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 c(ishi Gttq
(Agricultural Verses)
[A treatise on indigenous farming practices ol lhe Malayalam desam (Kerala)]

Translated
by
B Mohan Kumar

Commentarres
by
B Mohan Kumar
PK Ramachandran Nair

Agri-History Bulletin No. 7

.rtST08l ^
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? 1994 2
gfre1 pv<'

Asian Agri-History Foundation

47 ICRISAT Colony-I, Brig. Sayeed Road
Secunderabad 500 009, Andhra Pradesh, India
Citation: Mohan Kumar B. (Tr.) 2008. Krishi Gita (Agricultural verses). Agri-History Bulletin
No. 7. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad 500 009, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Acknowledgments

O Asian Agri-History Foundation 2008. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owners.

ISSN 0971-7722
 Contents

vii
In \lala-valam)
" 1

JJ

- ,---, -lLrn 35

..- - -, Gir.t r Translation): Agricultural verses 39

14

; - ::l:taaS 16

:'r'r-l.irieS 19

:,lentary - B Mohan Kumar 81

:r:nentary - PK Ramachandran Nair 96

| ::-:':-rJiaeS 101

:::cndir l. Crop varieties 103

.,ppendix 2.Zodiac and plants 110

P
 Foreword

: " -- {-:i-i-History Foundation (AAHF), a non-profit trust, was established and

" , -- , ., 994 in Secunderabad, India to facilitate dissemination of information on
.

-:... heritage in order to promote research on sustainable agriculture in South

.,
. - -.-:;.i ,\sian regions. These regions provided food security to its population for
, :-- -':.1e nnia rvith occasional famines in limited pockets due to drought. Farmers
r
-- - - - :,, trlr ed some of the most sustainable agricultural management techniques
, - - i r ditterent agroecoregions. There is a great deal to be learned from the
.
-'.:. .rrd Southeast Asia in the past. One of the major objectives of AAHF is to
.:-- .r:ie intormation on ancient and medieval agriculture by translating old texts/
"'-----:rft\ into English and publish these translations with commentaries on the
,- : - l. --rrrtert of the texts. The aim of these commentaries of the expefis is to stimulate
: ..- *-- r. rrr Validate old practices.

*'.: i-i;il \gri-History Foundation has so far published six bulletins: Vrikshayurveda
''

S,.e nce of PlantLife) by Surapala (c. l000AD), Krishi-Parashara (Agricultureby

--- - -.rrir t lc. 400 BC ), Nuskha Dar Fanni-Falahat (The Art of Agriculture), a Persian
--,.-'ript by Dara Shikoh (c. 1650 AD), Kashyapiyakrishisukti (A Treatise on
- :: - ilture) by Kashyapa (c. 800AD), Vishvavallabha (Dear to the World: The Science
' i.;ni Lit-e) by Chakrapani Mishra (c. 1577 AD), and Lokopakara (For the Benefit of
: - :.e b1 Chavundaraya (1025 AD). This present bulletin has the translation of a
1"1-.;"alam manuscript edited by Mdwan C Govinda Wariar. This edited manuscript
-- ,-.htained from Adyar Library, Chennai, India through the assistance from Mr S
: -:--h.isarathy, IAS (Retd.), Hon. Member, International Advisory Board of AAHF.

-=:r.t.ts several versions of "Krishi Gita" are available. The one we have translated is

. :r)t known and there is no date indicated on the manuscript. Because the crops described
. :ire text are the indigenous ones, and not those introduced by Europeans (Portuguese),
.,. : Lrelieve the date be c. 15'h century.

