1 Explain the relationship between measurement and testing.

Highlight the differences between student and program evaluation?

These concepts are often used interchangeably by practitioners and if they have the same

meaning. This is not so. As a teacher, you should be able to distinguish one from the other and

use any particular one at the appropriate time to discuss issues in the classroom.

During our discussion of curriculum development and general methods in education, we

gavethe importance of objectives in education. We also distinguished between Instructional

and behavioral objectives. We observed that curriculum implementation and lesson delivery

often culminate in ascertaining whether the objectives we set out to achieve were actually

achieved. This is often called evaluation. This unit introduces you to some important concepts

associated with ascertaining whether objectives have been achieved or not. Basically, the unit

takes you through the meanings of test, measurement assessment and evaluation in education.

Their functions are also discussed. You should understand the fine distinctions between these

concepts and the purpose of each as you will have recourse to them later in this course and as a

professional teacher

Measurement

The process of measurement as it implies involves carrying out actual measurement in order to

assign a quantitative meaning to a quality i.e. what is the length of the chalkboard?

Determining this must be physically done .Measurement is therefore a process of assigning

numerals to objects, quantities or events in other to give quantitative meaning to such

qualities. In the classroom, to determine a child’s performance, you need to obtain quantitative

measures on the individual scores of the child. If the child scores 80 in Mathematics, there isno

other interpretation you should give it. You cannot say he has passed or failed.

Evaluation
Evaluation adds the ingredient of value judgment to assessment. It is concerned with the

application of its findings and implies some judgment of the effectiveness, social utility or

desirability of a product, process or progress in terms of carefully defined and agreed upon

objectives or values. Evaluation often includes recommendations for constructive action. Thus,

evaluation is a qualitative measure of the prevailing situation. It calls for evidence of

effectiveness, suitability, or goodness of the program.

Program evaluation

Program evaluation looks at the parameters, needs, components, and outcomes of program

design with an eye towards improving student learning. It involves a complex approach, taking

into consideration needs assessment, curriculum mapping, and various models of program

review.

The goals of a needs assessment include: examining how an initiative is functioning in relation

to its goals or objectives, determining the current status of operations, or deciding what future

direction the program might take.

Curriculum maps identify when and how various skills, content, and objectives are addressed

across multiple courses. A curriculum map helps instructors and administrators determine how

to modify instruction or program requirements to ensure that the curriculum has the

appropriate breadth and depth.

In program evaluation, measurement methods are best categorized into direct and indirect

measures. Both measures can provide a more holistic view of the impacts of a program. There

are also four common types of data that are analyzed in educational research and evaluation:

observations, artifacts, historical or institutional records, and self-report.

Student evaluation

Student evaluation is another means of receiving feedback on instruction (Zerihun et al., 2012).
It may also be one of the most contested methods (Alok, 2011). While there is ample literature

on the topic, there is little agreement as to whether or not student evaluations are useful.

Detractors argue that student evaluations are simply satisfaction surveys and do not measure

student learning. They can be influenced by many factors, including grade inflation, the

perceived level of difficulty of class assignments, and the gender of the instructor. Scholarship

both confirms these arguments and negates them (Clayson, 2009). There is also no consensus

on the design of a student instrument, and models range from three simple open-ended

questions to multiple-item forms with adaptable Likert scales (Spooren et al., 2007). For those

in favor of student feedback, the argument is that,“Students are the primary audience for

library instruction; their impressions of its effectiveness warrant our interest”(Ragains, 1997:

164). Like Ragains, I am of the opinion that student feedback can, and does, provide valuable

information. In my experience, students do comment on weaknesses, yet more often they

remark on strengths, and they express gratitude for information literacy sessions; this positive

feedback provides encouragement and acknowledgement of a job well done. If your institution

uses a standard student feedback instrument, it would be wise to use as much of the original

form as possible, and revise it to reflect library information literacy classes as necessary. Doing

so adds value, emphasizing that library instructors are on a par with regular classroom.

Q.2 what factors can influence the test administration process and how scoring

problems can be addressed at secondary level.

School factors

• Does the student feel safe and/or connected at school?

• Does the student have a history of chronic absenteeism?

• Was there a fire drill or other unplanned emergency drill?

• Is the student markedly over- or under-age for the grade?

• Does the student have cultural support or disconnection?

• What is the student’s level of socialization and peer support?

• How well does the student relate to teachers and other school professionals?

• Was the child pulled from a class or school event he/she enjoys for the session?

• What is the testing environment (e.g., classroom or office lighting, noise level, temperature,

amount of interruptions)

Rater/teacher/clinician factors

• Cultural differences

> Language differences?

> Implicit basis?

• Rapport and management skills

• Previous experience with the student

> Amount and frequency

• Physical and mental state of the tester

• Fidelity to assessment qualifications and instructions

• Familiarity with the testing environment and test materials

• Interpretation experience/knowledge (e.g., discrepancy analysis, growth

Physical & sensory factors

• Fatigue

• Polypharmacy

• Substance use

• Medication effects

• Impaired vision or hearing

• Hunger and/or poor nutrition

• Altered cognition due to delirium

• Impaired gross or fine motor skills

• Chronic or acute medical conditions

• Severely slowed psychomotor speed

• Severely impaired language function

Environmental factors

• Accessibility

• Literacy level

• Bedside vs. office

• Caregiving concerns

• Cohort effects/culture

• Test stimulus materials

• Digital anxiety/familiarity

• Family influence/expectations

• Access to healthcare/medication

• Primary language other than English

• Living situation (stable, isolated, homeless)

• Availability of appropriate corrective devices, accommodations

• Environmental concerns (lighting, ventilation, temperature, free from distraction

Q.3 Explain practical considerations in planning a test. Develop a protocol for test

administration for secondary level examiners.

Step 1. Planning the Test:

Planning of the test is the first important step in the test construction. The main goal of

evaluation process is to collect valid, reliable and useful data about the student.
Therefore before going to prepare any test we must keep in mind that:

(1) What is to be measured?

(2) What content areas should be included and

(3) What types of test items are to be included.

Therefore the first step includes three major considerations.

1. Determining the objectives of testing.

2. Preparing test specifications.

3. Selecting appropriate item types

1. Determining the Objectives of Testing:

A test can be used for different purposes in a teaching learning process. It can be used to

measure the entry performance, the progress during the teaching learning process and to

decide the mastery level achieved by the students. Tests serve as a good instrument to measure

the entry per-formance of the students. It answers to the questions, whether the students have

requisite skill to enter into the course or not, what previous knowledge does the pupil possess.

Therefore it must be decided whether the test will be used to measure the entry performance

or the previous knowledge acquired by the student on the subject.

Tests can also be used for formative evaluation. It helps to carry on the teaching learning

process, to find out the immediate learning difficulties and to suggest its remedies. When the

dif-ficulties are still unsolved we may use diagnostic tests. Diagnostic tests should be prepared

with high technique. So specific items to diagnose specific areas of difficulty should be included

in the test.

Tests are used to assign grades or to determine the mastery level of the students. These

summative tests should cover the whole instructional objectives and content areas of the

course. Therefore attention must be given towards this aspect while preparing a test.
2. Preparing Test Specifications:

The second important step in the test construction is to prepare the test specifications. In order

to be sure that the test will measure a representative sample of the instructional objectives and

content areas we must prepare test specifications. So that an elaborate design is neces-sary for

test construction. One of the most commonly used devices for this purpose is ‘Table of

Specification’ or ‘Blue Print.’

Preparation of Table of Specification/Blue Print:

Preparation of table of specification is the most important task in the planning stage. It acts, as

a guide for the test con­struction. Table of specification or ‘Blue Print’ is a three dimen­sional

chart showing list of instructional objectives, content areas and types of items in its dimensions.

It includes four major steps:

(i) Determining the weightage to different instructional objectives.

(ii) Determining the weightage to different content areas.

(iii) Determining the item types to be included.

(iv) Preparation of the table of specification.

(i) Determining the weightage to different instructional ob-jectives:

There are vast arrays of instructional objectives. We cannot include all in a single test. In a

written test we cannot measure the psychomotor domain and affective domain. We can only

measure the cognitive domain. It is also true that all t he subjects do not contain different

learning objectives like knowledge, un-derstanding, application and skill in equal proportion.

Therefore it must be planned how much weight ago to be given to different instructional

objectives. While deciding this we must keep in mind the importance of the particular objective

for that subject or chapter.

(ii) Determining the weightage to different content areas:

The second step in preparing the table of specification is to outline the content area. It

indicates the area in which the stu-dents are expected to show their performance. It helps to

obtain a representative sample of the whole content area.

It also prevents repetition or omission of any unit. Now question arises how much weightage

should be given to which unit. Some experts say that, it should be decided by the concerned

teacher keeping the impor-tance of the chapter in mind.

Others say that it should be decided according to the area covered by the topic in the text book.

Generally it is decided on the basis of pages of the topic, total page in the book and number of

items to be prepared. For example if a test of 100 marks is to be prepared then, the weightage

to different topics will be given as following

(iii) Determining the item types:

The third important step in preparing table of specification is to decide appropriate item types.

Items used in the test construction can broadly be divided into two types like objective type

items and essay type items. For some instructional purposes, the objective type items are most

efficient whereas for others the essay questions prove satisfac-tory.

Appropriate item types should be selected according to the learning outcomes to be measured.

For example when the out-come is writing, naming supply type items are useful. If the outcome

is identifying a correct answer selection type or recog-nition type items are useful. So that the

teacher must decide and select appropriate item types as per the learning outcomes.

(iv) Preparing the Three Way Chart:

Preparation of the three way chart is last step in preparing table of specification. This chart

relates the instructional objectives to the content area and types of items. In a table of

specification the instructional objec-tives are listed across the top of the table, content areas

are listed down the left side of the table and under each objective the types of items are listed
content-wise. Table 3.3 is a model table of specification for X class science.

Step # 2. Preparing the Test:

After planning preparation is the next important step in the test construction. In this step the

test items are constructed in accordance with the table of specification.The preparation stage

includes the fol-lowing three functions:

(i) Preparing test items.

(ii) Preparing instruction for the test.

(iii) Preparing the scoring key.

(i) Preparing the Test Items:

Preparation of test items is the most important task in the preparation step. Therefore care must

be taken in preparing a test item. The following principles help in preparing relevant test items.

1. Test items must be appropriate for the learning out-come to be measured:

The test items should be so designed that it will measure the performance described in the

specific learning outcomes.

2. Test items should measure all types of instructional objectives and the whole content area:

The items in the test should be so prepared that it will cover all the instructional objectives—

Knowledge, understanding, think-ing skills and match the specific learning outcomes and

subject matter content being measured. When the items are constructed on the basis of table of

specification the items became relevant.

3. The test items should be free from ambiguity:

The item should be clear. Inappropriate vocabulary and awkward sentence structure should be

avoided. The items should be so worded that all pupils understand the task.

4. The test items should be of appropriate difficulty level:

The test items should be proper difficulty level, so that it can discriminate properly. If the item

is meant for a criterion-refer-enced test its difficulty level should be as per the difficulty level

indicated by the statement of specific learning outcome. Therefore if the learning task is easy

the test item must be easy and if the learning task is difficult then the test item must be

difficult.

In a norm-referenced test the main purpose is to discriminate pupils according to achievement.

So that the test should be so designed that there must be a wide spread of test scores.

Therefore the items should not be so easy that everyone answers it correctly and also it should

not be so difficult that everyone fails to answer it. The items should be of average difficulty

level.

5. The test item must be free from technical errors and irrelevant clues:

Sometimes there are some unintentional clues in the state-ment of the item which helps the

pupil to answer correctly. For example grammatical inconsistencies, verbal associations,

extreme words (ever, seldom, always), and mechanical features (correct statement is longer

than the incorrect). Therefore while construct-ing a test item careful step must be taken to avoid

most of these clues.

6. Test items should be free from racial, ethnic and sexual biasness:

The items should be universal in nature. Care must be taken to make a culture fair item. While

portraying a role all the facilities of the society should be given equal importance. The terms

used in the test item should have an universal meaning to all members of group.

Step # 3. Try Out of the Test:

Once the test is prepared now it is time to be confirming the validity, reliability and usability of

the test. Try out helps us to identify defective and ambiguous items, to determine the difficulty

level of the test and to determine the discriminating power of the items.
Try out involves two important functions:

(a) Administration of the test.

(b) Scoring the test.

