MODULE 1

What is Measurement?

-Measurement is the one we used to answer the question of how much does a student learn or know?

-The set of procedures and the principles or how to use the procedures in educational tests and assessments.

Example: raw scores, percentile ranks, derived scores.

Assessment

 Derived from the Latin word “assidere” meaning “to sit down” or “beside the learner”.
 Involves gathering and evaluating data from learning activities.
 Looks into how much change/transformation has occurred on the student’s acquisition of skills, knowledge,
or value before and after a given learning experience.

There are various ways to carry out assessment oral, aural, written, and performance-based like:

1. Diagnostic Assessment

 Conducted before the lesson proper.

 To know the extent of knowledge the learners have in the topic.

2. Formative Assessment

 Conducted during the lesson proper.

 Monitor the learning process of the learner.
 To know if the objectives have been achieved or not and to provide feedback on the teaching-learning
process.
 Correct the misconceptions.

3. Summative Assessment

 Conducted at the end of lesson proper.

 Feedback was provided. 

Evaluation

 Answers the question of how good, adequate, or desirable is it?

 The qualitative aspect of determining the outcomes of learning.

Principles of Evaluation
Evaluation should be:

 based on clearly stated objectives.

 selected in terms of the clearly stated objectives or the purposes they will serve.
 Continuous and an integral part of the teaching, diagnostic and functional.
 Used judiciously.

Types of Evaluation

1. Diagnostic Evaluation
More comprehensive and specific and it helps to detect pupils’ learning difficulties that are not revealed by
formative tests.

2. Formative Evaluation

Identifies learning errors that need to be corrected and it provides information to make instruction more
effective.

3. Placement Evaluation

Determines knowledge and skills the students possess which are necessary at the beginning of instruction.

4. Summative Evaluation

Determines the extent to which objectives of instruction have been attained and used for assigning grades and
marks and to provide feedback to students.

Competency-based assessment

          Competency-based assessment is the process of collecting evidence and establishing conclusions on the
character and scope of the learner’s progress toward professional standards.  Competence goes beyond mere
mastery of information but is an expectation to skillfully organize factual knowledge within the framework
comprised of communications skills, clinical reasoning, professional ethics, social engagement, interpersonal
conduct, and cross-cultural awareness.

          Assessments are on the actual skill and knowledge the learner can demonstrate in the clinical setting and
general features include:

Criterion based – on standards of practice.

Evidence-based – accumulation of informal verbal/written assessment/feedback, assignments, log, critique, and

self-assessments.

Participatory-based – the learner is involved in the process and consults with the assessor.

        The competency-based evaluation may include a range of assessment tools and activities, such as feedback,
competency sampling, observation, 360 review, presentations, and papers.  No matter what method or tool is
utilized, four paramount features must be incorporated.  These are validity, reliability, fairness, and flexibility.

Course Evaluation

      A course evaluation is a short survey conducted by an educator at the end of a class or course of study. The
evaluation form aims to collect general information on what each student liked and disliked most about the class
with the goal of improving the educational experience for future students.

      Some evaluation forms use a number or letter system to grade various aspects of the educational material,
the educator’s style of teaching, the learning environment and the classroom facilities.

      Most forms also have a space for open-ended student comments. Course evaluation forms are usually
optional and are almost always anonymously submitted for the protection and privacy of each student.

      Course evaluation forms may be created by an individual educator or may be standardized across a
department or an entire educational institution. The format of the evaluation almost always conforms to the type
of instruction that is being offered. For example, online forms are usually provided for web-based courses while
paper copies are generally handed out during the final class for in-person coursework.

Educational Evaluation

Meaning of Evaluation:
Evaluation is a broader term than Measurement. It is more comprehensive than mere inclusive than the term
Measurement. It goes ahead of measurement which simply indicates the numerical value. It gives the value
judgment to the numerical value. It includes both tangible and intangible qualities.

Different educationist has defined evaluation as follows:

James M. Bradfield:

Evaluation is the assignment of symbols to the phenomenon, in order to characterize the worth or value of a
phenomenon, usually with reference to some cultural or scientific standards.

Thorndike and Hegan:

The term evaluation is closely related to measurement. It is in some respect, inclusive including informal and
intuitive judgment of pupil’s progress. Evaluation is describing something in terms of selected attributes and
judging the degree of acceptability or suitability of that which has been described.

Norman E. Gronlund and Robert L. Linn:

Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to determine the extent
to which pupils are achieving instructional objectives.

The process of ascertaining or judging the value or amount of something by the use of a standard of appraisal
includes judgment in terms of internal evidence and external criteria. From the above definitions, it can be said
that evaluations are a much more comprehensive and inclusive term than the measurement and test. A test is a
set of question measurements is assigning numbers to the results of the test according to some specific rules on
the other hand evaluation adds value judgment.

For example, when we say Rohan secured 45 numbers in Arithmetic. It just indicates ‘how much’ Rohan has
successfully answered. It does not include any qualitative description i.e. ‘how good he is in Arithmetic.
Evaluation on the other hand includes both quantitative description (measurement) and qualitative description
(Non-measurement) along with value judgments. This relationship between measurement, non-measurement,
and evaluation can be illustrated with the help of the following diagram (1.1).

Relationship between Measurement, Non-Measurement, and Evaluation

Principles of Evaluation:

Evaluation is a systematic process of determining to what extent instructional objectives have been achieved.
Therefore, the evaluation process must be carried out with effective techniques.

The following principles will help to make the evaluation process an effective one:

1. It must be clearly stated what is to be evaluated:

A teacher must be clear about the purpose of evaluation. He must formulate the instructional objectives and
define them clearly in terms of students’ observable behavior. Before selecting the achievement measures the
intended learning outcomes must be specified clearly.

2. A variety of evaluation techniques should be used for a comprehensive evaluation:

It is not possible to evaluate all the aspects of achievement with the help of a single technique. For better
evaluation, the techniques like objective tests, essay tests, observational techniques, etc. should be used. So that
a complete picture of the pupil achievement and development can be assessed.

