error signal is amplified. This

voltage is then compared to the linear voltage ramp at CT. The resulting modulated pulse out of

the high-gain comparator then is steered to the appropriate output pass transistor (Q1 or Q2) by

the pulse-steering flip-flop, which is synchronously toggled by the oscillator output. The oscillator

output pulse also serves as a blanking pulse to ensure both outputs are never on simultaneously

during the transition times. The duration of the blanking pulse is controlled by the value of CT.

11
 Figure 2.2 shows the IC SG3524

2.2.2 IC 4066

2.2.2.1 General Description

The CD4066BC is a quad bilateral switch intended for the transmission or multiplexing of analog

or digital signals. It is pin-for-pin compatible with CD4016BC, but has a much lower “ON”

resistance, and “ON” resistance is relatively constant over the input-signal range.

2.2.2.2 Features

1. Wide supply voltage range 3V to 15V.

2. High noise immunity 0.45 VDD.

3. Wide range of digital and ±7.5 𝑉 PEAKanalog switching.

4. “ON” resistance for 15V operation 80Ω.

5. Matched “ON” resistance ∆RON =5Ω over 15V signal input.

6. “ON” resistance flat over peak-to-peak signal range.

7. High “ON”/“OFF” 65 dB output voltage ratio at F=10 kHz, RL=10 kΩ.

8. Control Line Biasing: Switch On (Logic 1), VC=VDD; Switch Off (Logic 0), VC=VSS.

9. High degree linearity 0.1% distortion.

10. Extremely low “OFF” 0.1 nA switch leakage.

11. Extremely high control input impedance 1012Ω.

12
 Figure 2.3shows the IC 4066

2.2.3 Variable Resistor

Variable Resistor is an electronic component. It is applied in an electronic circuit for adjusting

circuit resistance to control voltage or current of that circuit or part of that circuit. The electrical

resistance is varied by sliding a wiper contact along a resistance track. Sometimes the resistance

is adjusted at preset value as required at the time of circuit building by adjusting screw attached to

it and sometimes resistance can be adjusted as when required by controlling knob connected to it.

The active resistance value of the variable resistor depends upon the position of the slider contact

on the resistance track.

It mainly consists of a resistance track and a wiper contact. The wiper contact moves along the

resistance track when adjustable component is adjusted. There are mainly three different types of

resistance track used in this resistor they are carbon track, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture)

track and wire wound track. Carbon track and cermet track are used for high resistance application

whereas wire wound track is used for low resistance variable resistor. The resistance tracks

generally are of circular shape but straight track is also used in many cases. (Electrical4u 2014)

2.2.3.1 Variable Resistor Connection

It is used as a rheostat when one end of the resistance track and wiper terminal is connected to the

circuit and other terminal of resistance track remains open. In this case the electrical resistance

13
between connected terminal and wiper terminal depends upon the position of the wiper (slider) on

the resistance track. A variable resistor can also be used as a potentiometer when both ends of the

resistance track are connected to the input circuit and one of the said ends of resistance track and

wiper terminal is connected to the output circuit. In this case all three terminals are in use.

Sometimes in electronics circuit there may be requirement of adjustable resistance but this

adjustment is required only once or very often. This is done by connecting preset resistors in the

circuit. Preset resistor is one kind of variable resistor whose electrical resistance value can be

adjusted by adjusting an adjustable screw attached to it. (John 2010)

2.2.3.2 Types of Variable Resistor

Resistance track wise there are mainly two types of resistance track available one is linear track

and other is logarithmic track. In linear track the resistance value varies linearly with changing

slider position on the track. That means the resistance and the position of slider, form a straight

line characteristics curve. When the resistance of variable resistor, varies logarithmically with

position of the slider contact on the resistance track, the track is referred as logarithmic track.

The resistance value and type of track are marked on the resistor itself. For example when a

variable resistor is marked as 5K9 LIN means it has maximum 5.9 kilo Ω resistance and has a

linear resistance track. Again when a resistor is marked as 2M LOG, it will have maximum

2megaΩ resistance and it has logarithmic track. Preset resistors are linear track type.

But the variable resistors used for volume control in sound system are mainly LOG type as our

ears have logarithmic response to the loudness. In GOL resistor, the resistance changes slowly at

beginning and rapidly at towards end of the track. (John 2010)

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2.2.3.3 Uses of variable Resistors

A variable resistor can be used mainly in two different ways. When one end of resistance track

and wiper terminal is connected with circuit then current through the resistor limits according to

the position of the wiper contact on the resistance track. As the wiper contact slides away from the

connected end of the resistance track, the resistive value of the resistor increases and current goes

down through the circuit. That means the variable resistor behaves like a rheostat.