rn interesting fact about this text is that the advisor on agriculture is Parasurama (Axe-
.r relding Rama) the sixth incarnation of Vishnu. Parashu means axe, hence his name
-:terally means Rama-with-the-axe. He received an axe after undertaking a terrible
penance to please Lord Shiva, from whom he learrred the methods of warfare and other
.kills. He is a Chiranjeevin (long-living), who fought the advancing ocean back thus
.ar in-e the lands of Konkan and Malabar (Maharashtra-Karnataka-Kerala coastline).
The coastal area of Kerala state along with the Konkan region, i.e., coastal Maharashtra
and Kamataka, is known as Parasurama Kshetra (Parasurama's area). Parasurama is
said to be a "Brahma-Kshatriya" (of the duty between a Brahman and a Kshatriya), the
first warrior saint. While advice given by sages such as Parashara and Kashyapa are
Thebod
well-known, association of Parasurama with agriculture is not so well-known outside 'old'tt
the Indian west coast.
prdcrfoE
Through the courtesy of Dr MR Rao, Hon. Editor to AAHF, we requested Dr B Mohan prese*d
Kumar to translate the text from Malayalam into English. Dr Kumar has done a fine job hisry,I
of translation. Two excellent commentaries, one by Dr Kumar himself and the other by ofpraci
Dr PK Ramachandran Nair, have highlighted the salient features of the text, and have pulses,rt
indicated practices that need to be validated. The AAHF is highly grateful to Drs Rao, aspec'tr a

Kumar, and Nair. lucid s5i

operair
We have reproduced the text edited by Vidwan C Govinda Wariar. Unfortunately the
a bullod
photocopied text that we had received needed considerable cleaning. In the process,
bottom lines on very few pages were erased. We apologize for this inadequacy. Apparcr
20o{).7
We hope this publication, like the other publications of AAHF, will prove useful to all
those interested in agriculture not only in India but elsewhere in the world.
the Bil
based a

YL Nene that th
Chairman COflIIIE
Asian Agri-History Foundation traditi<r
to tlrc p
While t
approp
expressi
availahl
have ak

The scri
is unavr
and his

Onafr
(AAHI
Rao. fo
availdi
the vert
Univer:
of the s
 Preface

The book of verse titled Krishi Gita, written in four parts by an anonymous author(s) in
'old' Malayalam language, contains a wealth of information about the agricultural
practices of Malayalam desam (contemporary Kerala) and the nearby regions (parts of
present-day Tamil Nadu and Karnataka) of India. Compiled at an unspecified time in
history, Krishi Gita epitomized the equivalent of the present-day recommended 'package
ofpractices' for crop production. It covers a wide spectrum ofcrops including cereals,
pulses, vegetables, fruits, and nuts, grown in Kerala since time immemorial, and many
aspects of crop production such as varieties, cultural practices, and pest incidence in a
lucid style. Also included are aspects relating to agricultural water management, tillage
operations (including the implements used), and animal husbandry (e.g., how to select
a bullock pair for draught pulposes, and where in the farm to construct a cattle shed).

Apparently many versions of Krishi Gita are available (see Menon, 1972:-Gangadharan,
2004). The version of Krishi Gita edited by Mdwan C Govinda Wariar and published in
the Bulletin of the Government Oriental Manuscript Library, Madras (1950), largely
based on the version described as D. No. 298, was used for this translation. I believe
that the English translation of the antique manuscript, with annotations and
commentaries, may be useful especially from the point of view of making available
traditional agricultural knowledge to a larger audience and extrapolating the information
to the present times.

While translating the work, I have provided the words that in my thinking are most
appropriate to convey the contextual meanings of the Malayalam/Sanskrit words and
expressions in the original work for which exactly coresponding English words are not
available. Plain transliteration has been used for varietal and other common names. I
have also attempted to include some descriptive notes, wherever deemed appropriate.

The script is mostly written in an imperative mode of writing ('do's and don'ts'), which
is unavoidable in a piece that supposedly translates the discourse between a great sage
and his disciples in a bygone era.

On a final note, I express my

sincere gratitude to the Asian Agri-History Foundation
(AAHF), particularly its Chairman, Dr YL Nene, and the founding member, Dr MR
Rao, for asking me to undertake the translation of this remarkable piece, and making
available a copy of the Government Oriental Manuscript Library Bulletin containing
the vernacular text of Krishi Gita. Dr PK Ramachandran Nair, Distinguished Professor,
University of Florida, USA made several constructive suggestions on a previous version
of the script, besides writing a commentary on it. I also wish to place on record the help

I..';
,ii:t'#
of Dr Jayasree Krishnankutty and Mr Shaju K Francis of the Department of Agricultural
Extension, KeralaAgricultural University, Mr Katangot Prabhakaran, a language expert
previously with the Kerala Sahitya Academy, Thrissur, and Mrs Sheenu S Nair, my
wife, in the translation process; howevel whatever blemishes are remaining these are
entirely mine.