3. An evaluator should know the limitations of different evaluation techniques:

Evaluation can be done with the help of simple observation or highly developed standardized tests. But
whatever the instrument or technique maybe it has its own limitation. There may be measurement errors.
Sampling error is a common factor in educational and psychological measurements. An achievement test may
not include the whole course content. Error in measurement can also be found due to students guessing on
objective tests. Error is also found due to incorrect interpretation of test scores.
4. The technique of evaluation must be appropriate for the characteristics or performance to be measured:

Every evaluation technique is appropriate for some uses and inappropriate for others. Therefore, while selecting
an evaluation technique, one must be well aware of the strength and limitations of the techniques.

5. Evaluation is a means to an end but not an end in itself:

The evaluation technique is used to make decisions about the learner. It is not merely gathering data about the
learner. Because the blind collection of data is wastage of both time and effort. But the evaluation is meant for
some useful purpose.

Functions of Evaluation:

The main aim of the teaching-learning process is to enable the pupil to achieve intended learning outcomes. In
this process, the learning objectives are fixed then after the instruction learning progress is periodically
evaluated by tests and other evaluation devices.

The function of the evaluation process can be summarized as follows:

1. Evaluation helps in preparing instructional objectives:

Learning outcomes expected from classroom discussion can be fixed by using evaluation results.

What type of knowledge and understanding the student should develop?

What skill they should display?

What interest and attitude they should develop?

Can only be possible when we shall identify the instructional objectives and state them clearly in terms of
intended learning outcomes. Only a good evaluation process helps us to fix up a set of perfect instructional
objectives.

2. The evaluation process helps in assessing the learner’s needs:

In the teaching-learning process, it is very much necessary to know the needs of the learners. The instructor
must know the knowledge and skills to be mastered by the students. Evaluation helps to know whether the
students possess the required knowledge and skills to proceed with the instruction.

3. Evaluation helps in providing feedback to the students:

An evaluation process helps the teacher to know the learning difficulties of the students. It helps to bring about
an improvement in different school practices. It also ensures an appropriate follow-up service.

4. Evaluation helps in preparing programmed materials:

Programmed instruction is a continuous series of learning sequences. First, the instructional material is
presented in a limited amount then a test is given to respond to the instructional material. Next feedback is
provided on the basis of the correctness of the response made. So that without an effective evaluation process
the programmed learning is not possible.

5. Evaluation helps in curriculum development:

Curriculum development is an important aspect of the instructional process. Evaluation data enable the
curriculum development, to determine the effectiveness of new procedures, identify areas where revision is
needed. The evaluation also helps to determine the degree to which extent an existing curriculum is effective.
Thus, evaluation data are helpful in constructing the new curriculum and evaluating the existing curriculum.

6. Evaluation helps in reporting pupil’s progress to parents:

A systematic evaluation procedure provides an objective and comprehensive picture of each pupil’s progress.
This comprehensive nature of the evaluation process helps the teacher to report on the total development of the
pupil to the parents. This type of objective information about the pupil provides the foundation for the most
effective cooperation between the parents and teachers.

7. Evaluation data are very much useful in guidance and counseling:

Evaluation procedures are very much necessary for educational, vocational, and personal guidance. In order to
assist the pupils to solve their problems in the educational, vocational, and personal fields the counselor must
have an objective knowledge of the pupils’ abilities, interests, attitudes, and other personal characteristics. An
effective evaluation procedure helps in getting a comprehensive picture of the pupil which leads to effective
guidance and counseling.

8. Evaluation helps in effective school administration:

Evaluation data helps the administrators to judge the extent to which the objectives of the school are being
achieved, to find out the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum, and arrange special school programs. It
also helps in decisions concerning admission, grouping, and promotion of the students.

9. Evaluation data are helpful in school research:

To make the school program more effective, research is necessary. Evaluation data help in research areas like
the comparative study of different curricula, the effectiveness of different methods, the effectiveness of different
organizational plans, etc.

Performance Evaluation

What is performance evaluation?

        Performance Evaluation is defined as a formal and productive procedure to measure an employee’s work
and results based on their job responsibilities. It is used to gauge the amount of value added by an employee in
terms of increased business revenue, in comparison to industry standards and overall employee return on
investment (ROI).

        All organizations that have learned the art of “winning from within” by focusing inward towards their
employees, rely on a systematic performance evaluation process to measure and evaluate employee performance
regularly. Ideally, employees have graded annually on their work anniversaries based on which they are either
promoted or are given suitable distribution of salary raises. Performance evaluation also plays a direct role in
providing periodic feedback to employees, such that they are more self-aware in terms of their performance
metrics.

Definition of Program Evaluation

Evaluation is the systematic application of scientific methods to assess the design, implementation,
improvement, or outcomes of a program (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996). The
term "program" may include any organized activities such as media campaigns, service provision, educational
services, public policies, research projects, etc. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 1999).

Purposes for Program Evaluation

 Demonstrate program effectiveness to funders

 Improve the implementation and effectiveness of programs
 Better manage limited resources
 Document program accomplishments
 Justify current program funding
 Support the need for increased levels of funding
 Satisfy ethical responsibility to clients to demonstrate positive and negative effects of program participation
(Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996).
 Document program development and activities to help ensure successful replication
Barriers

Program evaluations require funding, time, and technical skills: requirements that are often perceived as
diverting limited program resources from clients. Program staff is often concerned that evaluation activities will
inhibit timely accessibility to services or compromise the safety of clients. Evaluation can necessitate alliances
between historically separate community groups (e.g. academia, advocacy groups, service providers; Short,
Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996). Mutual misperceptions regarding the goals and process of evaluation can result
in adverse attitudes (CDC, 1999; Chalk & King, 1998).

Overcoming Barriers

Collaboration is the key to successful program evaluation. In evaluation terminology, stakeholders are defined
as entities or individuals that are affected by the program and its evaluation (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; CDC,
1999). The involvement of these stakeholders is an integral part of program evaluation. Stakeholders include but
are not limited to program staff, program clients, decision-makers, and evaluators. A participatory approach to
evaluation based on respect for one another's roles and equal partnership in the process overcomes barriers to a
mutually beneficial evaluation (Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, & Jacobs, 1997; Chalk & King, 1998).
Identifying an evaluator with the necessary technical skills as well as a collaborative approach to the process is
integral. Programs have several options for identifying an evaluator. Health departments, other state agencies,
local universities, evaluation associations, and other programs can provide recommendations. Additionally,
several companies and university departments providing these services can be located on the internet. Selecting
an evaluator entails finding an individual who has an understanding of the program and funding requirements
for evaluations, demonstrated experience, and knowledge of the issue that the program is targeting (CDC, 1992).