Another use is as potentiometer. In this case the two ends of resistance track are connected with a

voltage source. Hence voltage drop across the resistance track is equal to the value of voltage

source. Now the output or load circuit is connected across one end of the resistance track and wiped

terminal. Hence voltage across the load terminals is the fraction of source voltage and it depends

upon the position of the wiper terminals on the resistance track. This is another widely used

application of variable resistors. This is needless to say; potentiometers are used to control voltages

whereas rheostats are used to control electric currents. (John 2010)

2.2.3.4 Preset Variable Resistor

This is micro version of variable resistor. Preset resistors are directly mounted on circuit board and

adjusted only when the circuit is built. There is an adjustable screw attached to the resistor and a

small screwdriver is required to adjust this screw for desired resistance value. These resistors are

quite cheaper than standard variable resistor available in the market.

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 Figure 2.4 shows the variable resistor

2.2.4 Fixed Resistor

A fixed resistor is part of an electric circuit and is used to reduce the flow of electricity. Resistance

is measured in Ohms and is typically shown as the number and then the units; for example, a 750

Ohm resistor would be written as 750-Ohm. The size of the resistor is based on the number of

Ohms, and it can range from pin to book size.

Resistors come in two classes: fixed and variable. A fixed resistor is set at a specific value and

cannot be changed. A variable resistor is able to manage flows at a specific level and below. This

is an important distinction and determines when and where a resistor should be used.When

selecting a resistor, it is important for a person to consider three things: the value of the resistor,

its tolerance, and its power rating. The value is measured in Ohms. The tolerance indicates the

upper and lower bounds of actual performance, which is measured in plus and minus percentage.

For example, a tolerance of 10% means that the resistor performs within a 10% range of the

resistance value listed in the specifications.Power rating shows the upper limit of power that can

be managed by the resistor and is measured in watts. To calculate the power, a person can multiply

the resistance value of the resistor by the square root of the current. If the power rating is exceeded,

the resistor will fail. A rule of thumb is to use a resistor with a power rating two times higher than

the actual power needed.

16
There are two kinds of fixed resistors: carbon and metal film. Carbon film resistors are designed

for general use and are fairly cheap to produce and purchase. These units have a tolerance of 5%,

with power ratings of 1/8 Watts (W), 1/4W, and 1/2W. The primary issue with this type of resistor

is the fact they generate electrical noise.

A metal film resistor is best used when a higher tolerance is required. These units have a greater

level of accuracy than carbon film resistors, due to the nature of the materials used. There is a

corresponding increase in price, but it may be well worth the incremental cost to protect the other

components of the circuitry.When reviewing the different types of resistors, individuals should

think about the intended use of the circuit. They should select a manufacturer with a good

reputation for quality and consistency, and take the time to test the resistor and the circuit before

installation to ensure all the specifications are correct. (Carol Francois, 2015)

Figure 2.5 shows the fixed resistor

2.2.5 Diode IN4007

A diode is an electronic component with two electrodes (connectors). It acts like a gate or a valve,

allowing electricity to go in one direction, but eventually some of the current will flow in the

opposite direction, at the initial level of operation.

Diodes can be used to convert alternating current to direct current (Diode bridge). They are often

used in power supplies and sometimes to decode amplitude modulation radio signals (like in a

17
crystal radio). Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a type of diode that produce light and are used in

many places. Today, the most common diodes are made from semiconductor materials such as

silicon or sometimes germanium. (Diodes incorporated, 2015)

2.2.5.1 Features

1. Diffused Junction.

2. Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak.

3. Low Reverse Leakage Current.

4. Low forward voltage drop.

5. High forward surge capability.

2.2.5.2 Typical applications

For use in general purpose rectification of power supplies, inverters, converters and freewheeling

diodes application.

Figure 2.6 shows the diode IN4007

2.2.6 Capacitor (47uf/50v, 10uf/50v)

Capacitor is a device for the storage of electric charge. Simple capacitors consist of two plates

made of an electrically conducting material (e.g., a metal) and separated by a nonconducting

material or dielectric (e.g., glass, paraffin, mica, oil, paper, tantalum, or air). The Leyden jar is a

18
simple capacitor. If an electrical potential (voltage) is applied to the plates of a capacitor (e.g., by

connecting one plate to the positive and the other to the negative terminal of a storage battery), the

plates will become charged, one positively and one negatively. If the externally applied voltage is

then removed, the plates of the capacitor remain charged, and the presence of the electric charge

induces an electrical potential between the plates. This phenomenon is called electrostatic

induction. The capacity of the device for storing electric charge (i.e., its capacitance) can be

increased by increasing the area of the plates, by decreasing their separation, or by changing the

dielectric. The dielectric constant of a particular dielectric is the measure of the dielectric's unit

capacitance. It describes the ratio of the capacitance of a dielectric-filled capacitor to a capacitor

of the same size with a vacuum between the plates. Capacitors are used in many electrical and

electronic devices. The main capacitor classifications are non-polarized (used for AC circuits) and

polarized (used for DC circuits). Capacitors can also be classified as fixed or variable. One type of

variable capacitor, formerly used in radio and television tuning circuits, consisted of two sets of

semicircular plates, one fixed and the other mounted on a movable shaft. By rotating the shaft the

area of overlap of the two plates increases or decreases, thus increasing or decreasing the

capacitance. These devices have largely been replaced by frequency synthesizers and a special

type of solid-state diode, known as a varactor, whose capacitance changes with the reverse-biased

voltage across it.

