Lecture 9 and 10 (First Order RL Circuits)

Transient and Steady-State Response

In practice electrical circuits and systems are subjected to switching and variations in
excitation that brings about changes in its state during the course of time with the system settling
to new state of current and voltage. This is particularly important in the case when circuits
include energy storage devices (inductor and or capacitor). Thus practically, in majority of cases
two types of responses is experienced; transient and steady-state. Two part analysis; transient and
steady-state of circuits are essential in order to understand the behavior of circuits. Transient
analysis is the determination of the changes of a circuit that occur due to the opening or closing
of a switch over a particular time period. That means; this type of analysis deals with the current
and voltages or other electrical qualities and their variation with time. In this analysis technique,
we can determine the natural response of circuit. Usually, the behavior of circuit during transient
period is nonlinear.

Steady-state analysis refers to changes in the properties of a circuit at a constant

excitation. The steady-state analysis is the final step of transient analysis. The steady-state
analysis is important in determining the voltage, current, power, power factor, etc. in circuits
upon the application of constant excitation.

Steady-state and transient analysis are two processes that involve the study of changes in
circuit quantities as a function of time. The major difference between steady-state and transient
analysis is that steady-state analysis is performed at a constant excitation while transient analysis
is performed at varying excitation or sudden change. Furthermore, if we express these analysis
details on graphs, steady-state analysis gives a linear graph whereas transient analysis gives a
nonlinear graph. Both transient and steady-state analysis are performed by modelling a circuit in
time domain by differential equation formed using the basic laws of circuit analysis based on
KVL or KCL. The nomenclature for voltages and currents will be in t-domain that is in the form
of v(t) and i(t) respectively. The solution of differential equations is two-part; complementary
part (transient or natural) and particular part (steady-state or forced).

y(t )  yc (t )  y p (t )  yt (t )  yss (t )

First Order Circuit:

All first order circuits are governed by first-order differential equation. The equation may be
homogeneous (absence of forcing function or source) or non-homogeneous (presence of forcing
function or source). Systems represented by homogeneous differential equation contain only the
complementary part based on a general solution, for a first order system of the form: Kemt
(where: m is the root of characteristic equation), thus exhibiting transient response only. On the
other hand, system represented by non-homogeneous differential equations, contains both

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complementary and particular part. The particular part takes the form of the forcing function
(source).

Terminologies:

Before switching: t < 0, i(t) and v(t) are represented as i(0) and v(0) respectively. The negative
sign on top is indication of before t = 0

At the instant of switching: t = 0, both i(t) and v(t) represented as i(0) and v(0) respectively.

After switching: t > 0, both current and voltage are represented as i(t) and v(t) respectively.

First Order RL Circuit:

In the first order RL circuit, the energy storage device is the inductor, which stores magnetic
field energy. Remember that inductor’s energy is by virtue of its current component, since:
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EL  LiL (t ) 2 . Consider the simple RL circuit shown in Figure (1).
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Figure (1)

In the circuit of Figure (1), R and L are connected in series and can be connected to a steady DC
source v(t) through a switch that is supposed to close at t = 0, thus connecting the RL
combination to the source and due which a current i(t) is expected to flow. It is assumed that no
magnetic field energy exist is inductor so that its current component is zero initially. Thus when
the switch is open the inductor current is zero, which places the initial condition for inductor
current to be zero. Thus for t < 0 or t = 0 :

iL (0)  0

Upon closing the switch at the instant t = 0, the inductor current at this instant does not change
instantly and is still zero since it takes finite time to build the magnetic field. Thus at t = 0:

iL (0)  0

For t > 0, we need to build up the differential equation by applying KVL in this case that is:

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 di(t )
L  Ri (t )  v(t ) 1
dt

di(t ) R 1
Or  i(t )  V 2
dt L L

Eq (2) is a standard first order non-homogeneous with the complete solution as:
R
 t V
i(t )  Ke L
 3
R
In order to find the value of arbitrary constant K, we need initial state of current of the circuit at t
= 0. Thus at t = 0, Eq (3) is written as:

V
i(0)  K 
R

Remember that since it’s a series circuit the inductor and circuit current are the same. Thus at t =
0: Thus: i(0)  iL (0)  0 . Therefore:

V
0K
R
R
V V  t V
Therefore: K   . Substituting value of K in Eq (3), we have: i(t )   e L  .
R R R
Rearranging, we have:
R
V  t
i(t )  (1  e L ) 4
R
R
 t
Eq (4) illustrates that the response of circuit current follows a law governed by: (1  e L
).
R
Where: is the inverse of time constant of RL circuit. On closing the switch at t = 0, the circuit
L
current increases rapidly from zero and then gradually attains a steady-state value as illustrated in
Figure (2). It must be remembered that across initially uncharged inductor, the voltage is
maximum, which reduces to zero as the magnetic field builds-up. For transient state response we
put t = 0 in Eq (4), we will have the circuit current i(t) = 0. For steady-state, we put t = ∞ in Eq
V
(4) we will have: i(t )  . Thus on closing the switch the magnetic field in the inductor will
R
build up, being direct function of current and with it the voltage across the inductor collapses to
zero (once fully charged with magnetic field).

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 Figure (2)

Thus we conclude that:

1. An inductor entirely free of energy (no magnetic field), it behaves as an open circuit
(current zero and voltage maximum) at the time of closing the switch at t = 0.
2. The inductor current does not change instantly that is it remains the same at t < 0 and at t
= 0, since the voltage across inductor equals to source in this case (no potential
difference) and therefore no current can flow.
3. Since inductor resist change in its current, it can be viewed as a current source at t = 0.
4. An inductor essentially acts as a short-circuit under steady-state, which is evident from
the current under steady state; V/R, which looks like that as if there is only resistor in the
circuit. The voltage across the inductor is determined as:
R R
di(t ) V R  t  t
vL (t )  L  L  e L  Ve L 5
dt R L

Substituting t = ∞ (steady-state condition) in Eq (5), we have: vL ()  0 .

Remember: Current zero is condition for open circuit and voltage zero is condition for short
circuit.

Example 1: In the circuit shown in Figure (3), obtain the expression for voltage v0(t) for t > 0.
The switch is to close at t = 0.

Figure (3)

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Solution: We will follow the following steps to arrive at solution for v0(t).

Step 1 (before switching: t < 0): First of all we have to find the quantity (current) related to the
energy storage device (inductor in this case) before switching that for t < 0. The circuit switch is
open for t < 0. Let us have the knowledge of inductor current from the circuit state. With the
switch open and the inductor connected to the source with its path for current established with
the current source, the inductor is thus considered as achieved its steady-state and is therefore
acting as short circuit. With inductor acting as short circuit for t < 0, the circuit shape for t < 0 is
that as shown in Figure (4).

Figure (4)

The two 6Ω resistors are in series, when added results in 12Ω as shown in the Figure (4) to the
right-side. Using the current divider rule:

 12 
iL (0)  6   4.5 A (downward direction)
 12  4 

Step 2 (Instant of switching; t = 0): On closing the switch at t = 0, the inductor current will not
change at this instant as stated previously and will remain 4.5A. Thus:

iL (0)  4.5 A (downward direction)

On closing the switch, a short circuit is placed across the terminals a and b as shown in Figure
(5) and the two resistors; 3Ω and 6Ω appears in parallel, resulting in 2Ω. The combination is then
in series with the 4Ω resistor, which results in 6Ω as shown in Figure (5) to the right-side.

Figure (5)

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Step 3 (after switching t > 0): In order to find the quantity asked in question, a governing
equation has to be formed that allows us to obtain the response. The differential equation in
formed by applying KCL at the node a as shown in Figure (6). It can be seen that the node
voltage is same as that mentioned across the resistor of 6Ω in questions and is the quantity we
are required to find out.

Figure (6)

Thus applying KCL at node a, we have:

v0 (t )
6  i0 (t )  6
6

The branch in which i0(t) is flowing is having a voltage is v0(t) across it and can be described by
an equation:

di0 (t )
v0 (t )  6i0 (t )  2 7
dt

Eq (6) can be re-arranged as:

v0 (t )
i0 (t )  6  8
6

Putting it in Eq (7) to replace i0(t), remember that derivative of constant is zero, we have:

 v (t )  d v (t ) 
v0 (t )  6 6  0   2  6  0 
 6  dt  6 

1 dv0 (t )
Or  2v0 (t )  36
3 dt

dv0 (t )
Or  6v0 (t )  108 9
dt

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Step 4: Calculate the quantity being asked in question. Solving Eq (9) we have:

v0 (t )  Ke6t  18 10

To find the value of arbitrary constant K, we put t = 0 in Eq (10) that is:

v0 (0)  K  18 11

But we have the t = 0 value for inductor current but not for voltage v0(0). For this we have to go
back to t = 0 state and re-consider right side of Figure (5) in which as a rule we replace the
inductor with a current source of 4.5A (downward direction). This is shown in Figure (7).