(a) Administration of the test:

Administration means ad-ministering the prepared test on a sample of pupils. So the

ef-fectiveness of the final form test depends upon a fair administra-tion. Gronlund and Linn

have stated that ‘the guiding principle in administering any class room test is that all pupils

must be given a fair chance to demonstrate their achievement of learning out-comes being

measured.’ It implies that the pupils must be provided congenial physical and psychological

environment during the time of testing. Any other factor that may affect the testing procedure

should be controlled.

Physical environment means proper sitting arrangement, proper light and ventilation and

adequate space for invigilation, Psychological environment refers to these aspects which

in-fluence the mental condition of the pupil. Therefore steps should be taken to reduce the

anxiety of the students. The test should not be administered just before or after a great

occasion like annual sports on annual drama etc.

Step # 4. Evaluating the Test:

Evaluating the test is most important step in the test con-struction process. Evaluation is

necessary to determine the quality of the test and the quality of the responses. Quality of the

test implies that how good and dependable the test is? (Validity and reliability). Quality of the

responses means which items are misfit in the test. It also enables us to evaluate the usability

of the test in general class-room situation.

Evaluating the test involves following functions:

(a) Item analysis.

(b) Determining validity of the test.

(c) Determining reliability of the test.

(d) Determining usability of the test.

(a) Item analysis:

Item analysis is a procedure which helps us to find out the answers to the following questions:

a. Whether the items functions as intended?

b. Whether the test items have appropriate difficulty level?

c. Whether the item is free from irrelevant clues and other defects?

d. Whether the distracters in multiple choice type items are effective?

The item analysis data also helps us:

a. To provide a basis for efficient class discussion of the test result

b. To provide a basis for the remedial works

c. To increase skill in test construction

d. To improve class-room discussion.

Item Analysis Procedure:

Item analysis procedure gives special emphasis on item difficulty level and item discriminating

power.

The item analysis procedure follows the following steps:

1. The test papers should be ranked from highest to lowest.

2. Select 27% test papers from highest and 27% from lowest end.

For example if the test is administered on 60 students then select 16 test papers from highest

end and 16 test papers from lowest end.

3. Keep aside the other test papers as they are not required in the item analysis.

4. Tabulate the number of pupils in the upper and lower group who selected each alternative
for each test item. This can be done on the back of the test paper or a separate test item card

may be used.

5. Calculate item difficulty for each item by using formula:

Preparing a test item file:

Once the item analysis process is over we can get a list of effective items. Now the task is to

make a file of the effective items. It can be done with item analysis cards. The items should be

arranged according to the order of difficulty. While filing the items the objectives and the

content area that it measures must be kept in mind. This helps in the future use of the item

(b) Determining Validity of the Test:

At the time of evaluation it is estimated that to what extent the test measures what the test

maker intends to measure.

(c) Determining Reliability of the Test:

Evaluation process also estimates to what extent a test is consistent from one measurement to

other. Otherwise the results of the test cannot be dependable.

(d) Determining the Usability of the Test:

Try out and the evaluation process indicates to what extent a test is usable in general classroom
condition. It implies that how far a test is usable from administration, scoring, time and
economy point of view.

Q.4 Why essay type items are considered easy to administer and difficult to

score? Explain with practical examples?

Introduction to Essay types Test:

The essay tests are still commonly used tools of evaluation, despite the increasingly wider

applicability of the short answer and objective type questions.

There are certain outcomes of learning (e.g., organizing, summarizing, integrating ideas and
expressing in one’s own way) which cannot be satisfactorily measured through objective type

tests. The importance of essay tests lies in the measurement of such instructional outcomes.

An essay test may give full freedom to the students to write any number of pages. The required

response may vary in length. An essay type question requires the pupil to plan his own answer

and to explain it in his own words. The pupil exercises considerable freedom to select, organise

and present his ideas. Essay type tests provide a better indication of pupil’s real achievement in

learning. The answers provide a clue to nature and quality of the pupil’s thought process.

That is, we can assess how the pupil presents his ideas (whether his manner of presentation is

coherent, logical and systematic) and how he concludes. In other words, the answer of the pupil

reveals the structure, dynamics and functioning of pupil’s mental life.

The essay questions are generally thought to be the traditional type of questions which demand

lengthy answers. They are not amenable to objective scoring as they give scope for halo-effect,

inter-examiner variability and intra-examiner variability in scoring.

Types of Essay Test:

There can be many types of essay tests

Some of these are given below with examples from different subjects:

1. Selective Recall. e.g. What was the religious policy of Akbar?

2. Evaluative Recall.

3. Comparison of two things—on a single designated basis.

e.g. Compare the contributions made by Dalton and Bohr to Atomic theory.

4. Comparison of two things—in general.

. Compare Early Vedic Age with the Later Vedic Age.

5. Decision—for or against.

Which type of examination do you think is more reliable? Oral or Written. Why?
6. Causes or effects.

Discuss the effects of environmental pollution on our lives.

7. Explanation of the use or exact meaning of some phrase in a passage or a sentence.

e.g., Joint Stock Company is an artificial person. Explain ‘artificial person’ bringing out the

concepts of Joint Stock Company.

8. Summary of some unit of the text or of some article.

9. Analysis

What was the role played by Mahatma Gandhi in India’s freedom struggle?

10. Statement of relationship.

Why is knowledge of Botany helpful in studying agriculture

11. Illustration or examples (your own) of principles in science, language, etc.

Illustrate the correct use of subject-verb position in an interrogative sentence.

12. Classification.

Classify the following into Physical change and Chemical change with explanation. Water

changes to vapour; Sulphuric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide react to produce Sodium Sulphate and

Water; Rusting of Iron; Melting of Ice.

13. Application of rules or principles in given situations.

e.g. If you sat halfway between the middle and one end of a sea-saw, would a person sitting on

the other end have to be heavier or lighter than you in order to make the sea-saw balance in the

middle. Why?

14. Discussion.

Partnership is a relationship between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business

carried on by all or any of them acting for all. Discuss the essentials of partnership on the basis

of this partnership.
15. Criticism—as to the adequacy, correctness, or relevance—of a printed statement or a

classmate’s answer to a question on the lesson.

What is the wrong with the following statement?

The Prime Minister is the sovereign Head of State in Pakistan

16. Outline.

17. Reorganization of facts.

e.g. The student is asked to interview some persons and find out their opinion on the role of UN

in world peace. In the light of data thus collected he/she can reorganise what is given in the text

book.

18. Formulation of questions-problems and questions raised.

After reading a lesson the pupils are asked to raise related problems- questions.

19. New methods of procedure

Limitations of Essay Tests:

1. One of the serious limitations of the essay tests is that these tests do not give scope for larger

sampling of the content. You cannot sample the course content so well with six lengthy essay

questions as you can with 60 multiple-choice test items.

2. Such tests encourage selective reading and emphasis cramming.

3. Moreover, scoring may be affected by spelling, good handwriting, cloured ink, neatness,

grammar, length of the answer, etc.

4. The long-answer type questions are less valid and less reliable, and as such they have little

predictive value.

5. It requires an excessive time on the part of students to write; while assessing, reading essays

is very time-consuming and laborious.

6. It can be assessed only by a teacher or competent professionals.

7. Improper and ambiguous wording handicaps both the students and valuers

8. Mood of the examiner affects the scoring of answer scripts.

9. There is halo effect-biased judgment by previous impressions.

10. The scores may be affected by his personal bias or partiality for a particular point of view,

his way of understanding the question, his weightage to different aspect of the answer,

favoritism and nepotism, etc.

Thus, the potential disadvantages of essay type questions are:

(i) Poor predictive validity,

(ii) Limited content sampling,

(iii) Scores unreliability, and

(iv) Scoring constraints.

(B) While Scoring Questions:

1. Prepare a marking scheme, suggesting the best possible answer and the weightage given to

the various points of this model answer. Decide in advance which factors will be considered in

evaluating an essay response.

2. While assessing the essay response, one must:

a. Use appropriate methods to minimize bias;

b. Pay attention only to the significant and relevant aspects of the answer;

c. Be careful not to let personal idiosyncrasies affect assessment;

d. Apply a uniform standard to all the papers.

3. The examinee’s identity should be concealed from the scorer. By this we can avoid the “halo

effect” or “biasness” which may affect the scoring.

4. Check your marking scheme against actual responses.

5. Once the assessment has begun, the standard should not be changed, nor should it vary from
paper to paper or reader to reader. Be consistent in your assessment.

6. Grade only one question at a time for all papers. This will help you in minimising the halo

effect in becoming thoroughly familiar with just one set of scoring criteria and in concentrating

completely on them.

7. The mechanics of expression (legibility, spelling, punctuation, grammar) should be judged

separately from what the student writes, i.e. the subject matter content.

8. If possible, have two independent readings of the test and use the average as the final

Q.5 Explain the qualities of a good test? In which situations equivalent form of

reliability can be a good measure of reliability?

An assessment is a process through which students can share their educational experiences. In

order for a test to be a good tool for measuring students’ knowledge and skills, it should have the

following characteristics of examination that are essential for the success of any test. Reliability

or Consistency

Reliability or consistency of a test means that learners should perform the same or get the

same score if they are exposed to different questions in different times and places. A test is

considered reliable when the same result is achieved over different tests.

As James Carlson mentions in his research memorandum, “The reliability of test scores is the

extent to which they are consistent across different occasions of testing, different editions of

the test, or different raters scoring the test taker’s responses.” He also mentions some statistics

to describe how a test can be reliable.

Objectivity

According to Gronlund and Linn “Objectivity of a test refers to the degree to which equally

competent scores obtain the same results,” the test should be away from any personal or

subjective judgment. It should be based only on the evaluation of human development.

For example, in an essay-type test, students answer differently as each one has his/her own

style of writing.

Hence, when more than one instructor check the test, they may give different scores according to

whether they like the style or not. So, here, the test is less objective.

To avoid such bias, sharp rules should be set in evaluating such types of tests. There should be a

unified guide for teachers to use while correcting such tests.

Personal judgment does not occur in true or false or multiple choice tests. Besides, teachers

should receive training on how to score a test as untrained teachers may give wrong scores and

not be able to maintain the required fairness and accuracy.

Comprehensiveness

A test should fully cover the entire field of study that students are exposed to during the

course. Vague questions should not be included especially during online tests when students

are confused and short in time.

Absence of Ambiguity

There has to be no place for ambiguity especially in online tests where examiners are absent.

Students should not be left in confusion and all questions have to be crystal clear.

According to Jacobs, Lucy C., from Indiana University, “ambiguous questions constitute the

major weakness in college tests

Ambiguous questions often result when instructors put off writing test questions until the last

minute. Careful editing and an independent review of the test items can help to minimize this

problem.”

Preparation

To ensure the success of any test, instructors should take into consideration the following

factors:
Students have to be well-prepared for the test through extensive revisions and discussions.

There should not be any gaps between the revision period and the exam.

Examiners should make it clear to students which topics are expected to be tackled in the

exam.

Students should be well-trained for the test type.

Appropriateness of Time

One of the top characteristics of a good test is when students have appropriate time to answer

all questions. For example, essay questions require more time than multiple choice or

true/false questions.

Some teachers take the test themselves first and then double or triple the time for students. A

good test is supposed to be practical and comprehensive.

Conclusion

There is a strong sense, however, that the use of the word ‘characteristics’ or ‘criteria’ is not

optimal. It implies the development of standards against which assessments could be judged.

Instead, we believe there should be a general agreement that the word ‘framework’ captures

our desire to create a structure that might be useful in the development of a good test in

education.

Reliability

Reliability refers to how dependably or consistently a test measures a characteristic. If a person

takes the test again, will he or she get a similar test score, or a much different score? A test that

yields similar scores for a person who repeats the test is said to measure a characteristic

reliably.

How do we account for an individual who does not get exactly the same test score every time

he or she takes the test? Some possible reasons are the following:
Test taker's temporary psychological or physical state. Test performance can be influenced by

a person's psychological or physical state at the time of testing. For example, differing levels of

anxiety, fatigue, or motivation may affect the applicant's test results.

Environmental factors. Differences in the testing environment, such as room temperature,

lighting, noise, or even the test administrator, can influence an individual's test performance.

Test form. Many tests have more than one version or form. Items differ on each form, but each

form is supposed to measure the same thing. Different forms of a test are known as parallel

forms or alternate forms. These forms are designed to have similar measurement

characteristics, but they contain different items. Because the forms are not exactly the same, a

test taker might do better on one form than on another.