Figure 2.7 shows the capacitor

19
2.2.7 Transistor (BD139, C1815, A1015)

Give brief explanation about transistor first

2.2.7.1 Description (BD139)

These epitaxial planar transistors are mounted in the SOT-32 plastic package. They are designed

for audio amplifiers and drivers utilizing complementary or quasi-complementary circuits.

The NPN types are the BD135 and BD139, and the complementary PNP types are the BD136 and

BD140. (Elite Enterprises H.K, 2015)

2.2.7.2 Features (BD139)

1. It is a complement to BD136, BD138 and BD140 respectively.

2. Products are pre-selected in DC current gain

2.2.7.3 Features (C1815)

1. It has a power dissipation of 0.2W

2. It has a collector current 0.15A

3. It has a collector-base voltage 60V

2.2.7.4 Features (A1015)

1. It has high voltage and high current.

2. Excellent Linearity.

3. Low noise.

4. It is complementary to C1815

20
 Figure 2.7 shows the Transistor

2.2.8 Timer (NE555)

2.2.8.1 Description

The NE555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or oscillation. Additional

terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay mode of operation,

the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as an

oscillator, the free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled with two external

resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the

output circuit can source or sink up to 200 mA. (Texas Instrument 2014)

2.2.8.2 Features

1. Timing from microseconds to hours.

2. Astable or monostable operation.

3. Adjustable duty cycle.

4. Compatible output can sink or source up to 200 mA.

2.2.8.3 Application Information

The NE555 timer devices use resistor and capacitor charging delay to provide a programmable

time delay or operating frequency.

21
 Figure 2.8 shows the NE555 Timer

2.2.9 Comparator (LM393)

Low Offset Voltage Dual Comparators

The LM393 series are dual independent precision voltage comparators capable of single or split

supply operation. These devices are designed to permit a common mode range to ground level

with single supply operation. Input offset voltage specifications as low as 2.0 mV make this device

an excellent selection for many applications in consumer, automotive, and industrial electronics.

2.2.9.1 Description

The LM393 series consists of two independent precision voltage comparators with an offset

voltage specification as low as 2.0mV max. For two comparators which were designed specifically

to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power

supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude

of the power supply voltage.

These comparators also have a unique characteristic in that the input common-mode voltage range

includes ground, even though operated from a single power supply voltage.

22
The LM393 series was designed to directly interface with TTL and CMOS. When operated from

both plus and minus power supplies, the LM393 series will directly interface with MOS logic

where their low power drain is a distinct advantage over standard comparators.

2.2.9.2 Features

1. Wide Single−Supply Range: 2.0Vdc to 36Vdc.

2. Split−Supply Range: 1.0Vdc to 18Vdc.

3. Very Low Current Drain Independent of Supply Voltage: 0.4 mA.

4. Low Input Bias Current: 25 nA.

5. Low Input Offset Current: 5.0 nA.

6. Low Input Offset Voltage: 5.0 mV (max) LM293/393.

7. Input Common Mode Range to Ground Level.

8. Differential Input Voltage Range Equal to Power Supply Voltage.

9. These Devices are Lead Free, Halogen Free

Figure 2.9 shows the LM393 Comparator

23
2.2.10 Regulator (LM117/LM317)

2.2.10.1 Description

The LM117 series of adjustable 3-terminal positive voltage regulators is capable of supplying in

excess of 1.5A over a 1.2V to 37V output range. They are exceptionally easy to use and require

only two external resistors to set the output voltage. Further, both line and load regulations are

better than standard fixed regulators. Also, the LM117 is packaged in standard transistor packages

which are easily mounted and handled. In addition to higher performance than fixed regulators,

the LM117 series offers full overload protection available only in IC's. Included on the chip are

current limit, thermal overload protection and safe area protection. All overload protection

circuitry remains fully functional even if the adjustment terminal is disconnected.

Normally, no capacitors are needed unless the device is situated more than 6 inches from the input

filter capacitors in which case an input bypass is needed.An optional output capacitor can be added

to improve transient response. The adjustment terminal can bebypassed to achieve very high ripple

rejection ratios which are difficult to achieve with standard 3-terminal regulators. Besides

replacing fixed regulators, the LM117 is useful in a wide variety of other applications. Since the

regulator is “floating” and sees only the input-to- output differential voltage, supplies of several

hundred volts can be regulated as long as the maximum input to output differential is not exceeded,

i.e., avoid short-circuiting the output.