Characteristics of Modern Educational Assessment

1. Responsive – Visible performance-based work (as a result of assessment) generates data that inform
curriculum and instruction.
2. Flexible – Assessment needs to be adaptable to students’ settings. Rather than the identical approach that
works in traditional assessment, modern approaches are more versatile.
3. Integrated – Assessments are to be incorporated into day-to-day practice rather than as add-ons at the end
of instructions or during a single specific week of the school calendar.
4. Informative -the desired 21st-century goals and objectives are clearly stated and explicitly taught. Students
display their range of emerging knowledge and skills. Exemplars routinely guide students toward the
achievement of targets.
5. Multiple Methods – an Assessment continuum that includes a spectrum of strategies is the norm.
6. Communicated – communication of assessment data is clear and transparent for all stakeholders.
7. Technically Sound – adjustments and accommodations are made in the assessment process to meet the
students’ needs and fairness.
8. Systematic -Modern assessment is part of a comprehensive and well-aligned assessment system that is
balanced and inclusive of all students, constituents, and stakeholders and designed to support improvement
at all levels.
9.

MODULE 2

A. The Role of Assessment in the Teaching of Social Sciences

What is assessment? According to (McMillan, 2011) - “assessment is the gathering, interpretation and the use of
information to support teacher decision making, he further stated that assessment is an umbrella concept that
encompasses different techniques, strategies and uses. It is much more than simply testing”.

Assessment is important in Social Studies because it gives the teacher a sense as to what level their students are
at. It also acts as a prerequisite for teachers to reflect on how effective their teaching strategies are, and for self-
review.
 The effective gathering and use of assessment data has a strong influence on students’ achievement. Once
assessment is used appropriately be it formative or summative it can also have a positive impact on students’
motivation and self-esteem which they are more likely to make accurate judgements about student.

The role of assessment in social studies may apply these questions.

1. Why should Students be assessed?

The purpose of assessment is to improve teaching learning process and ultimately to judge the extent to
which the capabilities of learners have been developed. This does not mean that tests and examinations will
have to be conducted frequently. Well-designed assessment and regular reporting provide learners with
feedback and encourage them to learn further. They also serve to inform parents about the quality of learning
and progress of their wards. This is not a means of encouraging competition among learners. The popular notion
that evaluation should identify the needs of remediation is misleading.

2. What should be assessed?

Education is concerned with preparing children for a meaningful and productive life, and therefore, is
concerned with the all-round development of the child physical, social, emotional, cognitive and moral. The
school should support and encourage all-round or holistic development of children. We need to ask ourselves –
what aspects of children’s learning should be assessed? What is that we are looking for when we assess
children? Seen from this perspective, all aspects need to be assessed rather than only academic achievement.
Unfortunately, the current processes of evaluation, which assess a very limited range of abilities, do not provide
a complete picture of an individual’s abilities or progress. It is, therefore, important that assessment be
undertaken for all the activities that the child participates in both inside and outside the school/ classroom.

3. When should assessment be done?

One of the critical questions raised by most of us as to when or how often we should assess a child’s learning.
While many teachers are of opinion that assessment of learning outcomes should go along with the teaching–
learning process in a continuous manner, some resist it saying that continuous assessment reduce learning time
and, therefore, is a waste of time.

4. How should assessment be done?

You are already aware that the process of assessment is cyclic and continuous. It implies that assessment is an
integral part of teaching learning process.

5. How can assessment information be used?

Collecting information about students, Recording of Information, and Interpretation of Gathered Information.

http://mooc.nios.ac.in/mooc/pluginfile.php?file=/11683/course/summary/UNIT%209%20ASSESSMENT
%20IN%20SOCIAL%20SCIENCES.pdf

B. Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment

DepEd Order No. 8, s.2015

Policy guidelines on Classroom Assessment for the K to 12 Basic Education Program (BEP)

Classroom Assessment

Definition: It is an ongoing process of identifying, gathering, organizing and interpreting quantitative about
what learners know and can do.

Theoretical Bases:
o Is a joint process that involves both teachers and learners.
o Is an integral part of teaching and learning.
o Recognizes the diversity of learners.
o Facilitates the development of higher order thinking and 21st century skills.
3 Types of 21st Century Skills
 1. Learning Skills
- Critical Thinking
- Creative Thinking
- Collaborating
- Communicating
2. Literacy Skills
- Information Literacy
- Media Literacy
- Technology Literacy
3. Life Skills
- Flexibility
- Initiative
- Social Skills
- Productivity
- Leadership

Types of Classroom Assessment

1. Formative Assessment
 A formative assessment may be seen as assessment for learning (teachers can make adjustments
in their instruction) and assessment as learning (students reflect on their own progress).
 Formative assessments are generally low stakes, which means that they have low or no point
value. Examples of formative assessments include asking students to:
i. draw a concept map in class to represent their understanding of a topic
ii. submit one or two sentences identifying the main point of a lecture
iii. turn in a research proposal for early feedback

2. Summative Assessment

 The summative assessment may be seen as assessment of learning (measures whether learners
have met the content and performance standards).
 Summative assessments are often high stakes, which means that they have a high point value.
Examples of summative assessments include:
a. a midterm exam
b. a final project
c. a paper
d. a senior recital

What are Assessed in the Classroom?

1. Content Standards
 Identify and sent essential knowledge and understanding that should be learned. They covered a
specific scope of sequential topics within each learning strand, domain, theme or component.
 What should the learners know?

2. Performance Standards
 Describe the abilities and skills that learners are expected to demonstrate relation to the content
standards and integration of 21st century skills. The integration of knowledge, understanding and
skills is expressed through creation, innovation, and adding value to products/performance during
independent work or in collaboration with others
 How do the learners apply their learning or understanding in real life contexts?