Multiple raters. In certain tests, scoring is determined by a rater's judgments of the test taker's

performance or responses. Differences in training, experience, and frame of reference among

raters can produce different test scores for the test taker.

These factors are sources of chance or random measurement error in the assessment process.

If there were no random errors of measurement, the individual would get the same test score,

the individual's "true" score, each time. The degree to which test scores are unaffected by

measurement errors is an indication of the reliability of the test.

Reliable assessment tools produce dependable, repeatable, and consistent information about

people. In order to meaningfully interpret test scores and make useful employment or
careerrelated decisions, you need reliable tools. This brings us to the next principle of assessme
Q.1 What is Education and how can it develop the Man? What should

be the aims of education in global perspective?

EDUCATION

Education is the process of acquisition of knowledge skills values beliefs and habits.
Education develop personality of man

Education can truly make or break an individual, because it builds and develops a person’s

belief, ideologies and values. Education gives the ability to think with reason, pursue dreams

and aspirations in life and live a respectable life in the society. Education gives us a definite

path to follow, to lead our lives by principles and gives us the freedom of expression. It frees

our minds from the prejudices and motivates it to think with logic and reason. It is essential for

the overall development of the human mind and brain. The literacy rate of a country

determines its prosperity and economic health. The benefits of education are numerous, but a

few points are highlighted below, which shows how education helps in human development

from different aspects – personal, social, economic and spiritual.

Overcome social prejudices:

This is probably the most important benefit of education. Social evils and belief can really hold

back the growth and development of a society, and a country. So, to overcome this and

understand and explain things with logic and reasoning, educated minds and very essential.

One enlightened mind can lit up a thousand more. Education, used in the proper way also

helps to reduce crime and restore law and order.

Nurture talent and pursue dreams:

Every human has dreams and aspirations. So, education is a medium to pursue and fulfill

them. It increases the knowledge of a person in different fields of studies. It helps to

determine a path to follow and express your talent to the world.

Enhance creativity and imagination:

Education opens up new ways and ideas to ponder. It cultivates a young mind to think out-
ofthe-box and explore different things in life. Education also helps to know about things and
stay

healthy, fit and Knowledge, wisdom and exposure:

Education opens up every channel of knowledge and wisdom. It exposes us to a whole new

world of information, invent new things and know how we can make our surroundings a

better place to live and out our lives to a greater, and better use.

According to Ariel Tichnor-Wagner, an educator and researcher, teaching global perspectives

has a variety of immediate benefits for students, including:

Improved student engagement.

When students learn through authentic tasks and content they are far more likely to engage

in-class activities. This perspective of education, in turn, leads to higher attendance and

academic achievements. For example, imagine what will happen if we set up a class where

students interact with peers from Mexico via Skype or Zoom? They will be enticed to learn

Spanish!

Higher chances of getting a job.

The world economy is becoming increasingly globalized. In the US alone over 40 million jobs

are linked to international trade so it stands to reason that employers are desperately seeking

graduates with cross-cultural skills, which can enable them to work with teams and clients all

over the world.

Higher emotional intelligence and better communication skills.

Learning about global perspectives benefits students not only because it helps them find a

better job, but also because it helps them develop self-awareness of their own identity,

culture, beliefs, and how they connect to the rest of the world. This awareness will help them

acquire relationship`—building skills, which are so important for communication and

collaboration. Student empowerment is increased as global learning helps them to improve

their own lives and make a positive contribution to the lives of others.[1] Ariel Tichnor-Wagner

explains that: “When students are provided opportunities to investigate issues they deem
important (be it gun violence, access to clean water, or human rights violations), unpack why

these issues exist, and come up with solutions to make them better, they become empowered

to be the catalysts of the changes they wish to see”.

Aims of Education in Global Perspective

Increasing global commerce and competition provides much of the fuel that drives the call for

education reform. Many more nations are industrializing and competing in the global market.

The nations with the best minds and best education will lead the world economically. When

researchers compare the performance of American students to their international

counterparts, the United States scores low compared to other industrialized nations. In a

frequently quoted study, 13­year­olds in Korea and Taiwan scored highest in math and science

exams. Thirteen­year­olds in the United States scored near the bottom of industrialized

nations.

Experts point to parental attitudes and school systems to explain the differences. Asian

parents maintain far higher expectations of their children, push them harder, and more often

credit their children's success to “hard work.” American parents, on the other hand, generally

harbor lower expectations, become satisfied with performance more quickly, and often credit

their children's success to “talent.”

Q.2 Compare the basic philosophies e.g. Ontology, Epistemology and Axiology?

Apply these philosophies to the field of education.

Ontology Epistemology and Axiology the terms are related to philosophical studies. Axiology

Ontology and Epistemology are three different lines of study in philosophical studies. These

studies are different as well as kind of similar.

Similarities’ among the three

We humans do not have access to the actual world. So, we built models in order to
make sense of the world.

Epistemology

When solving some Attitude problem or reading something then there we require

knowledge to understand the world, which is known as Epistemology.

Also Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that studies knowledge or knowing.

They ask questions like: How do we know what we claim to know? That’s the classic

epistemological question. That we can see in a lot of theory and research textbooks. A

researcher might assume for example, that knowledge is already out there, just waiting

to be discovered. And so, it’s our job as researchers to uncover this universal,

unchanging and absolute truth

ONTOLOGY

It is the study of being fundamentally what exists and what the meaning of existence is.

Ontology is also the branch of philosophy that studies existence and the nature of human

beings and our existence. They ask questions like:

What is the nature of existence and our existence as individuals in society, in the universe?

Axiology

Axiology is about values such as good and bad. moral and immoral . questions

about what the meaning of life is and how we should live. Axiology is also a branch

of philosophy that studies values. They ask questions about the values that guide

our research to begin with.

Difference Among the three

Ontology

Ontology is about what exists and what does not exist (basic). Ontology is a subbranch of

metaphysics. Furthermore, metaphysics is informed by epistemology.

Epistemology,

Epistemology gives us the perimeters of knowledge concerning our model of the world and

the methodologies to know the world.

Axiology

Axiology is about values such as good and bad, moral and immoral. Questions about what the

meaning of life is and how we should live. Axiology is informed by both epistemology and

metaphysics.

Application in field of education

Epistemology ontology and axiology can be considered as the skeleton of education research

and all the academic discourse.

Epistemology in Education

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge especially with regards to its methods validity scope

and distinction justified belief. In this regard the belief system we have developed has been

validated by past experience we have had in our lifetime. For example if we believe the firer

get us hurt, the belief is validated or justified from our past experience.

The belief obtained is validated from different experiments for the sustainable knowledge

system. The epistemological question involves the theory of knowledge evidence reason for

believing justification probability and what one ought to believe and any other concept that

can only be understood through one or more of the above.

Epistemology talks about the method how we acquire knowledge. There are various methods

of knowledge acquisition. So epistemology exists in every activity we do for knowledge

acquisition.

As it is said epistemology is the theory of knowledge it investigates all variables of knowledge

and its system like methods process origin nature the limit of human knowledge and
justification.

Epistemological question are open ended and more philosophical where freedom of a wide

range of knowledge exist. Education is a process as well as validation of experiential and

theoretical knowledge For knowledge validation different tools are being used in educational

contexts. In school level education question are designed on the basis of curriculum and

desired outcome. However epistemology studies that how obtained knowledge is tested.

Some basic question of epistemology

What is knowledge?

What are the sources of knowledge?

Where does genuine knowledge come from?

How knowledge is acquired?

From the above mentation question we can say that the many question designed for

knowledge testing are based on an epistemological foundation. Mostly the open ended

question we prepare for checking student’s creativity and learning comprehension are based

on this theoretical foundation.

ONTOLOGY IN EDUCATION

Ontology is the study of what kind of things exists around us. The things are in different shapes

and sizes. When we say Elephant we have the concept of huge animal whereas if we listen to

the word and we make an image of a small insect in our mind. Ontology is the relation

between the real object and the concept we have developed with association with the object.

In a wider philosophical understanding it is the branch of metaphysics.

Ontology studies the first principle of knowledge or root of concept or knowledge to validate

the common understanding. Developed wider concept has multiple constructs for example if

we take an example of a laptop it has multiple variable to make it as a device the constructs
for the laptop can be hardware and software in general.

The concept of ontology enables the teachers and learners to use the abundant information

and resources available on a wider range of websites. It helps to organized deliver and makes a

single domain of knowledge in a specific area. Machinery use of learning activity can’t make a

concept rather human agencies are required to organize the random concept in a systematic

view to deliver an acceptable set of knowledge. It provides the required conceptualization and

knowledge representation to meet the challenges which might arise during the learning

process.

Ontological assumptions in teaching are hidden through they are the major and strong

foundation in designing teacher learning activities. It is a widely accepted fact that we learn

better with real object example. What if the teacher brings a ball to teach the concept of B for

ball? It’s not a new concept in teaching however the assumption gives more focus on the

conceptual teaching. If it is not possible to bring the real object we can definitely draw the

picture ball this is what the ontological assumption talks about in teaching learning activities.

Teacher and subject expert can prepare the plan with graphical representation to relate the

concept with the desired learning outcome and student cognitive demand. It is the obvious

that student learn better with graphical representation or real object examples. There has

been little effort of teacher in the classroom delivery however the teacher should be an expert

in multiple field to incorporate the concept on the given representations.

While talking about the ontological assumption we can take the example of the STEAM

education concept and the recently launched integrated curriculum. For example the teacher

inside the classroom can embed all genuine learning skills which also called 21ist learning

skills which includes problem solving decision making principle application and synthetic

activities like writing and summarizing thinking up new problem and other which may include
connecting among other principle.

While designing and under the process of implementation the teacher tries to develop a visual

representation of task and concept to be taught that shows a clear view of content and

cognitive demand of the learners. The teacher can present two competitive info graphics and

real object in the classroom to task student for differentiating between the presented

examples. This activity helps to develop conceptual understanding rational development and

reasoning power in the learners.

Axiology in EDUCATION

Axiology is one of the branches of philosophy which deals with the value and examines it. It is
known as the
theory of value in the educational setting and it exams the value concerning the value under
particular way. It
talks about the nation of good or bad evil. In a general sense the philosophical ground for the
term. Axiology is
the science of value as it discusses the value from philosophical dimension. Theory of value
related to gained
knowledge. It is the objective format for measuring intangible attitude and value. Value can be
viewed as
objective and subjective the axiological assumption measures the level of development. In the
process of
assessing the axiological assumption particularly base on the ethic and esthetic view. In which
deals with
morality behavioral norms and behavior whereas esthetics deal with something good or bad.

Good education is a joint effort of the school and parents. Though the school can do a lot for the
children it
can’t do everything. The home is the first place where he she gets his her wards watching of TV

programs and allow only those program which are educative and morally conducive for the
integral growth of the their wards. Education must give supreme priority to the development

of the rational potential within each pupil.

Educators must stress the importance of development of both the intellect and will and teach

pupil how to think. Knowing how to think in order to make good decision will make it possible

for student to cope with life’s problem and to steer themselves on to the course for a good

life. To carry out this objective the school must re organize pupils’ experiences in order to

enhance their meaning thereby enabling them to direct more fully and more competently the

course of their own future experiences. Whereas the goal of education is the development of

rational potential of the pupil education must include those subject that assist in the

intellectual development of the pupil because they contain the accumulated wisdom of

civilized man the humanity ought to be given dominance . Yogic activity should be included in

the curriculum.

Education is life itself therefore the curriculum too must be life itself. It can’t be limited to

academics. A problem centered pupil centered experience-centered curriculum featuring such

approaches as shared activities critical evaluation pupil involvement in decision making

community service projects. Lessons should be taught as possible. The teacher must never

impose ethical codes or standards of behaviors. The teacher ought to provide as many real

experience and opportunities to discuss virtuous acts and lives as possible.

Q.3 Elaborate the Islamic philosophy of education and its application in

the present education System?

Education and Philosophy in Islam

The Quran considers the main Reference in the epistemological and ontological levels in Islam.

The Quranic

Discourse consists from two types. The first treats with faith issues in detail, because the
natural of these issues is constant and not changeable.

But the other type deals with life issues as, social, politics, economy, education and others,

these issues is treated in general. Because it’s changeable nature, as well as to be valid and

useful to the changes of the human life. Unlike the previous explanation, Halstead argues that

the social and moral dimension of education in Islam is therefore eventually a matter of

coming to understand and learning to fellow the divine law, which contains not only universal

moral principles, but also detailed instruction relating to every aspect of human life.