Also, it makes an especially simple adjustable regulator, a programmable output regulator or by

connecting a fixed resistor between the adjustment pin and output, the LM117 can be used as a

precision current regulator. Supplies with electronic shutdown can be achieved by clamping the

adjustment terminal to ground which programs the output to 1.2V where most loads draw little

current. (Texas Instrument, 2014)

24
2.2.10.2 Features

1. Output-currentin excess of 1.5A.

2. Output-Adjustable between 1.2v and 37v.

3. Internal thermal overload protection.

4. Internal short-circuit current limiting.

5. Output-transistor safe operating area compensation.

Figure 2.10 Shows the LM317 Regulator

2.2.11 MOSFET

Discrete power MOSFETs employ semiconductor processing techniques that are similar to those

of today's VLSI circuits, although the device geometry, voltage and current levels are significantly

different from the design used in VLSI devices. The metal oxide semiconductor field effect

transistor (MOSFET) is based on the original field-effect transistor introduced in the 70s. The

invention of the power MOSFET was partly driven by the limitations of bipolar power junction

transistors (BJTs) which, until recently was the device of choice in power electronics

applications.Although it is not possible to define absolutely the operating boundaries of a power

device, we will loosely refer to the power device as any device that can switch at least 1A. The

bipolar power transistor is a current controlled device. A large base drive current as high as one-

fifth of the collector current is required to keep the device in the ON state.

25
Also, higher reverse base drive currents are required to obtain fast turn-off. Despite the very

advanced state of manufacturability and lower costs of BJTs, these limitations have made the base

drive circuit design more complicated and hence more expensive than the power MOSFET.

Another BJT limitation is that both electrons and holes contribute to conduction. Presence of holes

with their higher carrier lifetime causes the switching speed to be several orders of magnitude

slower than for a power MOSFET of similar size and voltage rating. Also, BJTs suffer from

thermal runaway. Their forward voltage drop decreases with increasing temperature causing

diversion of current to a single device when several devices are paralleled. Power MOSFETs, on

the other hand, are majority carrier devices with no minority carrier injection. They are superior to

the BJTs in high frequency applications where switching power losses are important. Plus, they

can withstand simultaneous application of high current and voltage without undergoing destructive

failure due to second breakdown. Power MOSFETs can also be paralleled easily because the

forward voltage drop increases with increasing temperature, ensuring an even distribution of

current among all components. (Duncan A. Grant, 2015)

26
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Block Diagram of the System

SOLAR PHCN/MAINS
PANEL

CHARGE BATTERY DC/AC

CONTROLLER INVERTER/CHARGER

UTILITY

Figure 3.1 shows the Solar Panel Inverter Block Diagram

3.2 System Operation with Block Diagram

The solar panel absorbs energy produced by the sun and converts it into electrical energy. It does

this by absorbing the sun rays into the modules of the solar panel hence produced free electrical

charge carriers in the conduction and valence bands. The electricity produced by the solar panel

was then transferred to the charge controller as shown in fig 3.1 above. The charge controller

regulates the rate at which electric current were drawn in and out of the battery. It turns off charge

when the battery reaches the optimum charging point and turns it on when it goes below a certain

level. It fully charges the battery without permitting overcharge.

27
The regulated voltage from the charge controller was then transferred to the solar battery. The

batteries were the key component in this solar power system. It provided energy storage for the

system. The energy stored in the batteries was then used to power the load but it was first converted

to AC voltage by the use of an inverter due to they were AC loads. The photovoltaic ally produced

direct current was commuted periodically by controlled oscillatory system and feed to power

electronic semiconductor switches such as transistors which were connected the power

transformer. Here the voltage was stepped up to the desired ac voltage. The inverter could also

charge the battery when there is public power supply.

3.3 Calculating the load

In other to determine the power use of each appliance and howlong they will be operated, the

appliance datasheets or nameplates should be checked. If their consumption is in amps, multiply

by their voltage to yield their power. If they are AC loads driven by an inverter, multiply the power

by 1.1 to take into account the losses in the inverter.

To calculate the total Watthour (Wh) consumed in a 24hr period. Multiply the power consumption

of the appliance by the number of hours it runs per day and sum together with all the other

appliances.

As an example – a large fridge that is rated at an average of 2.1A at 12V, a small fridge used as a

freezer rated at 1A at 12V (double the rated current use when used as a freezer – 2A instead of

1A), an LED light rated at 0.5A at 12V that operates for a couple of hours per day, and an 240V AC

television rated at 180W used for a couple of hours per day.

Large fridge (Wh):2.1 × 12 × 24 = 605𝑊ℎ

Freezer (Wh): 2 × 12 × 24 = 576𝑊ℎ

LED Light (Wh): 0.5 × 12 × 2 = 12𝑊ℎ

28
TV (Wh):180 × 1.1 × 2 = 396𝑊ℎ

Total energy consumption over 24hr period: 605 + 576 + 12 + 396 = 1589Wh

3.3.1 Types of Load

1. Resistive Loads: Resistive loads are loads which consume electrical energy in a sinusoidal

manner. This means that the current flow is in time with and directly proportional to the

voltage. It is a load that contains no inductance or capacitance, just pure resistance.

Therefore; when a resistive load is energized, the current rises instantly to its steady-state

value without first rising to a higher value. It includes loads such as incandescent lighting

and electrical heaters.

2. Inductive Loads: An Inductive Load is a load that pulls a large amount of current (an

inrush current) when first energized. After a few cycles or seconds the current "settles

down" to the full-load running current. Inductive loads can cause excessive voltages to

appear when switched. Examples of Inductive Loads are motors, transformers, and wound

control gear.

