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Abstract: Isolation of the most effec- potentially attractive route to increase 65 % product. Careful optimization re-
tive antimalarial drug, artemisinin, artemisinin production. Conversion of sulted in a process characterized by
from the plant sweet wormwood, does the plant waste product, DHAA, into short residence times. A method to ex-
not yield sufficient quantities to pro- artemisinin requires use of photochem- tract DHAA from the mother liquor
vide the more than 300 million treat- ically generated singlet oxygen at large accumulated during commercial arte-
ments needed each year. The high scale. We met this challenge by devel- misinin extractions, a material that is
prices for the drug are a consequence oping a one-pot photochemical contin- currently discarded as waste, is also re-
of the unreliable and often insufficient uous-flow process for the semisynthesis ported. The synthetic continuous-flow
supply of artemisinin. Large quantities of artemisinin from DHAA that yields process described here is an effective
of ineffective fake drugs find a market means to supplement the limited avail-
in Africa. Semisynthesis of artemisinin ability of artemisinin and ensure in-
Keywords: antimalarial agents · ar-
from inactive biological precursors, creased supplies of the drug for those
temisinin · flow chemistry · photo-
either dihydroartemisinic acid in need.
chemistry · singlet oxygen
(DHAA) or artemisinic acid, offers a
5450 2013 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Chem. Eur. J. 2013, 19, 5450 – 5456
FULL PAPER
direct biosynthetic precursor
of artemisinin.[15] Although a
practical route for the semisyn-
thesis of artemisinin had been
disclosed as early as 1989,[11a]
scale-up of the route that may
well be mimicking the biosyn-
thesis proved extremely chal-
lenging. The photochemical
generation of singlet oxygen
turned out to be difficult to
scale-up in traditional batch
reactors. Nevertheless, the
pharmaceutical company, Scheme 1. Photooxidation products of DHAA.
Sanofi–Aventis, has worked on
a batch synthesis route starting
from artemisinic acid that it procures through a biotechno- construct a simplified one-pot continuous process. The first
logical process in engineered yeast developed by Amyris.[16] step in the semisynthesis of artemisinin (1) is the photooxi-
AA is first reduced into DHAA by chemical means and is dation of DHAA (2). Singlet oxygen reacts with 2 in an ene
then converted into the corresponding carbonate derivative reaction that gives three different hydroperoxides
to reduce the formation of side products.[17] More recently, (Scheme 1). Only hydroperoxide 3 can be converted into ar-
the production of DHAA in yeast has also been reported temisinin, whereas the two other endoperoxides, 4 and 5,
and may provide access to this material without the need contribute to the formation of side products. Hydroperoxide
for plant extraction.[18] 4 cyclizes to arteannuin H (6) under acidic conditions and
The key step in the chemical semisynthesis of artemisinin has to be separated from artemisinin at the end of the syn-
from DHAA is an ene reaction involving singlet oxygen. thesis. Mercury lamps serve as the predominant light sources
Singlet oxygen can be produced photochemically from trip- on both industrial[24] as well as laboratory-scale photooxida-
[19]
let oxygen using different sensitizers. The development of tions. These lamps emit light with a broad range of wave-
a photochemical batch reactor that ensures uniform irradia- lengths, whereas only a fraction of the light is absorbed by
tion is extremely difficult, if not impossible, as light intensity the photosensitizer. Consequently, this process is marked by
decays quickly with increasing distance from the light relatively poor energy efficiency. A monochromatic light
source. Continuous-flow chemistry offers a simple solution source that matches the absorption spectrum of the sensitiz-
to overcome this serious challenge: by wrapping transparent er is essential for an optimized system. Light-emitting
tubing around a light source short residence times and con- diodes (LEDs) are monochromatic, are available in various
venient scale-up of photochemical reactions can be ach- wavelengths, are highly energy efficient, exhibit a long life-
ieved.[20] Under this condition, large specific interfacial area time, and perform well for photochemical applications.[25] A
improves the mass transfer of oxygen from the gas into the high photon flux was achieved by an arrangement of 60
liquid phase.[21] Oxidations with singlet oxygen can be per- high-power LEDs (72 W electrical-power consumption,
formed efficiently in microstructured systems and small tub- 12 W optical output, Fp = 2.5 mmol min 1), emitting at
[22]
ings. We previously communicated the photochemical 420 nm, the absorption maximum of tetraphenylporphyrin
continuous synthesis of artemisinin from DHAA, a method (TPP). To irradiate the substrate solution in continuous
that gave artemisinin in 40 % yield on a 200-g scale per flow, the photoreactor was constructed by wrapping tubing
day.[23] around a transparent glass plate in two layers (7.5 mL
Herein, we disclose a novel continuous-flow reactor setup volume). This reactor was mounted at a fixed distance in
and greatly improved process that produces artemisinin with front of the LED module. Heat was dissipated from the
high (photo)chemical efficiency. This process was developed LEDs heat sink by a fan, thus minimizing energy input
with continuous-flow scale-up in mind. Greatly enhanced se- compared to mercury lamps, for which a powerful cooling
lectivity towards artemisinin and high photon efficiency system is essential.