The shari’a integrates political, social and economic life as well as individual life into a single

religious a world view. In Islam, therefore, there is no question of individuals being encouraged

through education to work out for themselves their own religious faith or to subject it to

detached rational investigation at a fundamental level.

The Quran present life issues as Values, but the Muslim human being is responsible for

implementation these Values in his life. It means that implementation is not uniform and

constant for every place and time. It is depends in the ability of Muslims for progress and

Creativity. For example in political issue, the Quran mentions two verses that describing the

type of regime in general: “who (conduct) their affairs by mutual Consultation” (42:38); “It is

part of the Mercy of Allah that thou dost deal gently with them. Wert thou severe or
harshhearted, they would have broken away from about thee: so pass over (their faults), and
ask for

(Allah's) forgiveness for them; and consult them in affairs (of moment). Then, when thou hast

taken a decision, put thy trust in Allah.

The two verses present the regime issue in general as values, but process and details as well as

instruments and aims are depending on Muslims ability to accomplish the values of

Consultation in the reality.

So, we should not expect that life issues in Islam are constant, but changing from one
intellectual Muslim to another one, because it depends on the experience and point view of

the intellectual, and his ability to create the theoretical and practical Epistemology, as well as

to develop instruments through the Values Light.

Therefore, the role of Muslims in this world is to apply the ideal values in reality. But these

Values are infinite and absolute; these values stand in opposite to reality that limited. That

means there is no constant form for Islamic Education or Philosophy. It must be in dynamic

action in hope to arrive to Values which requires query and creativity.

Also, Halstead claims that “from liberal perspective, the notion of free will in Islam is thus

unsophisticated one, involving simply the choice to accept or reject the complete package of

beliefs, and contrasts sharply with the liberal notion of personal autonomy”. (J.M Halstead.

524, 2004).

Islam connects free choice with responsibility, which means that each person is responsible for

his choice. In the beginning, one's innocence is absolute: an indwelling from life’s first breath

inevitably moves one to begin searching. Becoming aware of this state immediately makes one

a responsible and in fact a free being. (Tariq Ramadan, 18 2004)

The Qur’anic interest in guaranteeing people's freedom is clear and frank as can be seen from

its emphasis on the principle of thought and religion, as we read in His words:

“THERE SHALL BE no coercion in matters of faith. Distinct has now become the right way from

[the way of] error: hence, he who rejects the powers of evil and believes in God has indeed

taken hold of a support most unfailing, which shall never give way: for God is all-hearing,
allknowing”. (2: 256)
This verse is considered a general principle in Islam, giving human beings the option to choose

their religious faith according to their free will. There is no coercion to conform to a specific

belief. If non-Muslims or skeptical

Muslims do not accept our reasoning we are not obligated to impose our version of truth on

them, using force and terror in the name of religion itself. When a person sees a benefit in a

religion, such as well-being and spiritual peace, he or she will not let go of it. Change comes

when people are convinced, not when they are forced.

The logical thinking in Islam bases on harmony and integration, there is no separation between

religion and politics and science, or between mind and sense, soul and body. It is right that

these topics are not the same thing, every topic consider as independent unit, but there is

integration between these units. We can describe the relation between these units that every unit

completes and perfects the other. On contrast the western thought rely on the dualism

and dialectic thinking, as well as the separation between religions and accepts of life as,

politics and science. The human being become not just a central of the world, but

he replaces the God role, while the mind replaces the religion that considers the

reference that states what is wrong and true, good or bad.

We can say that the Islamic religion is constituted the ethical reference in the human life.

Because Human being in Islam is a vicegerent of God (Khalifatullah) on the earth, and his role

in this world to reconstruction the earth, thus the progress of life is a deposit that human

being pledged to undertake. Everything is subservient to man and works for him, this is what is

meant by the “appointing of a representative” mentioned in the Quran: "I am appointing of a

representive on the earth". (Quran 2: 30) Khaldun 416 1958)

So the responsibility of human being for reconstruction the earth created from his

commitment to carry the deposit. That means that human being have to invest his effort as

possible as for this goal. As result from this

Concept for life, the thinking becomes a duty for every Muslim in order to improve the human life.
Therefore we talk about two different spaces of thinking, but not contradict spaces. They are

similar in certain aspects for example, Islam recognizes the importance of the mind as an

important instrument for research and inquiry, but it is not the absolute and unique tool for

revealing the complete truth. While mind in the Western thinking is not just an

instrument, but it is also the reference. So it is a thought that constrict in the limits

of the mind.

Islamic thinking is open to the three worlds: faith, mind and reality, so it is a

communicated thinking in its nature.

Therefore, we have to understand the Islamic philosophy and Education in the

contest of Islam, and his thinking logic. In IQBAL View, Knowledge is obtained

through experience. All experience is real, the whole of our experience include

perception, reason and intuition. Normally we acquire knowledge through senseperception and
reason, but besides these two faculties there is a third faculty of
intuition or religious experience.

There is no doubt that looking at the process of learning and also any current scenario in this

country is something that should be closely related to what and how someone should know

from the view of Islamic Philosophy. Therefore, the nature of education based on Islam itself

has the very significant contribution towards human's life. Discussing Islamic Philosophy of

Education will focus on what philosophy is as a core of any theoretical and practical elements

of all aspects and knowledge. The philosophical approach is discussed from the perspective of

Islam. Then, this writing looks at how Islamic Philosophy tends to mould education in the

entire of situation. The discussion of Islamic Philosophy of Education needs to be understood

wisely in order to relate it with the context of learning process, and other related situations

around us. In this regard, this writing also looks on how the branches of philosophy (such as
metaphysics and axiology) and school of thought of philosophy (such as pragmatism) is relevan

in discussing Islamic Philosophy of Education. In the end, it is seen as important towards

achieving holistic learning. Then this understanding of Islamic Philosophy is proven as

important in understanding any current senario in the context or our society in this

country, among others are on how the implementation of the aspect of Islamic

Philosophy of Education is important in viewing the social problem; the

implementation of the aspect of Islamic Philosophy of Education in viewing the

Environmental Problem; and the aspect of Islamic Philosophy of Education in

Viewing the Emotional and Spiritual Intelligences in current society.

School systems also differ. In France and England, public schools provide preschool to 3­year­

old children. The Japanese school year can run 45 to 60 days longer than the average

American school year, with much shorter breaks. Most Japanese students also attend juke, or

“cram school,” after school, where they study for several more hours with tutors to review

and augment the day's schoolwork. Fierce competition exists because not all students can get

into the universities, and getting into the best universities secures the student's and the

family's future. Although Japanese students may outperform American ones, critics point to

the high suicide rate and other social ills associated with the Japanese system.

Q.4 Elaborate the philosophy of idealism in the context of Metaphysics.

Determine the relationship of idealism with aims and processes of education?

IDEALISM

This is the view that the only reality is the ideal world. This would be the world of ideas. It is

the view that there is no external reality composed of matter and energy. There are only ideas

existing within minds.

Idealism is the metaphysical view that associates reality to ideas in the mind rather than to
material objects. It lays emphasis on the mental or spiritual components of experience, and

renounces the notion of material existence. Idealists regard the mind and spirit as the most

essential, permanent aspects of one’s being. The philosophical views of Berkeley, Christian

Science, and Hinduism embrace idealist thought as they relate it to the existence of a

supreme, divine reality that transcends basic human understanding and inherent sensory

awareness.

IDEALISM of Plato

A well known exponent of this view was Plato, a philosopher in ancient Greece (428-347 B.C.).
Plato believed
that the physical world around us is not real; it is constantly changing and thus you can never
say what it really
is. There is a world of ideas which is a world of unchanging and absolute truth. This is reality for
Plato. Does
such a world exist independent of human minds? Plato thought it did, and whenever we grasp
an idea, or see
something with our mind's eye, we are using our mind to conceive of something in the ideal
world. There are a
number of proofs of this ideal world. The concepts of geometry, such as the concept of a circle,
which is a line
equidistant from a point, is something which does not exist in the physical world. All physical
circles, such as
wheels, drawings, etc. are not perfectly round. Yet our mind has the concept of a perfect circle.
Since this
concept could not come from the physical world, it must come from an ideal world. Another
proof is that from
moral perfection. We can conceive of a morally perfect person, even though the people we know
around us
are not morally perfect. So where does someone get this idea of moral perfection? Since it could
not have
been obtained from the world around us, it must have come from an ideal world. Platonism has
been an
extremely influential philosophy down through the centuries

Christian Scientists generally believe that God is a disembodied spirit who is omnipotent,
omniscient, and
omnipresent. They set all being in His mind. He is and encompasses all aspects of existence as he
is referred
to as “God is All-in-all.” Mrs. Mary Baker Eddy, founder of Christian Science, states that due to
God’s spiritual
nature, humanity (the product of His creation) must also appropriately be spiritual and not
material. The
concept of additional spiritual deities is excluded because of His “All-in-all” totality. The

true
universe in its
entirety, according to divine metaphysics, or Christian Science, is comprised of ideas that are
completely
spiritual and fashioned by divine thought, just as Berkeley espouses in his immaterialist views.
Therefore,
Christian Scientists specify that we as humans are in truth spirits produced by divinity, and in
consequence are
all incarnations of God. If we ignorantly deny the truth of God’s spiritual existence, it is then that
we will
mistakenly envision the world in the form of material, as it will be an illusion. All ideas hostile to
God’s
infiniteness, permanence, and goodness, such as conceptions of death, hell, and evil, are flawed
and wicked
hallucinations and are NOT real. God envelops all that is real, and therefore, everything he is
(eternal, omni
beneficent, etc.) is justifiably real. Everything else is just mortal error.

FORMS OF IDEALISM

Skeptic Idealism- starts with the thought that there is no proof that there are material objects
outside of
thought.

Problematic idealism- is the belief held by Descartes where we can only hold one empirical truth,
which is that
I exist.

Dogmatic- starts with the assumption that there are no material objects outside of thought and
the belief that
space is an inseparable condition to all objects and that this space is can't exist in itself. Thus it
also says that
all things in this space also can't exist and are merely images.

This is Berkeley's position.

Since all that we think we perceive through our senses that gives us evidence of a universe
beyond our own
mind is evidence which exists in our mind there is a problem with verifying anything outside of
the realm of
thought.

We could all be merely sets of thoughts in the universal set that is GOD. God thinks of
everything and God’s
thought are those things. God thinks of us and of us sitting at our computers and in a room with
other people
at the same time that God thinks of those rooms and people and computers and that is all that
we are:
thoughts in God’s mind.

Challenges to this Metaphysical Position: Idealism.

If we could all be merely sets of thoughts in the universal set that is GOD and God thinks of
everything and
God’s thought are those things. God thinks of us and of us sitting at our computers and in a
room with other
people at the same time that God thinks of those rooms and people and computers and that is
all that we are:
thoughts in God’s mind.

What then becomes of Free Will? What then becomes of a conception of a deity that is all good?

Major Aims of Education According to Idealism

Self Realization:

The aim is to enable each child to realize soul, recognize his real form and proceed towards self
knowledge.
Self-realization means full knowledge of the self or the soul. Man has a soul. Beyond soul there
is supreme
soul. Human soul is a part of this soul. Man achieves perfection when he realizes self. So that
idealist
philosophers have advocated that liberation or nirvana or mukti is the ultimate aim of life.

Spiritual Development:

Man converts his original nature to spiritual nature where man can realize spiritual values like
truth, beauty
and goodness in life. One has to enjoy intellectual, aesthetic and moral values through spiritual
development
of mind.

Cultivation of Moral Values:

Moral values enable one to achieve perfection in life. One has to express his moral values
through all activities
in life. Intellectual values solve all human problems what he faces in life time. So that idealism
cultivates moral
values in order to make life perfect, noble one.

Conservation, Promotion and Transmission of Culture:

According to idealism aim of education should be related to preserve, promote and transmit
culture from time
to time, person to person and place to place. Moral, intellectual and aesthetic activities of man
help in
preserving, promoting and transmitting culture from generation to generation.

Cultural heritage of mankind should be preserved. In addition to this spiritual and moral values
not only
contribute the human society by promoting culture but also transmit the same to the oncoming
generation.
Development of Physical Health:

Idealist philosophers advocate that education should be religious, moral, intellectual, aesthetic
and physical.
Emphasis should be given on physical health i.e. sound health through spiritual values.
Education should aim
at developing child into a complete man with full mental, intellectual, moral and cultural uplift.
So sound
health provides sound mind where creative values are produced for the well-being of human
society.
Q.5 Discuss the fundamental principles of the four traditional philosophies of

education and highlight the aims of education of each philosophy.