3. Capacitive Loads: A Capacitive Load is an AC electrical load in which the current wave

reaches its peak before the voltage. Capacitive loads are loads that capacitance exceeds

inductance. Example of a Capacitive Load is the flash of a camera, capacitors, wiring,

cable. (TEPCO 2010)

29
3.4 Calculate the Size of Solar Panels to Supply the Load

The size of solar panels you need is the energy consumption in a 24hr period divided by the number

of hours in a day that the solar panels produce energy for. For number of hours, we use peak sun

hours which is explained below. If we assume we are in a sunny area with 8 peak sun hours per

day we get:

Solar Panel Rating = 1589 / 8 = 199W

So in this case you need around 199W of solar panels. What if it’s cloudy? What if your panels

are dirty? What if your panels are not faced directly at the sun and at the correct angle? What if

you leave the lights on longer than calculated? What about the loss in panel efficiency with

elevated temperatures? What about loss in panel efficiency as they age? What about the fact that

the regulator is not 100% efficient? What about the variation in load from the fridges depending

on ambient temperature? What about variations in irradiation due to season?? What if, at the same

time, I want to chill a carton of warm coca cola, charge a laptop and charge a torch?

So the equation would become incredibly complicated if you were to try to work it all out. You

need to multiply by a fudge factor. The fudge factor is a number anywhere between 1 and infinity.

It’s simply down to probability of running out of power. Assuming you run your system 24 hours

a day 365 days a year, if your fudge factor is 1, then you might run out of power most of the time.

There is no way to guarantee power; you are simply shifting the probability. If you are powering

life critical systems your fudge factor might be 10 or more. A typical fudge factor might be say

1.2. So in our example it changes:

Solar Panel Rating = (1589 ÷ 8) × 1.2 = 238W

30
3.4.1 Peak Sun Hours

‘Peak sun hours’ is a way to standardize how much sunlight a particular area receives at a particular

time of year. It’s the equivalent number of hours per day when solar irradiation averages 1000

watts per square meter. The units are kWh per square meter per day. I used 9 hours in the

calculation above. Peak sun hours for many places in Nigeria during dry season is around 8 hours.

Some places it is more, some places it is less. Eight is a reasonable estimate for Nigeria in dry

season. What about wet season? In northern cities we might expect 2 to 3 peak sun hours during

wet season. In south, west in wet season we could be around 1.5 to 2 peak sun hours per day. So

we can see there is a lot of variation depending on location and season. This has to be taken into

account when sizing the panels. If the above system needed to work in south-west in the middle

of wet season then, using the same 1.2 fudge factor, the calculation would be:

(1589 ÷ 1.5) × 1.2 = 1271W

So we would need around 8 x 130W panels.

3.5 Solar Panel Positioning

The solar panels should be pointed directly to the sun, perpendicular to the sun’s rays. If there are

multiple panels then it is suggested that they should all be positioned the same direction. Actually

each panel individually should be positioned as close as perfectly perpendicular to the sun’s rays

as possible regardless of the position of the other panels. The voltage versus current relationship

and the resistance in the electrical distribution will allow the better positioned solar panels to

provide more energy even if it’s not as much as when all panels are ideally positioned. Of course

the maximum energy is obtained when all panels are ideally positioned in which case they will all

be positioned the same.

31
3.5.1 Connecting Your Solar Panels – Direct Connection

You can connect the solar panels directly to the auxiliary battery. This is the simplest system but

it’s quite a poor arrangement. There is potential to overcharge and damage your battery. A solar

panel will continue to charge to its open circuit voltage, which is usually around 17.5V for panels

used in 12V systems. This is much too high for lead acid batteries and will cause excessive grid

corrosion and pressure venting and damage of the battery. Small panels will still lead to the

overcharge condition, it will just take longer. Another negative aspect to this arrangement is that

the solar panel is not allowed to operate at its optimal voltage. The voltage is clamped to whatever

the battery voltage is. So the solar panel will not be able to achieve its rated power output and it

will take longer to charge your battery.

Figure 3.2 schematic diagram of solar panel connected to the battery

3.6 Solar Regulators

To overcome the limitations of a direct solar panel connection to your auxiliary battery, a solar

regulator is used. Some solar panels come with an integrated solar regulator. Some dual battery

isolator and DC-DC converter vendors also provide solutions for solar charging and distribution.

For the purpose of this project I used a separate third party solar regulator. Solar regulators charge

the battery according to an optimized charging profile, reducing grid corrosion and will terminate

32
the charge at the correct voltage. The best solar regulators are of the type Maximum Power Point

Tracking (MPPT). These regulators load the solar panels according to their optimized current and

voltage characteristics for the given level of irradiation. This ensures your solar panels are

operating as efficiently as possible, providing you with the most energy and highest charge rate

possible. MPPT solar regulators are the best solution for connecting solar panels. To size the solar

regulator, sum the total power output of all the panels together and divide by 12 to give you a

current rating. The solar regulator needs to exceed this value. So for a 130W solar panel that I am

using, the current would be

130
= 10.8𝐴. (The rating of the solar regulator needs to exceed this).
12

Figure 3.3 schematic diagram of solar panel connected to the battery with solar regulator

3.7 Solar Panel Sizing

How much solar panel do you need? You can get a rough idea from the loads you want to run. It

is best to work in power when calculating solar panel load. It avoids confusion when running

appliances at different voltages (for example AC appliances through an inverter). The current

provided by a solar panel is also difficult to calculate due to the complexity of their optimized

voltage versus current relationship. So I worked in watts (W) and watt-hours (Wh).