3. Learning Competencies
 Refers to the knowledge, skills and attitudes that the learners need to demonstrate in every lesson
and/or learning activity.

Adapted Cognitive Process Dimension

 How are Learners Assessed?

1. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

a) INDIVIDUAL FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

- This enables the learner to demonstrate independently what has been learned or mastered
through range of activities such as quizzes, performances, models, and even electronic
presentations.
b) COLLABORATIVE FORMATIVE ASSESSMENTS
- Allows students to support each other’s learning. Discussions, role plays, games and other
group activities may be used.

Formative Assessment in the Different Parts of the lesson

Before the lesson During the lesson After the lesson
 Informs the teacher  Informs the teacher of the progress of the  Assesses whether
about students’ students in relation to the development of learning objectives were
understanding of a the learning competencies achieved.
lesson/ topic  Helps the teacher determine whether  Allows the teacher to
 Helps teacher instructional strategies are effective. evaluate the
understand where the  Results can be compared to the results effectiveness of
students stand in terms before the lesson to establish if conceptual instruction.
of conceptual understanding and application have  Students who require
understanding and improved remediation and/or
application  Teacher can decide whether to review, re- enrichment should be
 Provides bases for teach, remediate or enrich lessons, and/or helped by the teacher
making instructional move on to the next lesson using appropriate
decisions. teaching strategies

2.SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
- Learners may be assessed individually through unit test and quarterly assessments.
Collaboratively, learners may participate in group activities in which they cooperate to
produce evidence of their learning. The process of creating a learning project is given more
weight of importance than the product itself.
-
Components of Summative Assessment

Written Work Performance Tasks Quarterly Assessments

 Ensures that students are able to
express skills and concepts in written
form.
 May include quizzes, unit or long
tests, essays, written reports, and
other written outputs.
 Helps strengthen test-taking skills
among the learners.
 Allows the learners to show  Measures student
what they know and are able learning at the end of the
to do in diverse ways. quarter. These may be in
 Learners may create or the form of objective
innovate products or do tests, performance-based
performance-based tasks. assessment or a
 Performance-based tasks may combination thereof.
include skills,
  Items in long quizzes should be demonstrations, group
distributed across the Cognitive presentations, oral work,
Process Dimensions so that all are multimedia presentations,
adequately covered. and research projects.
 Through these, learners are able to  Written output may also be
practice and prepare for quarterly considered as performance
assessments and other standardized tasks.
assessments.

Assessment Approaches
i. Norm – Referenced
- Performance of a student in a test is compared with the performance of the
other students who took the same examination.
ii. Criterion – Referenced
- Performance of a student in a test is compared against predetermined or agree
upon standard

C. Assessment Standards for Teachers

ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING (FOMATIVE ASSESSMENT) – an ongoing assessment that allows

teachers to monitor students on a day-to-day basis and modify their teaching based on what the students need to
be successful. This assessment provides students with the timely, specific feedback that they need to make
adjustments to their learning.

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING (SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT) – it is the snapshot in time that lets the
teacher, students and their parents know how well each student has competed the learning tasks and activities. It
provides information about student achievement.

ASSESSMENT AS LEARNING – it develops and supports student’s metacognitive skills. This form of
assessment is crucial in helping students become lifelong learners. As students engage in peer and self-
assessment, they learn to make sense of information, relate it to prior knowledge and use it for new learning.
Students develop a sense of ownership and efficacy when they use teacher, peer and self-assessment feedback to
make adjustments, improvements and changes to what they understand.

Assessment Assessment Assessment

FOR
Learning
Why Assess? to enable teachers to
determine next steps in
advancing student learning
Assess what? each student’s progress and
learning needs in relation
to the curricular outcomes
What Methods? A range of methods in
different modes that make
students’ skills and
understanding visible
Ensuring Quality - accuracy and consistency
AS
Learning
To guide and provide
opportunities for each student
to monitor and critically
reflect on his or her learning
and identify next steps
Each student’s thinking about
his or her learning, what
strategies he or she uses to
support or challenge that
learning, and the mechanisms
he or she uses to adjust and
advance his or her learning
A range of methods in
different modes that elicit
students’ learning and
metacognitive processes
- accuracy and consistency of
OF
Learning
To certify or inform
parents or others of
student’s proficiency in
relation to curriculum
learning outcomes
The extent to which the
students can apply the
key concepts,
knowledge, skills, and
attitudes related to the
curriculum outcomes
A range of methods in
different modes that
assess both product and
process
- accuracy, consistency,
 of observations and
interpretations of student
learning
- clear, detailed learning
expectations
- accurate, detailed notes
for descriptive feedback to
each student
Using the - provide each student with
Information accurate descriptive
feedback to further his or
her learning
- differentiate instruction
by continually checking
where each student is in
relation to the curricula
outcomes
- provide parents or
guardians with descriptive
feedback about student
learning and ideas for
support
student’s self-reflection, self- and fairness of
monitoring, and self- judgements based on
adjustment high-quality information
- engagement of the student - clear, detailed learning
in considering and expectations
challenging his or her - fair and accurate
thinking summative reporting
- students record their own
learning
- provide each student with - indicate each student’s
accurate, descriptive level of learning
feedback that will help him - provide the foundation
or her develop independent for discussions on
learning habits placement or promotion
- have each students focus on - repair fair, accurate,
the task and his or her and detailed information
learning (not on getting the that can be used to decide
right answer) the next steps in a
- provide each student with student’s learning
ideas for adjusting,
rethinking, and articulating
his or her learning
- provide the conditions for
the teachers and student to
discuss alternatives
- students report about their
learning

D. Properties of Assessment Methods

Assessment designers strive to create assessments that show a high degree of fidelity to the following five traits:
1. Content Validity
2.  Reliability
3.  Fairness
4.  Student engagement and motivation
5.  Consequential relevance
E. Ethics in Assessment
Ethical principles of Assessment
 Assessment tasks and marking criteria should focus on the intended learning outcomes for the
program or unit.
 The assessment scheme should allow students to demonstrate their achievement of all the intended
learning outcomes by the end of the program.
 Students should be informed in advance about the assessment tasks, marking scheme and marking
criteria for their program units.
 Students should be helped to understand the requirements of assessment, e.g. through guidance,
discussion with tutors, model answers or peer assessment.
 Students should be made aware of the procedure to follow if they wish to query or appeal against
an assessment decision.
 The assessment process should not be biased according to gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity,
religion or belief, age, class or disability.
 Students and staff should evaluate the effectiveness of the assessment scheme (e.g. during periodic
program reviews).
 Where assessment takes place online, clear protocols and instructions should be given to the
students in advance of the assessment taking place.
https://www.staffnet.manchester.ac.uk/tlso/policyguidance/assessment/assessment-principles/

MODULE 3

A. Assessment in the Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain more specifically deals with acquiring knowledge and can be assessed with all types of
assessment instruments, including tests and quizzes.

