Computers in Human Behavior

Volume 142, May 2023, 107655

Why is instant messaging not instant?

Understanding users’ negative use behavior
of instant messaging software
Author links open overlay panelJing Li    , Shiqi Zhang  , Wenting Ao   
a 1 b c 2

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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S074756322300
0067

Abstract
With the development and popularization of communication
technology, massive amounts of information have brought great
challenges to how people receive and process information. In this
environment, people have begun to exhibit typical negative behaviors,
such as forgetting to process the information, delaying replies, and
reading without replying. Negative use behavior refers to the non-
active and non-interactive behavior taken by users in an attempt to
resist using information systems. To explore users’ negative use
behavior of instant messaging software, this study extracts
characteristics of the negative use behavior through semi-structured
interviews, constructs a conceptual model based on stimulus-
organism-response (SOR) theory, and uses a structural equation
model (SEM) to verify the proposed hypotheses. The results reveal
that information overload, task load, and time pressure have a positive
effect on individual information anxiety and psychological resistance.
Information anxiety and psychological resistance have a positive effect
on individual passive attention and delayed reply. We also found that
perceived utility negatively mediates the relationship between
individual perceptions and delayed reply. This study collects data from
China with a cross-sectional design. Future research should include
other countries, different online platforms and longitudinal methods to
examine negative use behavior. The research conclusions present
suggestions for operators to optimize software functions and users to
improve multiple information literacy.

Introduction
Since the Web 2.0 era, the role of information users is no longer
limited to information consumption but also integrates information
production and dissemination, which has resulted in great progress in
information production and dissemination. According to the 2022 the
Global Mobile Economic report released by GSMA (Global System
Mobile Association), it is estimated that by 2025, the number of mobile
users in the world will increase from 5.3 billion to 5.7 billion, and the
population coverage will increase from 67% to 70% (GSMA, 2022).
According to The 50th Statistical Report on China's Internet
Development released by CNNIC (China Internet Network Information
Center), the number of instant messaging users in China had reached
1.027 billion by June 2022, accounting for 97.7% of the total Internet
users, an increase of 2.042 million compared with December 2020
(CNNIC, 2022). Instant messaging software is a communication
technology that enables people to send and receive short text-based
messages in real-time. As an early network application with the main
function of producing and disseminating information, instant
messaging software is still vigorous (e.g. WhatsApp, WeChat,
Messenger, iMessage, Line).
However, advanced information and communication technology bring
a burden to people's psychology and behavior, and massive amounts
of data are a great challenge for information reception. People are
coerced by more and more information, drowned by too much news
and too many friends and contacts (Misra & Stokols, 2012). In some
cases, for personal reasons or specific purposes, people emotionally
avoid some information and refuse unwilling actions (Dai et al., 2020).
Given the time and energy commitment needed to follow up and keep
in touch, when users feel overwhelmed, they will have negative
emotions and may reduce the frequency of use of instant messaging
software or even quit (Savolainen, 2007). The Pew Research Center
pointed out that 49% of smartphone users aged 18–29 were fleeing
mass social media, and 41% use apps that automatically delete
messages (Pew Research Center, 2022). When users share happy
experiences, overloaded information and excessive social interaction
lead to cognitive load and other problems. When information provision
or information processing gradually increases beyond personal