Idealism is a school of philosophy that emphasizes that “ideas or concepts are the essence of all
that is worth
knowing. Based on the writings of Plato, this school of philosophy encourages conscious
reasoning in the
mind. Furthermore, idealists look for, and value, universal or absolute truths and ideas.
Consequently, idealists
believe that ideas should remain constant throughout the centuries.

Plato believed that truth was the central reality. However, Plato did not believe that people
created
knowledge; instead they “discovered it. In his book, The Republic, Plato talked about two
worlds: the spiritual
or mental world and the world of appearance. Reacting against what he perceived as too much
of a focus on
the physical and sensory world, Plato called for education to “develop in the body and the soul
of the pupil all
the beauty and all the perfection he is capable of. In addition, to understand truth, Plato
believed you must
first understand knowledge.

Socrates

Socrates’ work is only known through the works of Plato. Plato observed Socrates questioning a
slave boy to
help him understand what he knew about a specific concept. This questioning technique became
known as the
Socratic Method and was explored in-depth in chapter one. When applied in classrooms, the
Socratic method
actively engages students in the learning process, improves understanding, and promotes
higher-order
thinking.

Imanuel Kant

He was a German philosopher who believed in “freedom, the immortality of the soul, and the
existence of
God. He added valuable information about the important role of reason and its’ contributions to
knowledge.
According to his research, it is only through reason that we gain knowledge of and understand
the world in
which we live.

Educational AIMS of Idealism

Within an idealist educational philosophy, the curricular focus is on ideas rather than the
student or specific
content areas. Learning is also intrinsically motivated. Teaching methods used within idealism
include: lecture,
discussion, and Socratic dialogue. Essential to these teaching methods is posing questions that
generate
thoughts and spark connections. Paul (n/d) suggests the following six types of Socratic
questions:
Questions for clarification

How does this relate to our discussion?

Questions that probe assumptions

What could we assume instead?

Questions that probe reasons and evidence

What would be an example?

Questions about viewpoints and perspectives

What is another way to look at it?

Questions that probe implications and consequences

What are the consequences of that assumption?

Questions about the question

What was the point of this question?

REALISM

Realism is a school of philosophy with origins in the work of Aristotle. This philosophy
emphasizes that
“reality, knowledge, and value exist independent of the human mind”. Realists argue for the use
of the senses
and scientific investigation in order to discover truth. The application of the scientific method
also allows
individuals to classify things into different groups based on their essential differences.

Aristotle

He is known as the father of realism and the Scientific Method. His pragmatic approach to
understanding an
object, by understanding is form, is an example of how he investigated matter. To understand
this concept,
consider the following example: A plant can exist without being physically present, but it still
shares properties
with all other plants (form). Finally, Aristotle was the “first to teach logic as a discipline in order
to be able to
reason about physical events and aspects.

John Locke

He believed in the tabula rosa, or blank tablet, view of the mind. According to this view, a child’s
mind is a
blank slate when they are born. All the sensory experiences they have after birth fill up the slate
through the
impressions that are made upon the mind.

Educational aim of Realism

Within a realist educational philosophy, the curricular focus is on scientific research and
development.
Outcomes of this thinking in classrooms today include the appearance of standardized tests,
serialized
textbooks, and specialized curriculum (Johnson et. al., 2011). Teaching methods used in

realism
include:
Demonstration

Recitation

Critical thinking

Observation

Experimentation

PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism is “a process philosophy that stresses evolving and change rather than being”. In
other words,
pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing so we learn best through experience.

According to pragmatists, the learner is constantly conversing and being changed by the
environment with
whom he or she is interacting. There is “no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is
what works”
(Cohen, 1999, p.1). Based on what is learned at any point and time, the learner or the world in
which he or she
is interacting can be changed.

Peirce (1839 – 1914):

Charles Sanders Peirce is one of the first pragmatic thinkers. He introduced the pragmatic
method in which
students are supplied a procedure for constructing and clarifying meanings. In addition, this
system helps to
facilitate communication among students.

Dewey (1859 – 1952):

John Dewey linked pragmatism to evolution by explaining that “human beings are creatures
who have to
adapt to one another and to their environment” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 93). Therefore,
learners within the
classroom need to adapt to one another and their learning community.

Educational AIMS of Pragmatism

A pragmatist educational philosophy calls for teachers who can support students learning by
promoting
questioning and problem-solving during the natural course of lesson delivery. The curriculum is
also
interdisciplinary. Teaching methods used in pragmatism include:

Hands-on problem solving

Experimenting

Projects

Cooperative Learning

EXISTENTIALISM

Existentialism is a school of philosophy that “focuses on the importance of the individual rather
than on external
standards” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 93). Existentialists believe that our reality is made up of
nothing more than our lived
experiences, therefore our final realities reside within each of us as individuals. As such, the
physical world has no real
meaning outside our human experience.

Kierkegaard

Kierkegaard was a Danish minister and philosopher.

He is considered to be the founder of existentialism.

Nietzsche

He stressed the importance of the individuality of each person. According to Johnson his work
provided a
“strategy to liberate people from the oppression of feeling inferior within themselves, and a
teaching of how
not to judge what one is in relation to what one should be”

Educational Aims of Existentialism

Within an existentialist classroom, the subject matter should be a matter of personal choice as
each student is viewed as an individual by the teacher. Furthermore, answers come from within
the individual in an existential classroom, not from the teacher.

By examining students’ lives through authentic thinking, students are actively involved in the
learning experience. Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be
measured, tracked, or standardized.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method requires a systematic search for information by observation and

experimentation. The basic steps of the scientific method are stating a problem based on

observations, developing a research question or questions, forming a hypothesis, experimenting

to test the hypothesis, collecting information, recording and analyzing data, and forming a

conclusion

STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS:

Make an observation.

Ask a question.

Form a hypothesis.

Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.

Test the prediction.

Use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions.

1. Ask a Question

The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How,

What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?

For a science fair project some teachers require that the question be something you can
measure,
preferably with a number.

2. Do Background Research

Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want

to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do

things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

3. Construct a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an attempt to answer your

question with an explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis allows you to then make a

prediction:

"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."

State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be testing. Predictions must be

easy to measure.

4. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your hypothesis is supported

or not. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making
sure
that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.

You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't

just an accident.

5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if

they support your hypothesis or not.

Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and their hypothesis was not

supported, and in such cases they will communicate the results of their experiment and then go
back and construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the information they learned
during
their experiment. This starts much of the process of the scientific method over again. Even if

they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want to test it again in a new way.

6. Communicate Your Results

To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final

report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by

publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster or

during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges are interested in your findings

regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis.

Q.2 Discuss the main characteristics of Scientifics research in detail.

Following are the main characteristic of scientific resarch

1. Objectivity

Scientific knowledge is objective. Simple objectivity means the ability to see and accept facts as

they are, not as one might wish they were. To be objective, one has to protect oneself against

one’s own prejudices, beliefs, desires, values and preferences. Objectivity requires that one

should set aside all kinds of subjective considerations and prejudices. If you are afraid that your

work will not be objective then you can ask us to “write my essays” or order proofreading.

2. Verifiable

Science rests on sensory data, that is, data collected through our senses: eye, ear, nose, tongue

and touch. Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable evidence (concrete objective observations)

so that other observers can observe, weigh or measure the same phenomena and verify the

observation to verify its accuracy.

Is there a god? Is the Varna system ethical or the questions related to the existence of the soul,
heaven or hell are not scientific questions because they can’t be treated objectively? The

evidence regarding its existence can’t be gathered through our senses. Science has no answers

for everything. Deal only with those questions about which verifiable evidence can be found.

3. Ethical neutrality

Science is ethically neutral. It only seeks knowledge. How this knowledge will be used, is

determined by the values of society. Knowledge can be used for different uses. Knowledge about

atomic energy can be used to cure diseases or to wage an atomic war.

Ethical neutrality does not mean that the scientist does not have values. Here it only means that

you should not allow your values to distort the design and conduct of your research proposal.

Therefore, scientific knowledge is value-neutral or value-free.

4. Systematic exploration

A scientific investigation adopts a certain sequential procedure, an organized plan or a research

design to collect and analyze data about the problem under study. In general, this plan includes

some scientific steps: formulation of hypotheses, compilation of facts, analysis of facts

(classification, coding and tabulation) and generalization and scientific prediction.

5. Reliable or reliable

Scientific knowledge must occur under the prescribed circumstances not once but repeatedly. It

is replicable in the indicated circumstances in any place and at any time. The conclusions based

on casual memories are not very reliable.

6. Accuracy

Scientific knowledge is precise. It is not vague as some literary writings. Tennyson wrote:

“Every moment a man dies; Every moment that one is born, it is good literature but not science.

To be a good science, it should be written as: “In India, according to the 2001 census, every

tenth, on average, a man dies; every fourth second, on average, a baby is born «. Accuracy
requires giving the exact number or measure. Instead of saying “most people are against

marriages for love,” says a scientific researcher, “ninety percent of people are against marriages

for love.”

7. Accuracy

Scientific knowledge is precise. A doctor, like a common man, will not say that the patient has a

mild temperature or that he has a very high temperature, but after measuring with the help of
the
thermometer, he will declare that the patient has a temperature of 101.2 F.

Precision simply means truth or correction of a statement or description of things with exact

words as they are without jumping to unjustified conclusions. Every essay helper on our team

always works by this rule.

8. Abstraction

Science proceeds on a plane of abstraction. A general scientific principle is highly abstract. He is

not interested in giving a realistic image.

9. Predictability

Scientists not only describe the phenomena that are studied, but also try to explain and predict.
It
is typical of the social sciences that have a much lower predictability compared to the natural

sciences. The most obvious reasons are the complexity of the subject and the insufficiency in the

control, etc.

Q.3 In which areas, educational research should be done in Pakistan? Discuss

in detail.

Education is an integral aspect of every society and in a bid to expand the frontiers of

knowledge; educational research must become a priority. Educational research plays a vital role

in the overall development of pedagogy, learning programs, and policy formulation.

Educational research is a spectrum that bothers on multiple fields of knowledge and this means

that it draws from different disciplines. As a result of this, the findings of this research are
multidimensional and can be restricted by the characteristics of the research participants and
the

research environment.

In Pakistan educational research should be done in educational institution

Academic research is an invaluable tool in the educational institutions of Pakistan, which

expands the knowledge base and enlightens the mindset of the students and the faculty. It

improves the quality of work and speeds up the development of educational institutions of

Pakistan. Connecting the research culture with academic base reaps benefits for the faculty staff

to adopt and embrace new teaching tools, and to polish and harness interpersonal skills and

abilities. The students are able to gain an edge in their academic knowledge through the use of

novel and innovative research online libraries.

It is disillusioning to note that there is a dearth of research culture in Pakistan, and policymakers

and academicians have paid the least attention to the research sector of Pakistan. The research

sector constitutes for only 0.29% of the GDP of Pakistan, which is indeed a bleak and nominal

figure. It is quite sad to note that our educational institutions lack awareness of that the
creation
of an academic culture, which emphasizes a liaison with research experts and think tanks

promote a research-intensive environment. Considering this, there is a need for policymakers

and
research experts to address this deficiency in an organized and in systematic manner.

The creation of a research-intensive environment is crucial in educational institutions of

Pakistan
to a degree that there stands a need for the research scientists to cater to a culture of research.

The researchers must collaborate with each other so that their knowledge, skills and abilities are
accessible to everyone and are of mutual benefit to the stakeholders involved. The culture of

collaboration needs to be openly created with different higher educational institutions in order
to
advance a research-intensive environment. The culture of research collaboration promotes

prosperity, success and problem-solving capabilities. The collaborative approach should not

merely be restricted to knowledge sharing but also in the provision of equipment, and facilities

for members belonging to other educational institutions. This hence explains the importance of

research culture in establishing a strong base for research and development in the educational

institutions of Pakistan.

Technological innovation provides an opportunity to collaborate with various online research

journals on the internet. Different communication tools like video teleconferencing, online

libraries and electronic mail are easily accessible for researchers in different educational

institutions of Pakistan. Research participants can access and procure volumes of information
via
internet-based technology regardless of the geographic location. This advancement in
technology
is useful for the faculty members and students in various educational institutions of Pakistan.