1. Fixed-Response Instruments: Is a type of test that requires the examinees to select an answer from a given
option such as multiple-choice, matching type test, of true/false test.

Fix-response test items prompt the student to select their answer from the response options. The most common
types of fix-response items are multiple-choice or true-false test items. However, variations of fixed-response
include matching, ranking, multiple true-false, and embedded-choice items.

Things to pounder:

Time Considerations
Student can answer more multiple-choice questions in a shorter period of time than constructed response items.
Students generally can answer 1 multiple-choice item per minute and 2 true-false test items per minute
(Oosterhof, Conrad, & Ely, 2008). Fixed response would be a great way to quickly assess student at the
beginning of a concept to be able to measure prior knowledge or to quickly check for understanding in the
middle or end of a concept.

With online assessments, scoring can be instant. With a fixed-response, computers can quickly score and grade a
student’s test. There is consistency and objective scoring since the computer can quickly do this and the teacher
doesn’t have to be involved. The computer can quickly check the student’s selection (e.g., A, B, C, etc. for
multiple-choice or true/false) and assign the student the correct point value for the correct answer. Students can
get immediate feedback on how they did on their test.

Student Knowledge
In a fixed response, when students know something of the subject, they have a better chance of getting the
answer correct over a constructed response item. Part of this is due to guess parameters and part of it can be
attributed to recognition of terms or concepts.

Fixed-response items are susceptible to guessing. For example a four alternative test item, the student has 25%
chance of selecting the correct answer; a true-false the student has a 50% chance of selecting the correct answer.
Test reliability increases when there are multiple-choice, alternate-choice, and essay test items in the same
assessment.

2. Free-Response Instruments - According to National Council on Measurement in Education, a free-response

item is a test item in which the responders must create a response or product rather than choose a response from
a set supplied with the item. A short-answer item, mathematics problem, and writing sample are examples.

Free-response items are distinct from fixed-response items in that examiners must supply a full and independent
response. There are no answer options from which to choose. Free-response items are typically discouraged
from examinations because of the difficulty, bias, and time effort required in grading them. However, some
general guidelines for developing these questions include the following: 1. The shorter the answer required for a
given essay item, generally the better.2. More objectives can be tested in the same period of time, and factors
such as verbal fluency, spelling, etc., have less of an opportunity to influence the grader.

Help the examiners focus their answers by giving them a starting sentence for their essay.
Make sure questions are sharply focused on a single issue. Do not give either the examiner or the grader too
much freedom in determining what the answer should be.

Supporters argue that this type of question on tests is that it gives a better indication of the competence and
intelligence of the test taker than other more standardized responses, which are claimed to often only measure
test-taking ability. However, critics charge that the quality of a free response answer is often determined more
by ability with the language in which it is given than competence or intelligence.

3. Performance Tests

Performance Test Assessment

WHAT IS IT? Performance assessment, also known as alternative or authentic assessment, is a form of testing
that requires students to perform a task rather than select an answer from a ready-made list. For example, a
student may be asked to explain historical events, generate scientific hypotheses, solve math problems, converse
in a foreign language, or conduct research on an assigned topic. Experienced raters--either teachers or other
trained staff--then judge the quality of the student's work based on an agreed-upon set of criteria. This new form
of assessment is most widely used to directly assess writing ability based on text produced by students under test
instructions.

HOW DOES IT WORK? Following are some methods that have been used successfully to assess
performance:

 Open-ended or extended response exercises are questions or other prompts that require

students to explore a topic orally or in writing. Students might be asked to describe their
observations from a science experiment, or present arguments an historic character would make
concerning a particular proposition. For example, what would Abraham Lincoln argue about the
causes of the Civil War?
 Extended tasks are assignments that require sustained attention in a single work area and are
carried out over several hours or longer. Such tasks could include drafting, reviewing, and
revising a poem; conducting and explaining the results of a science experiment on
photosynthesis; or even painting a car in auto shop.
 Portfolios are selected collections of a variety of performance-based work. A portfolio might
include a student's "best pieces" and the student's evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of
several pieces. The portfolio may also contain some "works in progress" that illustrate the
improvements the student has made over time.

These methods, like all types of performance assessments, require that students actively develop their
approaches to the task under defined conditions, knowing that their work will be evaluated according to agreed-
upon standards. This requirement distinguishes performance assessment from other forms of testing.

WHY TRY IT? Because they require students to actively demonstrate what they know, performance
assessments may be a more valid indicator of students' knowledge and abilities. There is a big difference
between answering multiple choice questions on how to make an oral presentation and actually making an oral
presentation.

More important, performance assessment can provide impetus for improving instruction, and increase students'
understanding of what they need to know and be able to do. In preparing their students to work on a
performance task, teachers describe what the task entails and the standards that will be used to evaluate
performance. This requires a careful description of the elements of good performance and allows students to
judge their own work as they proceed.

Assessment in the Affective Domain & Assessment in the Psychomotor Domain

The affective domain, in dealing with the acquisition of values and beliefs, makes assessment in this domain
more subjective.

1. Checklists, Rating Scales and Rubrics

Checklists, rating scales and rubrics are tools that state specific criteria and allow teachers and students to gather
information and to make judgements about what students know and can do in relation to the outcomes. They
offer systematic ways of collecting data about specific behaviors, knowledge and skills.
The quality of information acquired through the use of checklists, rating scales and rubrics is highly dependent
on the quality of the descriptors chosen for assessment. Their benefit is also dependent on students’ direct
involvement in the assessment and understanding of the feedback provided.