were realized, to enhance production capacity through a Initially, we explored whether decreased temperatures
simplified flow chemistry process. during the photooxidation reaction result in improved levels
of selectivity in favor of the desired hydroperoxide, 3. In
contrast to batch photochemistry, synthesis in continuous
Results and Discussion flow allows for easy cooling of the photoreactor because
tubing can simply be immersed in a cooled liquid. The small
Photooxidation: To design a highly efficient process for the diameter provides a large interfacial area beneficial for both
synthesis of artemisinin, the reaction steps were first opti- fast mass transport of oxygen into the solution and efficient
mized separately before the detailed insights helped us to heat transport between cooling liquid and substrate solution.
Chem. Eur. J. 2013, 19, 5450 – 5456 2013 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.chemeurj.org 5451
P. H. Seeberger et al.
5452 www.chemeurj.org 2013 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Chem. Eur. J. 2013, 19, 5450 – 5456
Synthesis of Artemisinin
FULL PAPER
TFA, conversion significantly decreased and numerous by-
products appeared. The use of very strong acids, such as sul-
furic acid, led to the conversion of most of the hydroperox-
ide into cyclic aldehyde 10, thus indicating that the tauto-
merisation of the enol intermediate, 9, is too fast to allow
for triplet-oxygen oxidation. Suggested by these observa-
tions, 0.5 equivalents of TFA, based on initial amount of
DHAA, were used for all further reactions.
The influence of solvents on the formation of side prod-
ucts was determined in a batch setup by bubbling oxygen
through a solution of the photooxidation products by using
TFA as acid catalyst. Full conversion of the hydroperoxide,
3, was observed in all solvents. In polar aprotic solvents only
a low yield of artemisinin was obtained, the main products Figure 2. Temperature-dependent acid-catalyzed reaction (20 min) pro-
being the side products, dihydro-epi-deoxyarteannuin B (7) ducing artemisinin (&), dihydro-epi-deoxyarteannuin B (7) (*), side prod-
and 10 (Table 2). The use of solvents of decreased polarity is uct 10 (~), and arteannuin H (6) ( ! ).
Chem. Eur. J. 2013, 19, 5450 – 5456 2013 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.chemeurj.org 5453
P. H. Seeberger et al.
5454 www.chemeurj.org 2013 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Chem. Eur. J. 2013, 19, 5450 – 5456
Synthesis of Artemisinin
FULL PAPER
efficiency. With the standard flow rate of 1.25 mL min 1, a low extinction coefficient of artemisinin compared to
DHAA conversion of 0.60 mmol min 1 is obtained, which is common impurities, UV absorbance at 210 nm provides an
24 % of the LEDs photon flow. Even higher levels of efficient means for the detection of trace impurities.[29] Four
photon efficiency can be realized when a higher feed flow minor peaks account for just 1.3 area % of the UV absorb-
rate is used, albeit at the expense of complete conversion. ance signals in total.