processing capacity, the user's information processing speed will
decline. Complex multiple feedback information will make users feel
troubled, and passive discontinuous information will increase the
difficulty of processing information (Sha et al., 2012). The problems of
information overload and information anxiety caused by instant
communication software, may increase the use uncertainty and
cognitive burden of users, resulting in some typical behaviors, such as
forgetting to process information, delaying reply, and reading without
reply.
Recent literature reveals a research focus on use behavior that has
shifted from adoption behavior (Marston et al., 2016) and sustainable
use (Sang & DonHee, 2020) to unsustainable use (Lee et al., 2021)
and negative use (Zhang et al., 2022). Research on negative use
behavior mainly includes behavior pattern (Pang, 2021), influencing
factors (Long et al., 2022), formation mechanism (Zhang et al., 2022),
negative use of different groups (Radovic et al., 2017) and platforms
(Luqman et al., 2017). A list of influencing factors that cause negative
use behavior has been identified, and it includes information overload
(Cao & Sun, 2018; Sun & Lee, 2021), social overload (Cao & Sun,
2018; Lo, 2019), privacy concern (Adhikari K & Panda R K, 2020) and
information usefulness (Rodríguez et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2018).
Although some achievements have been made, there are still some
deficiencies: (1) Many scholars have explored the effect of emotion on
use behavior, but they only stay in the behavior itself, such as
discontinuance usage intention (Kishalay & Kumar, 2020; Sun & Lee,
2021). There is a lack of detailed and specific behavior research on
the manifestations of discontinuance usage and negative use
behavior. (2) The research on negative use behavior focuses on the
expectation and explanation of behavior results (Jiang et al., 2021),
while ignoring the characteristics of the external environment and the
information system itself. (3) The research on the use behavior of
information systems mainly adopts a qualitative (Ming et al., 2020) or
quantitative (Chatterjee et al., 2021) research method, which fails to
explore the dynamic relationships among factors such as
environment, emotion, intention, and behavior. There is a lack of
confirmatory research on variable exploration from the users’
perspective.
To fill the research gap, this study aims to explore the causes,
mechanisms and processes of negative use behavior of instant
messaging software under the stimulation of the external environment.
As a landmark instant messaging application of mobile Internet,
WeChat has nearly 1.98 billion monthly active users in China, most of
whom share the same cultural background. After ten years of
development, WeChat has a leading position in the instant messaging
software industry. Based on the characteristics of rapid development,
wide dissemination and high real-time, we selected WeChat as the
representative of instant messaging software for further research.
Mixed methods research has received much attention in the social
and behavioral sciences for a long time (Bryman A, 2017, pp. 57–78;
Venkatesh V, 2006). Venkatesh, Brown, and Bala (2013) discusses
the feasibility and value of combining interviews and surveys for
research. In this study, we used a sequential mixed methods
approach, since mixed methods can address confirmatory and
exploratory research questions simultaneously (Teddlie & Tashakkori,
2003).
The study is organized as follows. First, we provide an overview of the
relevant theories. Next, the study is organized into two phases:
qualitative and quantitative. In the qualitative study phase, we adopted
the grounded theory approach to explore the factors that influence the
negative use behavior of instant messaging and to construct a
conceptual framework. In the quantitative study phase, we applied
structural equation modeling (SEM), which is suitable for confirmatory
factor analysis, to test the relationship among factors in the initial
framework, thereby determining the influential role of factors in
negative use behavior. Finally, we discuss the implications of our
findings for theory and practice, followed by the limitations and future
research directions.