33
3.8 Determination of the Oscillating Frequency

By supplying a constant 12Volt DC through a voltage regulator to the IC SG 3524 PWM, the

frequency of the oscillating signal was determined using a 10KΩ variable resistor connected in

series with another 56KΩ resistor and both connected in parallel with 0.22μF to form the RC time

constant network.
1
Frequency, f = 1.1×CtRf where

Time Capacitor (CT) = 0.22μF

Fixed Resistor (RF) = 56KΩ

Variable Resistor (VR) = 10KΩ

Time Resistor (RT) = 56KΩ+10KΩ = 66KΩ

1
Therefore, f = 1.1×0.22×10−6 ×66×103

f = 62.6Hz

It should be noted that the variable resistor was varied until the frequency of the signal was 50Hz.

(Omitola et al 2014)

3.9 The Drain Current of the MOSFET

From the Inverter, total power is 2000Watts,

The battery Voltage is = 12V

Therefore, the drain current ID = PV

2000
I= 12

ID = 166.7A

Where the voltage output of the inverter, Voutput = 230V

𝑃
Full load output current, Ioutput = 𝑉

34
 2000
= 230

Ioutput = 8.7A

Figure 3.4 Show the complete circuit diagram of the 2KW solar panel inverter

35
3.10 Design of the Inverter Circuit

This circuit uses IC SG3524 PWM which functions as oscillator together with TC 4066 BP which

functions as switch to generate the oscillating signal that controls the switching ON and OFF of

the gate of an 8-numbered MOSFETS connected in parallel to a center-tapped transformer. This

switches the 12V DC from the battery, across the windings of the transformer to produce a 230V

AC at 50Hz frequency for the use of computers and other domestic appliances with maximum

power rating of 2000watts.

LM 393 IC (a comparator) and NE555 (a timer) incorporated in the circuit function to detect

overloading and low battery in the inverter. (Omitola et al 2014)

Generally, inverter is a combination of a battery, a charger circuit and an inverting circuit as shown

in the figure 3.5 below.

DC
INVERT AC power
power
ER supply
from
CIRCUI
battery
Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of an Inverter

3.11 The Battery

The battery used in this project is a two-terminal device that provides 12V DC supply to the

inverter section when the AC mains is not available. This 12V DC is converted to 230V AC supply

to the inverter output socket. (Omitola et al 2014)

It is pertinent to state that lead-acid batteries used in automobiles are very good for this purpose as

they provide good quality power for a long duration and can be recharged once the power stored

36
in them are consumed. The backup time provided by the inverter depends on the battery type and

its current capacity. The size of the battery bank will be determined by the daily watt-hour

requirements and the desired days of storage capacity required. Here's a formula for calculating

the battery needs: Take the adjusted watt-hours per day multiplied by the number of days of storage

required; take that figure x 2 (for 50% depth of battery discharge); then divide by the system

voltage = amp hours (ah) of storage needed. For example,Let’s say you need 2000 watt-hours per

day and want 5 days of battery back-up;

2000 × 5 = 10000

𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑏𝑦 2 = 20000

20000
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎 12𝑉𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = = 1667𝑎𝑚𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
12

If you are looking at 65ah capacity, 12V car battery,

1667
𝑤𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 26
65

So therefore we would need 26 of those 65ah 12V batteries to provide 5 days of back-up, at the

discharge rate of 2000 watts per day, in a 12V system. Ideally, it is recommended not take the

batteries below 30% depth of discharge, and never below 50% depth of discharge. Basically we

need to put a little more power into the batteries than you use (about 120 watts for every 100 watts

you take out). Batteries can be series wired to achieve the voltage desired (i.e. two 6V batteries for

12V, two 12V for 24V, etc.). The lead-acid type of battery does require proper maintenance to

extend their life and work in an optimum fashion. They prefer moderate temperatures around 70

37
degrees; for this reason they should be insulated in cold climates, and well-ventilated in warm

climates. They need to be "equalized" at least three or four times a year, and as often as

monthly. Equalizing refers to a "controlled overcharging" process whereby the voltage of the

batteries is increased to where the accumulated sulfates are "cooked" off the plates and mixed back

into the electrolyte solution. During this process, the battery caps are removed and distilled water

is added as necessary. A hydrometer (tool for checking the specific gravity) is used to check the

electrolyte density of individual battery cells at this time. The equalization voltage for a 12V

system will usually be around 15 volts; for a 24V system, 30 volts.

3.12 The AC Mains Supply

The AC input supplies a 230V AC, 50Hz from the public supply. This is connected to the charger

circuit where it is rectified to DC voltage and through the relay switch to the output of the inverter

to bypass the inverter when there is public electric power supply while the battery is charging.