Figure (7)

Using KCL at node a where the voltage is v0(t), we have:

v0 (0)
6  4.5 
6

Which gives: v0 (0)  9 volts

Putting this value in Eq (11), we have:

9  K  18

Gives: K  9

Therefore when substituted in Eq (10) gives:

v0 (t )  9e 6t  18 12

Thus the transient voltage is obtained by substituting t = 0 in Eq (12) that gives:

v0 (0)  9  18  9 volts

The steady-state value of required voltage is obtained by putting t = ∞ in Eq (12), gives:

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 v0 ()  0  18  18 volts

Example 2: Find the current and voltage for t > 0 as indicated in the circuit of Figure (8).

Figure (8)

Solution: The switch is already in the closed position so that the entire circuit is in the steady-
state. We can see from Figure (9a) that the two resistors of 6 and 12 Ohms are in parallel (b and c
can be connected together) without disturbing the branch with the inductor current. This will
6  12
result in a resistor of:  4 . The refined circuit is shown in Figure (9b). We will follow
6  12
the steps as below:

(a) (b)

Figure (9)

Step 1 (before switching: t < 0): In this step we have to find the inductor current [in this case
i0(t) as indicated according to downward direction in the circuit diagram] before switching that is
for t < 0. The circuit switch is closed for t < 0. With the inductor circuit complete with the
source, it is in its steady-state and is therefore acting as short-circuit. With inductor acting as

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short-circuit for t < 0, the circuit shape is that as shown in Figure (10) with loop currents
assigned.

Figure (9)

Since we need to find the current in the short-circuit (inductor), it is advisable to use KVL. The
inductor current according to the assigned currents, by definition is given as: i0 (0)  i1  i2 .
Applying KVL to loop with current i1:

12  2i1  4(i1  i2 )

Or 12  6i1  4i2

Simplifying: 6  3i1  2i2 13

Applying KVL to loop with current i2:

0  4i2  4(i2  i1 )

Or 0  8i2  4i1

Simplifying: 0  i1  2i2 14

Arranging Eq (13) and (14) in matrix form:

6  3  2 i1 
0   1 2  i 
    2 

The determinant of square matrix, which in this case it is a 2 x 2 matrix is:

  62  4

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To find i1, we have to take the determinant of cofactor matrix of i1 that is:

6  2
1  det    12  0  12
0 2 

1 12
Thus: i1    3A
 4

To find i2, we have to take the determinant of cofactor matrix of i2 that is:

 3 6
 2  det    06  6
 1 0

2 6
Thus: i2    1.5 A
 4

Thus: i0 (0)  3  1.5  1.5 A (downward direction)

Step 2 (instant of switching; t = 0): On opening the switch at t = 0, the inductor current will not
change at this instant as stated previously and will remain 1.5A in the same direction. Thus:

i0 (0)  1.5 A (downward direction)

With the switch opened at t = 0, as shown in Figure (10a), a break in the portion of circuit
containing the source is created. The portion of the circuit containing the 12 volts source is
therefore out and the resultant circuit is that as shown in Figure (10b).

(a) (b)

Figure (10)

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Step 3 (after switching t > 0): In order to find the quantity asked in question, a governing
equation has to be formed that allows us to obtain the response. The differential equation in
formed by applying KVL to the single loop as shown in Figure (11).

Figure (11)

Thus applying KVL to the loop with current i(t) in clockwise direction, we have: (the CW
direction is chosen so that it can comply with the conventional sense of the voltage drop v0(t)
across the 4 Ohm resistor. Thus:

di(t )
02  8i(t )
dt

di(t )
Or  4i(t )  0 15
dt
This is a first order homogeneous differential equation, whose solution will only contain the
complementary part based on a general solution.

Step 4: Calculate the quantity being asked in question. Solving Eq (15) we have:

i(t )  Ke4t 16

To find the value of arbitrary constant K, we put t = 0 in Eq (16).

i(0)  K 17

The circuit current i(0) is same as the inductor current at t = 0, but in opposite direction, so that:

i(0)  i0 (0)  1.5  K

Thus: i(t )  1.5e 4t

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The voltage v0(t) for t > 0 is then:

v0 (t )  4 1.5e 4t  6e 4t volts

The current i0(t) is:

i0 (t )  i(t )  1.5e 4t A

Practice Problems for Examination

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Dear students please go through the examples and correct any calculation mistake. Also please
solve the examination problems. Good Luck

Dr. Muhammad Naeem Arbab

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