Using such advanced measures, a research culture offering a broader base of knowledge
deemed
necessary for the development of students and faculty members in educational institutions is

likely to be formulated. In order to strengthen and polish the research culture, it is inevitable to

synergize the environment by encouraging and promoting group studies. The courses introduced

should be research-oriented and research-based case studies should be introduced for polishing

research-based analytical skills and abilities of students in educational institutions.

Besides, the government should focus on improving the research budget in order to refine,

expand and strengthen research capabilities in educational institutions.

Q.4 Write a detailed note on applied research.

Every research begins with a clear delineation of the purpose of the investigation as this goes a

long way to determine the research process or methodology adopted. In this sense, a researcher

may choose to carry out basic research or applied research.

Applied research is set on providing answers to specific questions in a bid to provide a solution

to a defined problem. In this article, we will outline the features of this method of systematic

investigation as well as how it differs from other approaches to research.

Applied research is a type of research design that seeks to solve a specific problem or provide

innovative solutions to issues affecting an individual, group or society. It is often referred to as a

scientific method of inquiry or contractual research because it involves the practical application

of scientific methods to everyday problems.

When conducting applied research, the researcher takes extra care to identify a problem,
develop
a research hypothesis and goes ahead to test these hypotheses via an experiment. In many
cases,
this research approach employs empirical methods in order to solve practical problems.

Applied research is sometimes considered to be a non-systematic inquiry because of its direct

approach in seeking a solution to a problem. It is typically a follow-up research design that

further investigates the findings of pure or basic research in order to validate these findings and

apply them to create innovative solutions.

Types of Applied Research

There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research, research and
development,
and action research.

Evaluation Research
Evaluation research is a type of applied research that analyses existing information about a

research subject to arrive at objective research outcomes or reach informed decisions. This type

of applied research is mostly applied in business contexts, for example, an organization may

adopt evaluation research to determine how to cut down overhead costs.

Research and Development

Research and development is a type of applied research that is focused on developing new

products and services based on the needs of target markets. It focuses on gathering information

about marketing needs and finding ways to improve on an existing product or create new

products that satisfy the identified needs.

Action Research

Action research is a type of applied research that is set on providing practical solutions to

specific business problems by pointing the business in the right directions. Typically, action

research is a process of reflective inquiry that is limited to specific contexts and situational in

nature.

Applied Research Examples in Education

In education, applied research is used to test pedagogic processes in order to discover the best

teaching and learning methods. It is also used to test educational policies before
implementation
and to address different issues associated with teaching paradigms and classroom dynamics for
a
better learning experience.

Educational applied research attempts solving a problem by gathering data from primary
sources
using a combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. This data serves as

empirical evidence which is then subjected to rigorous analysis and description in order to arrive
at valid conclusions.

The goal of this research methodology is to determine the applicability of educational theory
and
principles by way of subjecting hypotheses to experimentation within specific settings. Applied

research in education is also more utilitarian as it gathers practical evidence that can inform

pragmatic solutions to problems.

Characteristics of Applied Research in Education

It clearly highlights generalizations and hypotheses that inform the research findings.

It relies on empirical evidence.

It is set at providing solutions to a defined problem.

It requires accurate observation and description.

Q.5 Write in detail the type of research that inspires you the

most and why?

Every Research has its own importance but applied Research is one which is

inspirable then other research its covers every field of layman.

Applied Research Different from Basic Research

Applied research and basic research are common methods of inquiry, based on purpose or
utility.
However, there are key differences between these 2 research approaches and these would be

clearly outlined below:

Applied research is a type of research that is aimed at the practical application of science in
order
to solve practical problems. On the other hand, basic research is a type of research that is aimed

at expanding knowledge rather than solving problems.

Approach
Basic research is theoretical in nature while applied research is practical and descriptive in

nature. Basic research explores and generates theories that may be abstract while applied

research tests these theories in order to solve a problem.

Scope

Basic research is universal while applied research is limited. Basic research can focus on diverse

or multiple contexts while applied research focuses on specific contexts with the aim of

providing a solution to an identified problem.

Focus

Applied research is focused on providing answers or solutions to a specific research question

while basic research focuses on multiple concepts at the same time in its quest to expand

knowledge.

Applied research pays attention to external validity while basic research is more focused on

internal validity.

Characteristics of Applied Research

Applied research is solution-specific and it addresses practical problems. Unlike basic research

that is aimed at theorizing and expanding knowledge, applied research focuses on addressing a

particular problem using a range of science-based approaches.

Applied research is descriptive in nature as it arrives at solutions by experimenting on empirical

evidence and describing research outcomes.

Usually, applied research tests theories arrived at by pure research in order to determine the

usefulness of these theories in solving practical problems.

It describes the relationship between research variables by measuring the characteristics of

dependent and independent variables.

Applied research relies on empirical evidence in order to arrive at valid research outcomes.
It is not theoretical and it is not directly concerned with the expansion of knowledge.

Applied research is synthetic in nature.

It is aimed at the cost-effective reduction of social problems.

Applied research is action-oriented

Advantages of Applied Research

Validity: Applied research is unbiased in nature because it tests empirical evidence in order to

arrive at valid research outcomes. It employs carefully mapped-out procedures, and this makes
it
a more valid research approach.

It is useful in solving specific problems. It helps individuals and organizations to find solutions

to specific problems.

Conclusion

Applied research is an important research approach because it helps organizations to arrive at

practical solutions to specific problems while improving their productivity and output. Unlike

basic research that focuses on generating theories that explain phenomena, applied research
pays
attention to describing empirical evidence with the aim of providing solutions.

In carrying out applied research, the researcher combines a number of qualitative and

quantitative data-gathering methods including questionnaires, observation methods, and

interviews. This helps the researcher to gather empirical evidence that is then subjected to

experimentation depending on the type of applied research and the overall focus. 1 Write down
the distinctive features of Islamic society and compare the contemporary
society with ideal Islamic society.

1. Enjoining what is good

2. Forbidding what is bad

3. Faith in Allah

These three characteristics are summarized in the Quran in Surah Al-'Imran (The Family of

'Imran). "You are the best of peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding

what is wrong and believing in God" (3:110).

4. The fourth characteristic of the Islamic Society is based on Moderation, and it is an Ummah

of moderation. This concept of community of moderation is explained in the Quran very nicely.

In Surah-Al-Baqarah (The Cow), Allah says, "Thus have we made of you an Ummah justly

balanced, that you might be witnesses over the nations, and the Apostle a witness over

yourselves,"(2:143).

5. The fifth characteristic of the Islamic Society is one Ummah. This concept of being one

Muslim community is explained nicely in the Quran. In Surah Al-Anbiya (The Prophets), Allah

says:"Verily, this brotherhood of yours is a single brotherhood, and I am your lord and

cherisher: Therefore serve me (and no other)" (21:92)This concept of being one Ummah is

explained nicely in Surah Al-Mu'minun (the believers) Allah says:And verily this brotherhood of

yours is a single brotherhood, and I am your lord and cherisher: therefore fear me (and no

other) (25:52)

6. Another characteristic of the Islamic Society is based on the concept of Consultation. Allah

designated a whole Surah in the Quran under the title of Consultation. In Surah Ash-Shura

(Consultation) Allah says: "And who (conduct) their affairs by mutual consultation; who spend

out of what we bestow on them for sustenance," (42-38).

7. Another characteristic is that of Brotherhood. The Islamic society is built on the concept of

brotherhood. Muslims are ordained to have the feelings and application of concept of

brotherhood. In this regard, the Quran states in Surah Al-Hujurat (The Inner Apartments) the

following: "The believers are but on single brotherhood." (49:10).

This concept of brotherhood is explained in the Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)

which has been narrated by Al-Nu'man Bin Basheer that prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said: "The

similitude of the believers in their kindness, mercy, affection and compassion toward one

another, is like a body, when one organ ails, the whole body is drafted to take care of the

problem."

8. Another important characteristic of the Islamic society is that it is built on the concept of

Taqwa. This word "Taqwa" may be defined to mean self-discipline, self-control, self-restraint,

self-evaluation and self education. In this regard Allah demanded from the Muslims who are

the members of the Islamic Society to have Taqwa. In this regard, the Quran states in Surah
AlImran. "O you who believe! Fear God as He should be feared, and die not except in a state of
Islam," (2:102) This concept of Taqwa was explained by one of the companions of the Prophet

to mean: "Taqwa is the respect (fear) of the Almighty, the doing by what was revealed, the

acceptance of whatever little you receive, and the preparation to depart from this world."

9. Another characteristic of this Ummah of Islam is being an International one. Islam merged all

nationalities altogether into one Ummah. Islam transcended all types of nationalities,

languages, and ethnic backgrounds and hence established an international community

committed to the concept of La Ilaha Illallah and Muhammad Rasulullah. This type of

international community is being demonstrated during the daily prayers, the Friday

congregational prayers, during the two feasts and especially during the time of Hajj Pilgrimage).

It should be mentioned here that Allah reminded the Muslims that they are made out of

different nationalities. The Quran states in Surah Al-Huiurat the following: "O mankind! We

created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes,

that you may know each other(not that you may despise each other). Verily the most honored

of you in the site of God is (he who is) the most righteous of you. and God has full knowledge
and is well acquainted (with all things)," (49:13)

10. Another characteristic is the reciprocal responsibility of the individual and the Ummah. The

individual is to strive to help and protect the community. On the other hand the community is

to take care of the welfare of the individuals. The concepts of Zakat, charity (Sadaqah) and

interest free loans (Qard hasana) are among the financial reciprocal responsibilities of the

community and the individuals toward one another.

11. The concept of Advice is another characteristic of Islamic Society. Prophet Mohammad

(pbuh) said narrated by Abu Ruqaiyah Tamim BinAwss Al Dari that the Prophet (pbuh) said:

"The Religion is Advice. We asked: for whom? He said: for Allah, for his book, for his

messengers, for the Imams of the Muslims, and for the rest of the Muslim Ummah.

12. The concept of leadership is another characteristic of the Muslim Ummah. Muslims are

commanded to appoint a leader. They are ordained to obey him as long as he is applying the

rules of Allah; and as long as he is serving them by himself. Allah says in the Quran in Surah
AnNisa' (The Women): "O you who believe! Obey God and obey the Apostle, and those charged
with authority among you. If ye differ in anything among yourselves refer it to God and His

Apostle, if you do believe in God and the last day, that is best," (4:59)

Islam and Contemporary Societies

This stream deals with Muslims in contemporary societies in both Muslim-majority countries

and countries where Muslims form a minority. It deals with issues facing Muslims in today's

world, cutting across religion, politics, law and culture. Themes that are investigated under this

stream include Muslim migration and experiences of racism and multiculturalism, everyday

Muslim life, identity and citizenship in the West, Shari'a law in the West, Islamic legal theory in

Islamic societies, Muslim organisations in Indonesia, Sufism in Australia, transnational Islamic

movements, terrorism, deradicalisation, and Muslim women's rights. Research in this stream
aims to understand the complexities and nuances of Muslim and Islamic life across the globe.

Research projects in the stream include:

"Testing the limits of post-secularism and multiculturalism in Australia, France and the USA:

Shari'a in the everyday life of Muslim communities", Australian Research Council, Adam

Possamai, Malcolm Voyce, Selda Dagistanli, Bryan Turner, AUD$185,788.

"Resilience and the NSW Police Community Engaged Counter-Radicalisation Model", NSW

Police Force, Michael Kennedy, Kevin Dunn, Jan Ali, AUD$27,237.

"An exploration of the frequency, outcomes, enablers and constraints of bystander anti-racism"

(via Deakin University), Australian Research Council, Kevin Dunn, Yin Paradies, Bernard Guerin,

Anne Pedersen, Scott Sharpe, Maria Hynes, AUD$98,679.

"The ordinariness of Australian Muslims: attitudes and experiences of Muslims", Kevin Dunn,

Western Sydney University, AUD$10,000.

"Sufism: religious pluralism and the alternative narrative in Islam", Researcher Development

Strategic Initiative Funding – ECR Award, Dr Milad Milani. AUD$20,000.

Q.2 Discuss critically educational objectives given by Shah Wali-ul-Allah.

Shah Waliullah

Qutb-ud-Dīn Ahmad ibn 'Abdul Rahim: also known as Shāh Walīullāh and Shāh WalĪ Allāh

(1703–1762 CE / 1114–1176 AH) was an Islamic scholar, reformer and founder of modern

Islamic thought who attempted to reassess Islamic theology in the light of modern changes

Shāh Walīullāh was born in 1703, four years before the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.