The purpose of checklists, rating scales and rubrics is to:

 provide tools for systematic recording of observations
 provide tools for self-assessment
 provide samples of criteria for students prior to collecting and evaluating data on their work
record the development of specific skills, strategies, attitudes and behaviors necessary for
 demonstrating learning
 clarify students' instructional needs by presenting a record of current accomplishments.

Tips for Developing Checklists, Rating Scales and Rubrics

1. Use checklists, rating scales and rubrics in relation to outcomes and standards.
2. Use simple formats that can be understood by students and that will communicate information about
student learning to parents.
3. Ensure that the characteristics and descriptors listed are clear, specific and observable.
4. Encourage students to assist with constructing appropriate criteria. For example, what are the
descriptors that demonstrate levels of performance in problem solving?
5. Ensure that checklists, rating scales and rubrics are dated to track progress over time.
6. Leave space to record anecdotal notes or comments.
7. Use generic templates that become familiar to students and to which various descriptors can be added
quickly, depending on the outcome(s) being assessed.
8. Provide guidance to students to use and create their own checklists, rating scales and rubrics for self-
assessment purposes and as guidelines for goal setting.

Checklists usually offer a yes/no format in relation to student demonstration of specific criteria. This is similar
to a light switch; the light is either on or off. They may be used to record observations of an individual, a group
or a whole class.

Rating Scales allow teachers to indicate the degree or frequency of the behaviors, skills and strategies displayed
by the learner. To continue the light switch analogy, a rating scale is like a dimmer switch that provides for a
range of performance levels. Rating scales state the criteria and provide three or four response selections to
describe the quality or frequency of student work.
Teachers can use rating scales to record observations and students can use them as self-assessment tools.
Teaching students to use descriptive words, such as always, usually, sometimes and never helps them pinpoint
specific strengths and needs. Rating scales also give students information for setting goals and improving
performance. In a rating scale, the descriptive word is more important than the related number. The more precise
and descriptive the words for each scale point, the more reliable the tool.
Effective rating scales use descriptors with clearly understood measures, such as frequency. Scales that rely on
subjective descriptors of quality, such as fair, good or excellent, are less effective because the single adjective
does not contain enough information on what criteria are indicated at each of these points on the scale.
Added value
Increase the assessment value of a checklist or rating scale by adding two or three additional steps that give
students an opportunity to identify skills they would like to improve or the skill they feel is most important. For
example:
 put a star beside the skill you think is the most important for encouraging others
 circle the skill you would most like to improve
 underline the skill that is the most challenging for you.

Rubrics use a set of criteria to evaluate a student's performance. They consist of a fixed measurement scale and
detailed description of the characteristics for each level of performance. These descriptions focus on
the quality of the product or performance and not the quantity; e.g., not number of paragraphs, examples to
support an idea, spelling errors. Rubrics are commonly used to evaluate student performance with the intention
of including the result in a grade for reporting purposes. Rubrics can increase the consistency and reliability of
scoring.
Rubrics use a set of specific criteria to evaluate student performance. They may be used to assess individuals or
groups and, as with rating scales, may be compared over time.

Developing Rubrics and Scoring Criteria

Rubrics are increasingly recognized as a way to both effectively assess student learning and communicate
expectations directly, clearly and concisely to students. The inclusion of rubrics in a teaching resource provides
opportunities to consider what demonstrations of learning look like, and to describe stages in the development
and growth of knowledge, understandings and skills. To be most effective, rubrics should allow students to see
the progression of mastery in the development of understandings and skills.
Rubrics should be constructed with input from students whenever possible. A good start is to define what
quality work looks like based on the learning outcomes. Exemplars of achievement need to be used to
demonstrate to students what an excellent or acceptable performance is. This provides a collection of quality
work for students to use as reference points. Once the standard is established, it is easy to define what
exemplary levels and less-than-satisfactory levels of performance look like. The best rubrics have three to five
descriptive levels to allow for discrimination in the evaluation of the product or task. Rubrics may be used for
summative purposes to gauge marks by assigning a score to each of the various levels.

When developing a rubric, consider the following:

 What are the specific outcomes in the task?
 Do the students have some experience with this or a similar task?
 What does an excellent performance look like? What are the qualities that distinguish an excellent
response from other levels?
 What do other responses along the performance quality continuum look like?
 Is each description qualitatively different from the others? Are there an equal number of descriptors at
each level of quality? Are the differences clear and understandable to students and others?
Begin by developing criteria to describe the Acceptable level. Then use Bloom's taxonomy to identify
differentiating criteria as you move up the scale. The criteria should not go beyond the original performance
task, but reflect higher order thinking skills that students could demonstrate within the parameters of the initial
task.
When developing the scoring criteria and quality levels of a rubric, consider the following guidelines.
 Level 4 is the Standard of excellence level. Descriptions should indicate that all aspects of work
exceed grade level expectations and show exemplary performance or understanding. This is a "Wow!"
 Level 3 is the Approaching standard of excellence level. Descriptions should indicate some aspects
of work that exceed grade level expectations and demonstrate solid performance or understanding. This
is a "Yes!"
 Level 2 is the Meets acceptable standard. This level should indicate minimal competencies
acceptable to meet grade level expectations. Performance and understanding are emerging or
developing but there are some errors and mastery is not thorough. This is a "On the right track, but …".
 Level 1 Does not yet meet acceptable standard. This level indicates what is not adequate for grade
level expectations and indicates that the student has serious errors, omissions or misconceptions. This
is a "No, but …". The teacher needs to make decisions about appropriate intervention to help the
student improve.
Creating Rubrics with Students
Learning increases when students are actively involved in the assessment process. Students do better when they
know the goal, see models and know how their performance compares to learning outcomes. Learning outcomes
are clarified when students assist in describing the criteria used to evaluate performance. Use brainstorming and
discussion to help students analyze what each level looks like. Use student-friendly language and encourage
students to identify descriptors that are meaningful to them. For example, a Grade 3 class might describe levels
of quality with phrases such as the following.
 Super!
 Going beyond
 Meets the mark
 Needs more work.
Use work samples to help students practice and analyze specific criteria for developing a critical elements list.
They can also use samples to practice assigning performance levels and compare criteria from level to level.
Although rubrics are often used as assessment of learning tools, they can also be used as assessment for learning
tools. Students can benefit from using rubrics as they become more competent at judging the quality of their
work and examining their own progress.
Example:
 Involve students in the assessment process by having them participate in the creation of a rubric. This
process facilitates a deeper understanding of the intended outcomes and the associated assessment
criteria.
 After a rubric has been created, students can use it to guide their learning. Criteria described in a rubric
serve to focus student reflection on their work and facilitate the setting of learning goals for a particular
performance assessment. Through self-assessment or peer-assessment, students can use a rubric to
assess work completed to date and use it to guide their planning for the "next steps" in learning.