Section snippets
Negative use behavior
Initially, negative behavior was regarded as the expression of
unhappiness caused by negative emotions, such as those that are
caustic or apathetic (Katz et al., 1978). Lapointe and Rivard (2005)
was the first to reveal the users' behavior of trying to resist using
information systems from the perspective of management information
systems, which was the first time of exploring the negative aspect of
use behavior. Burke et al. (2010) divided social networking service
(SNS) use behavior into

Qualitative research based on the grounded theory

Grounded theory is a user-centered method that is used for
systematically analyzing the qualitative data. Grounded theory is a
bottom-up method for establishing substantive theory, and the
rationale behind it is that theory should be grounded in empirical
evidence (Miller et al., 2017). Theory usually starts with practical
observation, followed by a summary of experiences from first-hand
data before rising to theory (Nguyen, 2015). In general, the use of this
theory for exploratory research

Quantitative research based on the structural

equation model
The first part of the research reflected the interpretation of the
negative use behavior of instant messaging and the factors that have
potential influences on it. The second part aimed to explore the
statistical significance of different category concepts through the SEM
model (Bollen & Noble, 2011). To test the theoretical framework
identified above, the research hypotheses were framed as described
below.

Results
Based on information processing theory, psychological reactance
theory, and selective exposure theory, this study constructed the SOR
theoretical model framework through semi-structured interviews. It
explains the individual perceptions and psychological states of users
in information and task environments. Thus, we provided an
explanation for the mechanism of passive attention and delayed reply
behavior. We put forward 14 hypotheses, 12 of which were supported
by the test results.
First,

Conclusions
With the rapid development of network technology and communication
technology, new technologies not only challenge the way people
receive and process information, but also burden the psychology and
behavior of the public. In this environment, people have begun to
exhibit typical negative behaviors, such as forgetting to process the
information, delaying replies, and reading without replying. We used a
sequential mixed methods approach in this study to address
confirmatory and exploratory

Credit author statement

Jing Li: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft,
Review & Editing, Supervision. Shiqi Zhang: Investigation, Formal
analysis, Writing – original draft. Wenting Ao: Validation, Investigation,
Review & Editing.
Acknowledgments
Funding: This work was supported by the Ministry of Education
Humanities and Social Sciences research projects [grant
numbers 21YJA870004].

datePublished":"2014"

url:https://www.semanticscholar.org/img/
semantic_scholar_og.png
 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10639-021-10631-y

among university students

authors

 Daniel B. le Roux Department of Information Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch,

South Africa

 Daniel B. le Roux Department of Information Science, Stellenbosch University,

Stellenbosch, South Africa


 Douglas A. Parry 

Education and Information Technologies volume 27, pages1055–1080 (2022)Cite this

article

 Published: 07 July 2021

 dateModified":"2021-07-07
 In view inspect to find date published say “publ…” or “date”
An exploratory investigation of the use and
effects of academic instant messaging groups
among university students

url: https://www.researchgate.net/

datePublished":"2003-02-24"

Last Updated: 09 Jan 2023

Instant Messaging in Teen Life">

 New sources
https://www.techtarget.com/searchunifiedcommunications/definition/instant-messaging

Date published: "datePublished":"2022-01-11

By

 Ben Lutkevich, Technical Features Writer

 Jessica Scarpati

What is instant messaging?

Instant messaging, often shortened to IM or IM'ing, is the exchange of near-real-
time messages through a standalone application or embedded software. Unlike
chatrooms with many users engaging in multiple and overlapping conversations,
IM sessions usually take place between two users in a private, back-and-forth
style of communication.

A core feature of many instant messenger clients is the ability to see whether a

friend or co-worker is online and connected through the selected service -- a
capability known as presence. As the technology has evolved, many
IM clients have added support for features such as file transfer and image
sharing within an IM session.

Instant messaging differs from email in the immediacy of the message exchange.
IM also tends to be session-based, having a start and an end. Because IM is
intended to mimic in-person conversations, individual messages are often brief.
Email, on the other hand, usually reflects a longer-form, letter writing style.
 Instant messaging requires users to communicate
via the same application.

How does instant messaging work?

Generally, IM users must know each other's username or screen name to initiate
a session. Contact or buddy lists of frequent contacts can be created. Once the
intended recipient has been identified and selected, the sender opens an
IM window to begin the session.

For IM'ing to work as intended, users must be online at the same time, although
nearly all instant messaging platforms enable asynchronous interactions between
online and offline users. If offline messaging is not supported, attempting to IM an
unavailable user results in a notification that the transmission cannot be
completed. In addition, the intended recipient must be willing to accept instant
messages. Most IM clients can be configured to reject certain users.

When a message is received, the instant messaging application alerts the

recipient with a window -- often a pop-up window -- containing the incoming
message. Or, depending on the user's settings, a window could indicate an IM
has arrived along with a prompt to accept or reject it. Many IM clients notify the
user with a distinctive sound, such as a chime or chirp. The user can also receive
a visual notification, such as flashing the IM window or its taskbar icon when a
message arrives.

In the past, IM clients were often based on proprietary protocols, requiring that

users use the same communication software. However, the use of open
standards is more common today, enabling multiplatform instant messaging
systems, such as Pidgin and Trillian.

Another important shift in IM is the way in which it's accessed and delivered.
These apps were long deployed as desktop clients that had to be downloaded
and installed. Now, instant messaging is more often found as a feature within
another web- or cloud-based service, such as Facebook, Gmail and Skype, or as
a mobile app, such as WhatsApp Messenger.

Why is instant messaging used?

Instant messaging is used for real-time communication among users on the
internet. Enterprise and consumer users find it an immediate, convenient and
flexible alternative to email. IM'ing is faster than email and more direct than other
asynchronous forms of communication. Users can IM from a range of devices,
not just their phone.