His genealogy can be traced back to the family of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab. He received a

structured education and spiritual instruction at the madrasa (religious school) established by

his father, Shah 'Abd al-Rahim, at Delhi. Along with the Qur'an, he studied Arabic and Persian

grammar and literature and the higher philosophical, theological, metaphysical, mystical and
juridical texts. He graduated from the school when he was barely fifteen years old; in the same

year, his father initiated him into the famous Naqshbandi order. He began his career as a

teacher at the Madrasa-e-Rahimia under the tutelage of his father; after the death of the latter in

1719, Shah Waliullah became the head of the madrasa, teaching all the current sciences at

the school for about twelve years. During the same period he continued his own studies,

growing in stature as a teacher and attracting students to his circle.

In 1724 he went to the Hijaz on a pilgrimage (Hajj) and stayed there for eight years studying

Hadith and Fiqh under such distinguished scholars as Abu Tahir bin ibrahim al-Kurdi al-Madani,

Wafd Allah al-Makki, and Taj al-Din al-Qali. During this period he came into contact with people

from all parts of the Muslim world and, thus, obtained first-hand information about the

conditions then prevailing in the various Muslim countries. During this time, he also saw the forty-

seven spiritual visions which form the subject matter of his famous mystical work Fuyud al-

haramayn (Emanations or Spiritual Visions of Makkah and Madina).

He returned to Delhi in 1733, where he spent the rest of his life in producing numerous works

till his death in 1763 during the reign of Shah Alam II. The most important of Shah Waliullah's

works is his Ḥ ujjat Allāh al-Bāligha in which he made an attempt to present the teachings of

Islam in a spirit of scientific objectivity. The range of his works include: economic, political,

social, meta-physical, as well as purely theological aspects. He presented what he considered

pure and pristine Islam to the people.

He wrote letter to Ahmad Shah Abdali to come and conquer India from the rising Maratha

domination. He also translated the Quran from Arabic to Persian, so that more Muslims could

be able to understand the teachings of the Quran.

Works of Shah Waliullah

The most monumental task he performed was to translate the Quran from Arabic to Persian
which was the language spoken by the Muslims at that time in India. His aim was that educated

Muslims may have access to the Quran without depending on the scholars who had opposed

his reformatory measures. The short sighted ullama gathered and wanted to kill him for his sin

of translating the Quran from Arabic to Persian but he continued with his task till he completed it.

This task was appreciated by Allah so much so that the Quran is translated to many

languages.

Apart from the Holy Quran, Shah Waliullah also wrote authentic books on Hadith, the principles

of Hadith, Tafseer and on mystical subjects. But the most popular book of “Hujatul Baligdh”.

This book explains how Islam was found suitable for all races, cultures and people of the world

and how successfully it solves social, moral, economic and political problems of human beings.

He died in Delhi on the year 1176 AH corresponding to 1762 AD, behind the central jail. There is

a vast ground and a graveyard known popularly as “Mehindin Kakhitta” which contains in it the

grave of Shah Waliullah and his progeny.

Hazrat Shah Waliullah was fortunate of having children who were great scholars and
godfearing men like himself. His eldest son Shah Abdul Aziz was born in 1159 AH and died
in
1238

AH corresponding to 1823 AD. At the age of 17 he had become an accomplished scholar and

began teaching like his father. For 60 years, he continued teaching and preaching Islam. The

blessing of his knowledge reached every corner of the Indian sub-continent. Because of his

versatile genius he was giving the title “Ayatullah”, a sign of God.

The second of Shah Waliullah Rafi-uddin. He was born in 1163 AH and died in 1233 AH. His

scholarly qualities may well be judged from the fact that when Shah Abdul Aziz had become to

teach he passed on his responsibilities to Shah Rafi. Among the work of Shah Rafi his urdu

translation of the Holy Quran.

The third son of Shah Sahib was Shah Abdul Qadir who was born in 1162 AH and died in 1230
AH. He was also a big scholar by his nature, he loved solitude, and he spent his whole life in a

secluded room of Akbar Badi mosque. He did not much attend to literary writings, however, his

urdu translation under the title of “Mozih ul Quran” was his monumental achievement which is

recognised by scholarly circles.

His fourth son was Abdul Ghani. He was a saintly person. His son Shah Ismail Shaheed was a

unique personality who had combined in himself all virtues of scholarly and mystical

personalities.

In short, due to sincere and dedicated efforts of Shah Waliullah and his family the illustrious

banner of Islam kept flying over the Indian subcontinent despite the decline and fall of the

Mughal empire. In Spain, the faith of Islam disappeared with disappearance of the Muslim rule.

Many Muslims were killed and many were converted to Christianity. In India however the

intention of the British Government did not realize and Muslim India did not convert to the

faith of the ruling people despite missionary efforts of the British Government who spent

millions of pounds on missionary activities and arranged lectures, debates and seminars to

propagate their faith. The failure of the British Government in converting Muslim India was due

to the dedicated efforts of Hazrat Shah Waliullah and his noble family.

Q.3 Describe different sources of Knowledge in detail. Which one is the most

reliable source of knowledge?

SOURCE OF Knowledge

There is no doubt that the secret of our cultural development has been research, reversing

areas of ignorance by discovering new facts, which also lead with better ways of making things

and better products. There is no other way but the truth therefore, research. Researching

closer to the truth. Similarly, human knowledge operates on two levels. At the main level it works

as the basis for practical human activities, such as when a teacher solves mathematical
problems for students or as when a doctor uses his or her knowledge to treat diseases.

In Second level, the information is used to find additions to the existing ones information. The

work that produces this new information is known as research. All research is move forward with

existing knowledge limits. It takes us beyond current limits information.

Both break new ground and improve existing knowledge and relevant research activities.

However, research adds to existing knowledge in a systematic way. This order should be

especially emphasized. Just meaningless and confusing group new information does not

represent research.

Information from research is validated and can be verified by anyone who would like to do so.

The process by which it is obtained is repeated i.e. can also duplicate the file the stated results

are verified. The purpose also has the power to secure a 'third party'.

However, people have been trying to understand, communicate, explain and control objects

and events around them. Emotional perception, reason, culture, authority, metaphysics, magic,

expert opinion, personal experience, capture and re-insertion science is among the systems

used to obtain information.

An effort has been made in this unit to highlight all sources of information.

Objectives

After studying this unit, it is hoped that the student will be able to:

1. Identify sources of information;

2. Explain the concept;

3. Discuss the role of culture, authority, expert in the theory of methaphysics in discovery

information;

4. Explore different sources of information.

Cognitive Comprehension
The first realization of nature probably came from an intellectual perspective. It a wide range of

practical judgments and everyday experiences. Conceptual perception can be described as a

series of connected concepts that help people to make sense of an environment that is chaotic

and works with great success in it.

While the conclusions of logical vision have been and may be significant, they can be it's not

right. For example, early detection of the teacher learning process once psychologists led the

conclusion of the theory that exercise improves learning e.g.

"Practice makes perfect". Recognition of highly talented people as artists and artists who do a

lot to perfect their skills, perhaps contribute to this

belief. As a result, students have been repeatedly asked to spell the letters again tables for

multiplication and completion of major homework.

We can quote here the famous theorist Thorndike (1930) who argued that the results may not

be so good. According to him, the effects of practice determine at least, in part, the practice

efficiency.

Culture

Reliance on culture or tradition is also required. We often refer to the process as well culture in

case the problem is solved. In most jobs and situations this is fine reckoner accomplishes the

purpose well. Highly determines the bur file coping mode conditions and mode for making

adjustments. The process and customs and traditions are clear our own food, clothing, speech,

interaction etc. We often listen to traditions too traditions and avoid breaking them. We are

trying to find explanations of what is happening through cultural and cultural media.

Authority

When a problem arises because of an unexpected situation or even in terms of a storm or a

hurricane, disasters also conflict; one often finds that culture is not enough. You often get out
of a coma satisfaction and looking for new and better behaviors. A cruel nation a wise man

prays to his gods in times of trouble. The tribal chief continued to be chief authority for many

centuries and his subjects regarded him as omniscient and talented superman.

They look to him for guidance and direction in their community, religious, economic, political

and even private affairs. Similarly, a theologian who played the role of authority. Followers turn

to a religious leader for information, advice, and explanation of conditions, home problems and

treatment.

In addition, the specialist or expert is the center of authority that he or she looks to in the times of

the problem still exists. Scholars, philosophers, economists, or scientists are the most reliable

Interpreters of available information, evidence and sources of new ideas, innovation and

inspiration.

A behavioral expert is considered the solution to that all problems of the affected area.

Ultimately, authority is an important source of information but it has serious weaknesses.

An official, whether a politician, a parent, a religious leader or an expert may be at fault.

As a result, it is dangerous to rely on the same source of information.

Expert opinion

Sometimes looking for information one can take the evidence of experts who say, because of

Their understanding, training, professional experience or skills, are valued better than other

People. Contacts and discussions with a professional also help to get information. The

The participation of investigators in conferences, seminars and workshops and listening

Educated professionals are very helpful in obtaining information and identifying research

problems.

However, an effort should be made to determine if the experts are known individually

authorities in the field and that they are in a position to know the facts with certain problems to
be considered.

Order Rationalism is a system in which information is available for a reason and not available

Earth. Also called metaphysics. It is a national form of final information causation and truth. It is

about the causes and principles of existing things, not about experience.

Rationalism views human reasoning as the only reliable guide to knowledge. Rationalists

Do not believe that it is necessary to verify knowledge or experience of faith. Finally

Understanding provides important ways of knowing.

Magic

One way to gain knowledge is to control the world through magic.

According to Craig (1985, P.6)

Whenever magic comes out of it unscathed put it on assumes that by nature one event follows

another, rightly and irrefutably, without exception intervention. There are two broad categories

of magic. One is magic and the other contagious. In imitation magic, people try to convey the

desired result by imitating the result. On the other hand, infectious magic is based on the

association between objects or events.

Scientific Approach

According to Kerlinger Science is organized, controlled, and not criticized an investigation of

fictional proposals regarding the supposed relationship between nature events. However,

science is based on the assumption that the universe is the same and systematic and governed

by the laws of cause and effect.

Scholars, on the other hand, are not happy about the weakening of existing knowledge,

I have learned to combine the power of these ways of knowing in a new way - e.g. scientific

method. Most importantly, it is a mind blowing and invigorating thought they were combined

with the scientific method.

In the introduction, visual facts are used to produce ideas or related ideas on those facts.

Similarly, in arrests, certain effects are based on imagination.

Sometimes, both learning and output methods are used to obtain information. However, in order

to further develop understanding, magic and the scientific method.

Q.4 What is the concept of curriculum? Given your reflections on

psychological foundations of curriculum?

Curriculum: concepts and approaches

In my dealings with teachers, school leaders and policy actors, I am often struck by the need for

education professionals to develop more nuanced concept maps relating to the curriculum. The

following text is material written for our undergraduates, and may be useful/of interest to people

working in the field.

Curriculum

Curriculum is a contested and often misunderstood concept. At a simple level, the curriculum

simply means a course of study. The word is derived from the Latin word meaning racecourse

or race, and has come to mean a general course, conveying the notion of going somewhere in a

predefined direction. Indeed, this simple definition is one that is current in many schools,

where the curriculum is seen largely as the glossy booklets that contain the content to be taught.

However, such a conception of curriculum is clearly inadequate for understanding the complex

processes of schooling in today’s society. A more sophisticated definition is required, and there

have been many attempts to provide one. For example, a Dictionary of Education (Rowntree,

1981) offers the following definition:

[Curriculum] can refer to the total structure of ideas and activities developed by an educational

institution to meet the learning needs of students, and to achieve desired educational aims.
Some people use the term to refer simply to the content of what is being taught. Others include

also the teaching and learning methods involved, how students’ attainment is measured and

the underlying philosophy of education.

Scotland’s Curriculum for Excellence, in line with this more holistic view, states that the

curriculum is ‘the totality of all that is planned for children and young people throughout their

education’ (Scottish Government, 2008).

Such definitions are helpful in that they provide a broad conception of the education that

occurs in schools. However, this sort of broad definition can also be confusing, as the term

curriculum comes to mean different things to different people. For these reasons, it is

necessary to be clear about the various facets that make up the curriculum, and the ways in

which these facets link together and interact in practice. The following terminology helps to

make sense of the complexity that is the curriculum.