2. Observation Instruments

Observing students as they solve problems, model skills to others, think aloud during a sequence of activities or
interact with peers in different learning situations provides insight into student learning and growth. The teacher
finds out under what conditions success is most likely, what individual students do when they encounter
difficulty, how interaction with others affects their learning and concentration, and what students need to learn
next. Observations may be informal or highly structured, and incidental or scheduled over different periods of
time in different learning contexts.

Observation checklists allow teachers to record information quickly about how students perform in relation to
specific outcomes from the program of studies. Observation checklists, written in a yes/no format can be used to
assist in observing student performance relative to specific criteria. They may be directed toward observations
of an individual or group. These tools can also include spaces for brief comments, which provide additional
information not captured in the checklist.

Before you use an observation checklist, ensure students understand what information will be gathered and how
it will be used. Ensure checklists are dated to provide a record of observations over a period of time.

Tips for Using Observation Checklists

1. Determine specific outcomes to observe and assess.

2. Decide what to look for. Write down criteria or evidence that indicates the student is demonstrating the
outcome.

3. Ensure students know and understand what the criteria are.

4. Target your observation by selecting four to five students per class and one or two specific outcomes to
observe.

5. Develop a data gathering system, such as a clipboard for anecdotal notes, a checklist or rubric, or a
video or audio recorder.

6. Collect observations over a number of classes during a reporting period and look for patterns of
performance.

7. Date all observations.

8. Share observations with students, both individually and in a group. Make the observations specific and
describe how this demonstrates or promotes thinking and learning. For example; "Eric, you contributed
several ideas to your group's Top Ten list. You really helped your group finish their task within the
time limit."

9. Use the information gathered from observation to enhance or modify future instruction

3. Creativity Tests

Dictionary definitions usually refer to producing something new, although creativity usually involves
recombining and modifying existing ideas. In education, definitions vary from completely new ideas to new
ways of considering and solving problems, from creativity specific to the arts to the idea of scientific
breakthrough. According to Csikszentmihalyi (1996), most commercial programs aimed at increasing individual
creativity focus on divergent thinking which is seen as important to creativity fluency and originality (relative
rarity of an idea).

Stimulating Creative Thinking

Myriad opportunities for fostering creativity are right under our noses in school, because learning is a generative
act. However, what's missing in many classrooms is deliberately noticing and naming opportunities for
creativity when they occur, giving feedback on the creative process, and teaching students that creativity is a
valued quality.

Brainstorming in any subject can be a creative activity. Elementary teachers who ask students to begin the
writing process with a graphic organizer, list, or outline can give feedback on the originality of the ideas as well
as their suitability for the writing assignment. For example, an elementary teacher might ask students to list
several farm animals, imagine a funny situation that might happen to each, and then pick one animal and write a
story about it.

Science teachers who have students brainstorm a list of hypotheses to test can give feedback on the originality
of ideas as well as their suitability for the experiment that the students will design. For example, a teacher might
mention that her coffee cools too quickly in the cup and then ask students to brainstorm a list of things that
might slow down the cooling process, write a hypothesis about each one, and design an experiment to test one
hypothesis.

Assignments that require students to produce new ideas or reorganize existing ideas in a new way are likely to
foster student creativity. In mathematics, asking students to identify a problem for which multiplication would
be useful in finding the solution requires more creativity from them than giving students a multiplication word
problem to solve. Similarly, in music, an assignment in which students write an original melody requires more
creativity than one in which they analyze a preexisting melody.

Assignments that require students to put two things together are also likely to promote creativity. For example,
in English language arts, asking students to write or speak about how The Adventures of Tom Sawyer would
have been different had Huckleberry Finn been the main character sparks more creativity than asking students to
discuss the character of Tom Sawyer. In social studies, asking students how the events that led up to World War
I might be handled if they happened today fosters more creativity than asking students to discuss the causes of
World War I.

Students will still exhibit a range of originality and quality in their work, even in response to these more creative
prompts. Teachers can give feedback on both of these aspects of the work.

Sometimes teachers and students think that any assignment that allows student choice is conducive to creativity.
Although that may be true in general, only assignments that allow student choice in matters related to what the
student is supposed to learn develop student creativity in the area under study. For example, if you ask students
to compare characters in two novels and allow them to choose the characters or novels, they have the
opportunity to develop creativity in their approach to literary criticism. However, if you ask students to compare
two specified characters and just give them choices about whether they want to write an essay, give a speech, or
write a song, students will not have that opportunity.

Criteria for Creativity

Creativity is not a synonym for clever, humorous, artistically pleasing, enthusiastic, or persuasive. Those are all
great qualities that we can assess in their own right, but we shouldn't confuse them with creativity. As early
childhood educator Lilian Katz once railed, "Creativity is not animals with long eyelashes!"

Rather, criteria for creativity should match what we expect in creative work: originality and high quality.
Creative students

 Recognize the importance of a deep knowledge base and continually work to learn new things.

 Are open to new ideas and actively seek them out.

 Find source material in a wide variety of media, people, and events.

 Organize and reorganize ideas into different categories or combinations and then evaluate whether the
results are interesting, new, or helpful.

 Use trial and error when they are unsure how to proceed, viewing failure as an opportunity to learn.
(Brookhart, 2010, pp. 128–129)

The first four characteristics lead to qualities in the work that we can observe, assess, and provide feedback on.
For example, are the source materials varied? Are ideas organized in a fresh way and uniquely suited to the
problem or product? The last characteristic—using trial and error—is about the student's approach to learning
and may or may not show itself in the finished work.