Enterprise instant messaging systems let users indicate their availability, chat
with each other, exchange documents and hold group meetings. Instant
messaging is a key form of communication to keep remote workers connected
and coordinate workflows. Applications that were primarily for other uses are
expanding into IM. For instance, Zoom, which is primarily known for video
conferencing, contains IM chat features, and the company is planning to expand
its chat capabilities.
In a consumer context, instant messaging is a useful alternative to text and Short
Message Service (SMS) messages because a cellular network is not required for
IM'ing. Many social media platforms incorporate IM features.

Chatbots are a variation on IM'ing. They mimic the user experience in an IM

exchange, but instead of speaking with another person, the user is speaking to
an automated program. Chatbots are used for automating simple customer
service requests.

Applications like Pidgin and Trillian offer encrypted messaging, which can be
used for off-the-record chats and sensitive data, like personal health information.

Instant messaging features

Text-based communication has been the chief function of instant messaging for a
long time, but it is now one of many features. Other capabilities include the
following:

 Availability. Presence technology enables users to see the availability of

their contacts. Many apps show if contacts are online or offline and if they
have set their status to free or busy. Some clients let users set an away
message and provide detail about their availability. In an active session, many
apps indicate in real time when a user is typing.

 Images. Many clients let users insert images and emojis into messages.

 File transfer. Sending and sharing files is also a standard part of many IM

apps. Facebook Messenger even lets users send money via IM.

 Switching to other communication modes. Numerous instant messaging

apps let IM users move to other modes of communication -- such as group
chat, voice calls and video conferencing -- within the app.
What are the types of instant messaging?
IM applications are often standalone applications, such as WhatsApp. They can
also be embedded applications with multiple purposes.

Instant messaging programs can differ based on the platform they are embedded
in. For example, an instant messaging tool can be embedded into the following:

 Social media. For example, Facebook Messenger has a list of Facebook

friends that users can open a chat with in a pop-up window. On a mobile
device, Facebook Messenger is a separate app that imports contacts from
Facebook and displays them as a list.

 Video conferencing. Zoom has a small chat window in the side of the video
that can be used to chat with the whole group or an individual.

 Gaming and streaming. Twitch is a streaming platform where users can

stream live video and gameplay, alongside a chat window where they can
interact with other users.

When they are standalone applications, they often incorporate cross-platform

features, such as the following:

 voice over IP

 SMS

 video chat

 file sharing

Some embedded programs have these cross-platform features as well. For

example, Facebook Messenger has video chat.
Popular instant messaging software and platforms
While some instant messaging tools are specifically consumer services and other
are for enterprises, crossovers do exist. The following is a list of popular
consumer and enterprise instant messaging services:

 Cisco Jabber, based on Jabber

 Discord

 Facebook Messenger

 Google Chat

 HCL Sametime

 iMessage

 Line

 Microsoft Teams

 Pidgin

 Slack

 Snapchat

 Trillian

 Viber

 WeChat

 WhatsApp Messenger

AOL Instant Messenger, or AIM, was once one of the most popular tools in the
instant messaging market in North America. It was discontinued on Dec. 15,
2017.
What is the difference between instant messaging and texting?
Both instant messaging and texting involve exchanging digital messages in real
time. The two methods of communication are different, however.

Texting

Texting uses a cellular network to exchange messages. Two cellphone users can
communicate via text using any cellular carrier -- the carriers do not need to be
the same. The users do not need an internet connection, just cell carrier plans
and cellphones. Cellular companies control the cost and message limits of
communicating via text message.

Instant messaging

By contrast, instant messaging requires that both parties have internet

connections to exchange messages. The communicating devices do not have to
be phones -- they can be computers, tablets, smartphones or any other internet-
connected device. IM apps often require users to communicate using the same
application. A user cannot send a message on Facebook Messenger to a contact
using Microsoft Teams. There may be a delay in message transmission without a
proper internet connection.

Instant messaging is also frequently included as a feature of unified

communication (UC) tools, like Zoom. Text messaging is less commonly included
in these applications.
 Instant
messaging is a core component of enterprise unified communications tools that enable a
high-quality remote work experience.

IM and chat tools are important pieces of a UC strategy. Learn how to implement,
evaluate and manage UC in the enterprise.

Date modified: This was last updated in January 2022

url: https://www.brosix.com/blog/instant-messaging-apps/