Curriculum – an umbrella term denoting the totality of the learning experience of children

and young people in school. Considering the curriculum would thus include the questions of

what, how and why listed below, as well as assessment (evaluation).

Curriculum purposes – Statements of what the curriculum is intended to achieve. These

include narrowly defined outcomes or objectives, and more broadly defined aims or goals. This

is the why of the curriculum, and is often (but not always) made explicit in official documents

that comprise the curriculum framework.

Curriculum framework - The documents that outline the structure of the curriculum and

its purposes. This also usually includes and the content to be taught – the what of the

curriculum.

Curriculum provision – The systems and structures established in schools to organize

teaching, for example timetabling. This is the how of the curriculum.

Pedagogy (often referred to as instruction in the literature, especially American writing) – the

teaching strategies and learning activities planned to achieve the aims and fulfill the planned

framework. This is also the how of the curriculum.

Assessment – the methods used to judge the extent of students’ learning (e.g. tests,

homework, and observation). Assessment might be used formatively (to provide feedback to

learners to inform future learning), summatively (to provide a grade) or evaluatively (to judge

whether teaching has been effective).

The relationship between these elements is complex and can be problematic. I provide several

examples to illustrate this point:

The particular curriculum planning model that is outlined in the framework can exert a major

influence on pedagogy. For instance, a framework that emphasizes content to be learned might

encourage teacher-centered approaches to teaching, whereas a model based on processes and

skills may encourage activities that are student-centered.

The organization of provision exerts an effect on pedagogy. For example, inquiry-based

methods such as cooperative learning can be difficult if the school day is divided into small

teaching blocks, as is the case in most secondary schools.

A heavy emphasis on assessment can encourage narrow ‘teach to the test’ approaches

Curriculum planning is fundamentally a political process. In other words, it involves questions of

value and is subject to disagreement. Different people have different views about what should

be taught (or indeed omitted – the null curriculum). An important question is ‘whose

curriculum?’: who is it for, and who chooses? Some believe that content should be chosen to

meet children’s needs and/or interests? Others suggest that there are bodies of knowledge that

have intrinsic value, and which should be taught to all children. For example, social realists such

as Young and Muller (2010) believe that children will be disadvantaged if they are not taught
knowledge from the academic disciplines (which are recognised bodies of knowledge

developed over generations by scholars using rigorous methods).

These current debates are often reduced to spurious categories: traditional vs. progressive

curricula; knowledge vs. skills; subjects vs. interdisciplinary approaches; teacher as sage-on-
thestage vs. teacher as guide-on-the-side, etc. It is far more fruitful to consider these
dichotomies

in a more nuanced way, for example:

Knowledge vs. skills is better seen as curriculum balance between different types of knowledge

that are all essential for a balanced education: propositional knowledge (knowing that),

procedural knowledge (knowing how) and epistemic knowledge (the approach to inquiry, such

as scientific method, that characterizes different disciplines).

An accomplished teacher will both teach directly and facilitate learning, depending on the

purposes of the learning being undertaken.

This in turn raises further questions about the choice and organisation of curriculum content.
Should the
curriculum be structured around subjects (the prevailing secondary model in Scotland) or
themes (a
primary school approach)? Should school knowledge focus on ‘learning that’ (propositional
knowledge)
or ‘learning how’ (skills)? Or is this a false dichotomy? Should there be a core curriculum for all
young
people, or should there be choice? What about relevance to real life? Or is the school curriculum
a
sabre-tooth curriculum (Peddiwell, 1939), which rarely changes and drifts out of date as society
evolves
Reflections on psychological foundations curriculum

Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers.
In this way they affect the content and structure of the curriculum. The five most important
foundations
of the curriculum are;

2. Philosophical foundation of Curriculum

3. Psychological foundations of Curriculum

4. Socio Cultural Foundation of Curriculum

5. Historical Foundations of Curriculum

6. Economical Foundations of Curriculum

Psychological foundations

Psychological foundation is based on the individual differences, every student has its own

unique personality and they have differences in their leering and skills. They are different in

nature so they can’t be treated alike in teaching learning process, some may be fast learner

while other slow. Therefore the curriculum should be based on the above facts, and it should

be design to support the capacity and potentialities of all the students.

Psychology play a vital role in the teaching learning process it is the foundation for all type of

educational related programmed. The methods of teaching, the selection of content of

subjects, the methods and theories of learning, the overall development of the students and to

inculcate the norms of the society in the students. Psychology helps in all the processes above

in the development process of the curriculum.

In the past curriculum for child development and learning was developed in traditional ways

without keeping in view the psychological implication in the development of curriculum.

Today psychology is the core and foundation element of all the learning processes; curriculum

development, Child mental development, teaching methods, learning theories, administration

of education system and planning, character building of the students, attitude of students and
teacher, the society, the use of different technologies.

Today the researchers and Scholars using experimental approach to find new ways of teaching

learning process, how students learn under different conditions. They are finding new ways and

materials from the analysis of teaching learning problem and formulating new approaches for

teaching and learning process.

Psychology helps in all fields of education, it not just add to knowledge, psychology is applied in

practical class room situation as well as in the curriculum development process by defining

teaching methods and origination of the

In the process of using psychology in curriculum development process some positive concepts

or ideas about teaching learning process emerged, it is reflected in the work produced by

different authors.

• The traditional readiness concept for a difficult subject which require children maturity has

been rejected by the modern researchers, now the researchers formed a new principle that the

child can teach any subject on the condition that it provided keeping in view the principle of

from simple to complex and that the students have the previous experience.

• When the importance is given to basic concepts and the process of inquiry for teaching

learning and curriculum development process the transfer of learning and future learning are

improved.

• The guided discovery of the relationships in the student learning outcomes, subject

matter and in teaching methods play a very important role in the teaching learning process

compare to those approaches in which the curriculum planner used the views and conclusions

of other for developing curriculum.

The Interest and motivation level of the students may be generated using the discovery

method within the subject itself, the content of the subject should be interesting and appealing
to generate curiosity in the students to find more. In this way the student engage in finding the

relationships in the subject matter presented to him, and engage the students in the process of

inquiry.

Meaningful conversation involves the students in the organizing or structuring of facts into

conceptual system which help the students to generate new ideas, make new interpretations

and raise new questions.

The researchers prefer the use of inductive methods because it helps in the discovery through

inquiry and help in the formulating of hypotheses and interpretation of information.

To study a topic in depth or more helpful in the discovering the relationships between them than

try to cover the whole material in once.

The Depth of learning could be attained by applying different ideas, processes, theories, and

models.

Learning is improved when there is relationship order in the continuity of unit to unit from simple

to complex in the instruction programed.

The solving of problems helps the students in acquiring the concept development, and how to

use different principles which lead the students to a higher level of mental development.

It put emphasis on the organizing of ideas which helps the students to develop the skills

to identify the relationships, improves their skills, remembers and retrieves old ideas; it

provides a foundation for generating new ideas and concepts, and helps in the transfer of

learning.

Therefore it is said that the impact of psychological sources on the foundations of curriculum is

more than significant and still on the rise. The scope of the psychology for applying in

curriculum construction and its principles, concepts, processes. The role of psychology in the

development of curriculum is vast and with each day it is becoming increasingly more
meaningful and unavoidable.

The purpose of psychology and psychologist is the study of human behavior, the study of living

being. Investigate and explain the behavior of animate creatures. Therefore, curriculum needs

educational psychology to provide information particularly in five areas:

• Prepare objectives of education.

Characteristics of the students.

The leaning processes.

Q.5 Discuss teacher student relationship in Pakistan at secondary

level. Give suggestions to modify this relationship for better

achievement of educational objectives.

Classroom is the most important place in the educational institutions. It is the focal

point of all learning activities. This study was designed to investigate the interaction between

teachers and students, and students to students within the classroom. This study started with

the review of the literature; many studies were found which have analyzed different aspects of

classroom life. A need was fell to see the relationship between teachers' verbal interaction and

students' academic achievement. The population of this study consisted of all secondary level

science teachers of government high schools in Bahawalpur. A sample of 45 science teachers

was purposively selected and their intact classes (405 students) were also taken as a part of the

sample. The major objectives of the study were to explore the time spent on each component

of verbal interaction in teaching of science through the analysis of classroom interaction at

secondary level, and to find out the relationship between teacher interaction and academic

achievement of students. Seven research questions about lime spent in each component of

interaction, relationship between interaction and academic achievement, and the effect of

different types of interactions on the levels of learning of students, were formulated to address
these objectives. A sixteen category observation schedule was used to analyze teacher student

interaction in the classroom. In a typical setting of the classroom there were a number of ways

of interaction but the most significant among them was the teacher student interaction.

Although, theoretically, teachers have a large number of teaching methodologies on their

disposal but in real settings it was revealed that most of the teachers, in the sample used,

typical lecture method mixed with inductive or deductive reasoning. As patterns of teaching are

concerned, it was found that most of the classroom lime was xvdevoted to talk, Most of the talk

time was consumed by the teacher. Most of the talk time was spent in direct talk i.e. lecturing,

questioning-answering, giving directions. Demonstrations, students’ questions, acceptance of

students’ feelings and using the ideas of students were given less time in teacher student

interaction. It was concluded that the academic achievement of the students is directly

influenced by teachers’ talk time devoted for one component or the other in their respective

classrooms. The interaction between students and teachers was analyzed to find out different

aspects according to the classroom dynamics. lire correlation between teacher interaction's

aspects and the academic achievement of students' was calculated. The results of the

correlations showed that lectures of the teachers enhanced students’ knowledge level’s

academic achievement while question answers were more correlated to higher level’s learning.

Student-student talk other than question-answer had been negatively correlated with students’

academic achievements. In the end it was concluded that it is not necessary to divide classroom

time 50:50 among teacher and students but proper utilization of time is more important. Some

recommendations are given in end especially for the teachers that they may be able to focus on

students’ higher level learning through a better interaction in their classrooms.

On the bases of various research follow conclusion were drawn related to teacher student

relationship.
1. Strong significant differences were found between teacher and student views regarding

relationship with each other.

2. Student motivation is more dependent on teacher –student good relationship.

3. Very strong significant differences were found between teacher and student regarding

academic achievement.

4. Strong significant differences were found between teachers and students views regarding

sharing persona knowledge, genuine care and interest with each other.

5. Strong significant differences were found between teachers and students views regarding

supportive attitude, sensitivity to individual emotional and cultural difference with each other.

6. Strong significant differences were found between teachers and students views regarding

affection and mutual understanding, struggling for the promotion of education, academic and

social concerns with each other.

7. Strong significant differences were found between teachers and students views regarding

availability of teacher for help, frankly exchanges of information and experiences with each

other.

8. Strong significant differences were found between teachers and students views regarding

teacher feel comfortable, students totally depends on teacher, complete his homework and

assistance with each other.

9. Strong significant differences were found between teachers and students views regarding

teacher feel confident, better, pay attention and utilizes other resources for the development

of student’s lives.

10. Strong significant differences were found between teachers and students views regarding

their dimensions i-e connectivity, availability and communication with each other.

11. Strong significant differences were found between teachers and students views regarding
total score or views and student’s marks or academic achievement.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations and suggestions were given on the basis of findings.

1. As findings showed that teachers are satisfied with the teachers-students relationship in the

schools, therefore they may provide favorable working environment. They may give up-to-date

facilities and encouraging environment in the schools in which they may feel comfortable,

joyous and motivated for their work.

2. The teachers may be provided the opportunity for advancement and may be encouraged

through rewards, incentives and promotion on their performance. They may also be provided

the opportunities of career advancement and to achieve greater academic achievement of the

students.

3. As differences between teacher and student regarding Relationship with peers, status and

work itself. Therefore teachers may be provided with appropriate feedback without treating

them distinctly. Teachers may be encouraged to participate in different activities side by side

with students. Therefore harmony and equity may be maintained as much as possible with

proper feedback.

4. Teachers may be respected, encouraged and facilitate during their jobs. Teachers may be

given proper and relatively responsibilities according to their expertise.

5. According to the present study the teachers‟ motivation is more dependent on students‟

achievement. Therefore management and administration may give due consideration to the

fulfillment of teachers-students relationship. These factors may be promoted and cultivated in

schools.

6. Teacher and student co-operative relationship is necessary for the student academic

achievement.
7. Teacher and student provide such environment in which curricular and co-curricular activities

are take place, which is very important for good academic achievement.