3.13 The AC Mains Sensor

This inverter uses a 0 - 24V/1Amp triggering transformer and a regulator to sense the AC mains

supply. When the AC mains supply is available, this supply is given to the primary winding of the

triggering transformer to give 24V AC supply at the secondary winding. It is then rectified by

bridge rectifier and input to filter capacitors which convert the 24V AC supply to 24V DC supply

and through the LM317 regulator which regulates the 24V DC to 12V DC. The 12V supply stays

constant even when there is a change in the AC mains supply and the inverter is informed about

the availability of the AC mains supply whenever there is.

38
3.14 The Oscillator

This section uses a pulse width modulator PMW IC SG 3524 to generate the 50Hz frequency

required to generate AC supply by the inverter. The relationship between the frequency, resistance

and capacitance has been given before as:-

1
Frequency, 𝑓 = 1.1×𝐶𝑡𝑅𝑓

The battery supply is connected to the IC SG 3524 through the inverter ON/OFF switch. The flip-

flop converts the incoming signal into signals with changing polarity such that in a two-signal with

changing polarity, the first is positive while the second is negative and vice versa. This process is

repeated 50times per second to give an alternating signal with 50Hz frequency at the output of

SG3524. This alternating signal is known as "MOS Drive Signal ".

3.15 The Driver and the Output Amplifier

The MOS drive signals are given to the base of MOS driver transistor which results in the MOS

drive signal getting separated into two different channels. The transistors amplify the 50Hz MOS

drive signal at their base to a sufficient level and output them from the emitter.

The 50Hz signal from the emitter of each of the transistor is connected to the gate G of all the

MOSFETS in each of the MOSFET channel, through the appropriate resistance.

3.16 The Inverter Transformer

The transformer used for this project has a center-tapping which divides the primary into two equal

sections.

This center-tapping is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. Two ends of the primary

are connected to the negative terminal of the battery through switches S1 and S2. These switches

S1 and S2 are turned ON/OFF alternatively to generate current in the primary coil. When the

39
switch S1 is closed and S2 is opened, the current flows in the first part of the primary winding and

the EMF is induced in the secondary winding. When the switch S2 is closed and S1 is opened, the

current flows in the second part of the primary winding and the EMF of opposite polarity is induced

in the secondary winding. Thus, if the switches S1 and S2 are alternatively opened and closed at

constant rate, then the output from the secondary winding is a square wave of the frequency at

which the switches S1 and S2 are opened and closed. (Omitola et al 2014)

Electrical power transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy from one circuit

to another without any direct electrical connection and with the help of mutual induction between

two windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency but

may be in different voltage level. This is a very short and simple definition of transformer.

(Electrical4u, 2015)

3.16.1 Working Principle of Transformer

The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faraday's law of

electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction between two or more winding is responsible

for transformation action in an electrical transformer. (Electrical4u, 2015)

3.16.2 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

According to these Faraday's laws, "Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly

proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor or coil".

Whenever we apply alternating current to an electric coil, there will be an alternating flux

surrounding that coil. Now if we bring another coil near the first one, there will be an alternating

flux linkage with that second coil. As the flux is alternating, there will be obviously a rate of change

in flux linkage with respect to time in the second coil. Naturally, electromotive force will be

40
induced in it as per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. This is the most basic concept of

the theory of transformer.

The winding which takes electrical power from the source is generally known as primary winding

of the transformer. The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual induction in

the transformer is commonly known as secondary winding of the transformer. (Electrical4u, 2015)

Figure 3.6 shows the primary and secondary winding of a transformer (Electrical4u, 2015)

3.16.3 Main Constructional Parts of Transformer

The three main constructional parts are:

1. Primary Winding of Transformer: this part produces magnetic flux when it is connected to

electrical source.

2. Magnetic Core of Transformer: here the magnetic flux produced by the primary winding

that will pass through this low reluctance path linked with secondary winding and create a

closed magnetic circuit.

3. Secondary Winding of Transformer: the flux produced by primary winding passes through

the core will link with the secondary winding. This winding also wounds on the same core

and gives the desired output of the transformer. (Electrical4u, 2015)

41
3.17 The battery Charger

When the inverter section receives AC mains supply, it stops operation but the charger section in

the inverter starts its operation. In this mode, the inverter transformer works as a step down

transformer and output 12V at its secondary winding. During the charging, MOSFET transistors

at the output section works as rectifier with the drain working as the cathode while the source

works as the anode. The center-tapping of the transformer receives positive supply and the

MOSFET source 'S' receives negative supply from the battery. The center-tapping is connected to

the positive terminal of the battery and the MOSFET source S is connected to the negative terminal

with a shunt resistance. Thus, when the inverter receives AC mains supply, inverter transformer

and MOSFET together work as a charger and charge the battery.

3.18 The Change Over

This section is used to switch ON the inverter when the AC mains supply is OFF and to switch

OFF the inverter when the AC mains supply comes back ON. During changeover, when the

inverter receives AC mains supply, it stops drawing the battery supply and the AC mains supply

at the inverter input is directly sent to the inverter output socket. This is done using a one, two-

pole change over relay.