For example, at 2 mL min 1, a DHAA conversion of
0.91 mmol min 1 is obtained. Owing to the limited availabili- Plant extract as starting material: Both AA and DHAA are
ty of the starting material, incomplete conversion would ne- present in the plant, but are currently discarded in large
cessitate recovery of DHAA from the product stream and, quantities. When artemisinin is extracted from Artemisia
therefore, we did not pursue this strategy further. annua, the final purification is a crystallization process leav-
The residence time for the complete process of approxi- ing mother liquor behind that is treated as waste. The analy-
mately 11.5 minutes is very short, but the space–time yield sis of mother liquor obtained from an extractor was found
of the continuous setup is even more impressive. A chemical to contain 2.0 % artemisinic and 8.2 % dihydroartemisinic
yield of 65 % means that the reactor is capable of producing acid. Simple basic extraction of the mother liquor produced
165 g artemisinin per day. With its volume of 47.5 mL in a material that contained 42 % DHAA based on 93 % re-
total, a space–time yield of 3500 kg m 3 day 1 artemisinin is covery.[30] A solution of this crude extract in toluene in the
calculated. presence of TFA (0.25 m) and DCA (2.5 mm) was subjected
The energy requirement for the process is an important to the continuous-flow synthesis process. Best results were
aspect, especially because a high-intensity light source is em- obtained when the reactor eluent was quenched with the
ployed in combination with a low reaction temperature of more basic potassium carbonate rather than sodium bicar-
20 8C. An overview of the different components power bonate and artemisinin was obtained in 57 % crude yield
consumption is shown in Table 4. When active, the chiller based on DHAA content (see the Supporting Information,
consumed 800 W and during operation the photoreactor Figure S4). Artemisinin was recrystallized in high purity
could be kept at 20 8C by using approximately 500 W on from cyclohexane/ethanol (9:1 v/v) with 73 % recovery.
average. Notably, we did not optimize the system concerning Plant waste may thus serve as feed stock by providing
heat transfer. The photoreaction compartment was not iso- DHAA for the semisynthesis of artemisinin.
lated and we did not use heat exchangers, conditions that
would be implemented in an industrial setup on larger scale
and could reduce the energy consumption for the cooling Conclusion
system. However, even the data of the presented setup pro-
vide convincing arguments for the photoreaction to be car- A careful assessment of the reaction parameters that influ-
ried out at 20 8C instead of room temperature. The energy ence the outcome of the continuous-flow semisynthesis of
cost for the chiller is comparably less than the surplus of ad- the antimalarial drug, artemisinin, from dihydroartemisinic
ditional artemisinin owing to better selectivity. acid resulted in a greatly simplified process and a signifi-
For purification, the majority of the dye was removed by cantly improved yield. Now, the continuous-flow reaction re-
dissolving the crude product in acetonitrile before passing quires just one pump and an initial supply of oxygen. The
the suspension through a PTFE syringe filter, owing to the compact setup relies on a LED lamp with sensitizer-tailored
low solubility of DCA. The crude product was recrystallized emission wavelength, resulting in a photon efficiency of
from cyclohexane/ethanol (9:1 v/v) and off-white needles of 24 %.
artemisinin with some remaining DCA were obtained (57 % Based on the in depth understanding of the synthesis, a
yield upon isolation). A second recrystallization from cyclo- larger flow reactor that will be able to produce one metric
hexane/ethanol (9:1 v/v), yielded pure white needles (46 % ton of artemisinin per year is currently being constructed.
yield based on initial DHAA) as assessed by HPLC by The energy efficiency can be improved through better isola-
using UV absorbance, ELSD, and MS detection (see the tion of the photoreactor, the use of heat exchangers, and a
Supporting Information, Figure S7, S8, S9).[29] Owing to the different chiller. The fact that dihydroartemisinic acid can
be obtained from the waste of current extraction
processes provides an alternative to starting materi-
Table 4. Energy consumption and cost of the reactor components. al derived from fermentation in engineered yeast,
Component Power Electrical energy Cost per kg 1 thus making the process even more attractive.
consumption per kg 1 (0.2 E/kWh)
[W] ACHTUNGRE[kWh] [E]
LED lamp + control unit 100 14.5 2.9
+ power supply Experimental Section
fan for lamp 4 0.58 0.1
pump 6 0.87 0.2
Power consumption was measured with an electricity meter
chiller 500 72.7 14.5
(Voltcraft, Energy Check 3000). A HPLC pump (Knauer,
Smartline pump 100) was used to deliver either substrate solu-
Total 610 88.7 17.7
tion or pure solvent by controlling a two-way switch. Pressure
Chem. Eur. J. 2013, 19, 5450 – 5456 2013 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.chemeurj.org 5455
P. H. Seeberger et al.
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