B. Evaluating Student Learning in Social Studies

Types of Test Items (Buendicho, 2005)

 1. Selection
a. Multiple Choices
b. Matching Type
c. Alternative Response
d. Analogy
2. Supply
a. Completion
b. Identification
c. Re-arrangement
d. Labelling
e. Restricted Essay
f. Extended Essay
General Guidelines in Writing Test Items (Gronlund, 2000)

1. Avoid wording that is ambiguous and confusing.

2. Use appropriate vocabulary and sentence structure.
3. Keep questions short and to the point.
4. Avoid using negative and double negative statements.
5. Avoid using abbreviations/acronyms especially if not used/presented in the class.
6. There should be: a. clear instruction b. specified number of points c. no patterns provided d.
proper mechanical make-up e. no clues/hints to the answer
7. Use vocabulary suited to the maturity of the students.
8. Use language that even the poorest readers will understand.
9. Items should not be directly lifted from book/reference.

Steps in Constructing Teacher-Made Tests

1. Identification of instructional objectives and learning outcomes.

2. Listing the topics to be covered in the test.
3. Preparation of the Table of Specification (TOS).
4. Selection of the appropriate type/s of test.
5. Writing the test items.
6. Sequencing the test items.
7. Writing the directions or instructions.
8. Preparation of the answer sheet (if necessary) and scoring key.
9. Proofreading the items. (Take the test and time it)
10. Administering the test.
11. Analyzing the test results.
12. Interpreting the test results.
Teacher-Made Tests

1. Objective – with definite/ exact answer (convergent)

a. Multiple Choices
Advantages
- great versatility in measuring all levels of objectives
- highly reliable test scores
- the teacher can cover a substantial amount of material in relatively short time -
scoring is objective, efficient, and accurate
- teachers can construct options that require students to discriminate among them
- effects of guessing are largely reduced since there are greater options
- items are more amenable to item analysis
- different response alternatives which can provide diagnostic feedback
Disadvantages
- more time-consuming in terms of looking for options that are plausible
- lead a teacher to favor simple recall of facts
- place a high degree of dependence on the student’s reading ability and teacher’s
writing ability
b. Matching Type
Advantages
 - Easy to construct and good for measuring factual knowledge
- Measures primarily associations and relationships as well as sequence of events -
Easy to score, efficient, accurate, and highly reliable test score
- Can be used to measure questions beginning with who, when, where, and what
Disadvantages
- Not very effective in measuring higher levels of understanding
- Suited primarily for knowledge and comprehension
- Matching assess recognition rather than recall information
- Difficult to construct due to the problem of selecting homogeneous stimuli and
responses
c. Alternative Response
Advantages
- students are able to respond to more true
- false items in a given time period than other selected response items
– students react in much the same way as they do when answering a question
in class or in real-world situation
– items provide simple and direct means of achieving learning outcomes
– items are amenable to item analysis which enables the teacher to determine
how the item functioned with the students tested
– easy to construct, score, and covers a lot of topics in a given time
– highly reliable test score and scoring is efficient and accurate
– good for testing misconceptions
Disadvantages
– construction of the items is time consuming
– there is no opportunity for the originality or expression of opinion by the
test taker
– encourages memorization rather than understanding
– 50-50% chance of getting them right
– wording usually has clues
– guessing is encouraged & great for cheating

d. Completion
Advantages
– students are able to respond to more true
– false items in a given time period than other selected response items
– students react in much the same way as they do when answering a question
in class or in real-world situation
– items provide simple and direct means of achieving learning outcomes
– items are amenable to item analysis which enables the teacher to determine
how the item functioned with the students tested
– easy to construct, score, and covers a lot of topics in a given time – highly
reliable test score and scoring is efficient and accurate
– good for testing misconceptions
Disadvantages
– construction of the items is time consuming
– there is no opportunity for the originality or expression of opinion by the
test taker
– encourages memorization rather than understanding
– 50-50% chance of getting them right
– wording usually has clues
– guessing is encouraged & great for cheating
e. Identification
Advantages
– guessing is minimized as compared to true and false or multiple-choice
items
– can test many concepts specifically lower levels of cognitive ability
– requires more than simple recognition of information
Disadvantages
– difficult to construct so that student can derive correct response
– may be more difficult and time consuming to score
 – difficult to score since more than one answer may be considered correct
– does not assess higher levels of learning well
f. Re-arrangement
Advantages
– useful in: a. measuring procedural knowledge b. comparing the interests of
individual with a criterion c. judging a person’s grasp of relative statistical
facts
– easy to construct
– less time consuming
– fair to the students since the slow writers can accomplish the test as fast as
fast writers
– validity and reliability of the test are very high due to comprehensive
sampling of the items included
Disadvantages
– primarily tests lower order cognitive objectives (memorization)
– difficulty or bias in scoring
– requires more time in the part of the teacher
– easier to cheat and guess because of the short answer given to each item
g. Labelling
Advantages
– minimizes guessing
– encourages more intensive study
– relatively easy to construct
– not a difficult task to students who write poorly
– can be used to many fields to provide an extensive sample of factual
information
Disadvantages
– stresses on mere recall, and encourages students to spend their time
memorizing details rather than seeking more important understandings
– encourages cheating due of short answer given for each item
h. Analogy
Advantages
– easy to correct or score
– eliminates subjectivity
– adequate sampling
– objectivity in scoring
– eliminates bluffing
– norms can be established
– saves time and energy in answering
Disadvantages
– difficult to construct
– encourages cheating and guessing
– expensive
– encourages rote memorization
– time consuming
2. Subjective – usually no definite answers (divergent)

a. Restricted Essay
b. Extended Essay
ANALYSIS

When constructing a test, there are general guidelines and barriers which we must always take into
consideration. As pre-service teachers, we must familiarize ourselves regarding these so as to, as much
as possible, avoid or minimize mistakes.
Test directions have different parts that we should complete in order to make the activity clear, avoid
subjectivism and avoid too much questions.
There are various test types which we could use to assess the learning of the students, though no matter
which type we use, we should ensure that these develop the higher order thinking skills of the learners.