3.19 Inverter AC Output

The AC output gives a 230V AC, 50Hz either directly from the input when the AC mains supply

is available or from the inverter circuit action on the battery when the AC mains supply is not

available. Computers and other household appliances are connected to this output.

42
3.20 Protections

The AC input to this device was fused with a 5Amp fuse to protect the transformer as well as the

rectifying circuit in case of over voltage, and high current which could flow into the transformer.

3.21 Indicators

Five indicators are connected to the front of the inverter; a red colour shows that the inverter is

charging as well as delivering a 230V AC from its output terminal. Green colour indicates that the

inverter is discharging from the battery. Yellow colour indicates that it is inverting. White colour

indicates battery full and the last red colour indicates battery low.

3.22 Switch

A switch is connected to the front of the inverter. This red switch controls the AC voltage input

and output of the inverter.

43
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Discussion

The solar panel was placed under the sun, the peak sun radiation was on the panel surface and then

17.5 volts was observed using a multimeter. While observing the voltage, the panel was slightly

adjusted and the voltage varied at an angle away from the sun. The voltage depreciated.

The output from the solar panel was connected to the charge controller with respect to their

polarities and when the output voltage was observed, it read 12.56 volts which was right for

charging 12 volts battery. The voltage was 17.5 volts DC because the solar and the charge

controller were connected without load. Then load was added to the inverter which gave an output

of 230 volts which was left for about 30 minutes. It was observed again and the voltage did not

vary. The inverter has five LED indicators. The first indicator shows if the system is connected to

the mains or not, the second indicator shows if the inverter system is switched ON or OFF, the

third was used to display battery low or if the system experience any fault or not, the fourth

indicator is used to show the battery full and the last indicator is used to show if the inverter is

charging or not.

The inverter also had an additional socket for plugging the inverter to mains to serves as another

means to charge the batteries other than the solar system. When tested with the volt meter as it was

plugged on the mains out, it read 14.4 volts which was basically because of the state of the charge

level of the batteries. The batteries would normally self-discharge over time even when not used.

Since the inverter included a triple cycle charger, it could continue to maintain the battery with

44
equalization charge voltage of about 12 volts just to make sure that the battery does not discharge

even it was on standby mode.

4.2 Testing of the Inverter under load condition

The duration at which the inverter discharges under load condition depends on the total power of

load connected to its output terminal and the power rating of the battery connected to its input

terminal. Bearing in mind that total load must not exceed 1000watts.

Discharge duration

(a) Battery power rating = 12volts, 65Ampere per hour

When total load = 150watts

12×65
Therefore duration = 150

= 5.2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

(b) Battery power rating = 12volts, 65Ampere per hour

When load = 300watts

12×65
Therefore duration = 300

= 2.4 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

4.3 Construction

The step by step approach taking in the construction of this project started with the building of the

transformer from the laminating core, followed by the rectification stage, sensing and monitoring

stage, comparator and transistor switching. The tools and instruments used include:

1. Lead and Soldering Iron

2. Lead sucker

3. Copper stripping knife

45
 4. Cutter

5. Razor blade

6. Plier

7. Digital Multimeter

8. Ferro and bread board

To conform to the requirement of this project, temporary construction of the prototype was done

on bread board before finally transferring it onto the Ferro-board for permanent soldering. The

circuit was constructed, tested and put to use under proper load conditions. In other to achieve

accuracy in the design, some necessary adjustments were made to some of the components used.

4.4 Casing

The complete unit was housed in a metallic casing. Battery terminals for positive and negative,

power switch, ventilating ductsand LEDs were fixed in their allotted slots and connected to their

respective points on the circuit. The casing was earthed and each stage carefully arranged inside

and connected together.

Figure 4.1 shows the inverter casing

46
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The construction of this 2000Watts (2KW), 220Volts inverter at a 50Hz frequency was a gradual

process from gathering of materials to testing of components. The project was intended to supply

2000 watts of energy to serve as another source of alternative energy besides the diesel engine.

The construction was a successful one and worked efficiently as intended. The solar system

worked effectively and cost no further operational cost. When compared to a 1.5 KVA petrol

generator, it was costly but for the initial expenses. However it was later seen to be cheap since

the system needed no petrol to operate but sunlight which was nature’s free gift. The solar cell

acted as a source of charger to the battery and inverting the power stored using an inverter into

usable power for any load. The power output was usable for many domestic appliances that are

sensitive to having sinusoidal inputs.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Although the objectives of this project have been achieved, the inverter cannot be used to power

any device of higher power rating. Increasing the power rating of the inverter by increasing the

number of the power switching devices and the current rating of the transformer would be

recommended. The solar power system was a convenient way of producing an alternative means

of power supply to supplement the mains failure. It was advantageous to user who could afford its

initial cost of installation. There would be need to add up more batteries to meet up with the

running time and the system load capacity since the system had an adjusted wattage. That ismore

batteries could be added to increase the capacity of the system to accommodate more load.

47
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