B Mohan Kumar
Gainesville, Florida
USA
23 December 2007
(Kcishi @ita
(ln Malayalam)
 g.eo1."nlro.

KRSI GITA.
Edited by
C. GOVIT.IDA WARIAR.
Krci Gita (D. No. 298) is a pretry- long rvork in four chapters
dealing with ihe method.s of agriculturai operations.

ft is from the. work that Paradurlma, seeing the,dejected

seen
Brahmins through a 'yogic ' device t,as rnoved to pir; and on
their request explained to them the art of cuitivation.
The description of king N'{ahendrapiia's criltivation, the penance
of Cera, Cola and Pd4dya, the distnbution of rain, etc., in rhe second
pdd,o are all of peculiar interest, and afford enjoyable reading.

This Library is in possession of ihree other raanuscripts bearing

on the same subject, but unfortunately there is hndly any clue
regarding the authorship of this excellent poem or the date of its
composition. The author rvields a facile pen, and the lines have
all a lucid charm and melodious flon'. The metre emploved in the
first three padas is " Pdna," and the fourth is *-rinen in the
" Thullal style."
It is no gainsaying that this *'ork which takes into account various
cereals, coconu! palms, etc,, rvould be of immense scientific value
to the agriculturist.
 LIBRARY BULLETIN
GOVERNMENT ORIENTAL MANUSCRIMS

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 Kishi @ita
(Translated by B Mohan Kumar
from Malayalam into English)
 .iii
.::;

.:iit::t
About the translator
Silviculture and
ii:l:rlii; Dr B Mohan Kumar is Professor and Head of the Department of
Kerala, India' He is an
Agroforestry at the KeralaAgricultural University, Thrissur,
'r;iiij::Jit

- ,tq
.!l5ir!!:a India and National
l:.; itltili elected Fellow of the National Academy of Sciences, Allahabad,
he worked as USAID
i,.i,:.! ,r!: Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi, India. Earlier
professor at the
visiting scholar at the utah State University (USA), JSPS visiting
+:--ij.!,i
'.,1

Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (Japan), and

Fulbright scholar at
:,i i: !.]l l:
on Tropical Homegardens
the University of Florida (USA). He organized the session
usA (http://
(T
i.ill1! !!r
i!iii'e: at the 1,, World congress of Agroforestry, orlando, ItF
li::Jr'+ii
ATime-
conference.ifas.ufl.eduAVCA) and edited the book Tropical Homegardens:
(http://www.springer'com/
Lh
Tested Example of Sustainable Agroforestry (Springer)
east/home/life+sci?SGWlD=5-10027 -22-168960914-0) (ointly
with Professor PK Eif
:ll:;n
Ramachandran Nair). He is also the Editor of the Journal of
Tropical Agriculture' an Hi
,:i
open access scientific journal (http://www.jtropag.in; since
2oo4),Associate Editor {fr
&Dl
editorial board of
oiAgroforestry Systems (Springei, 2005 till date), member the of
and Management (Elsevier, 1990 till date), andzonal
Editor of Indian fi=&
Forest Ecology
Journal of Agroforestry (2000 till date)' !il
&
present address: No. 48, Pushpavihar, Nadathara, Thrissur 680 751, Kerala, India m
(email: bmkumar.kau@ gmail.com; bmkumar@ ufl 'edu) ma
iM-
lsfo
.rtt
Ury
smfu
tuf,
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k
1. Sdt

$
 lntroduction
- : crb rntplies that "Man . . . despite his artistic pretensions and many
'.
.. ,,\\es his existence to a thin layer of topsoil . . . and the fact that it
'i :r'cat Indian sage Kashyapa (c. 800 AD) in Kashyapiyakrishisukti
- -,1.o sar,s that "since then fthe beginning of this age or the origin of
-; called agriculture was expanded variously by the residents of the
:.;e u ith the rainy periods . . . ." Kashyapa further states that ". . . of all
.tete l. a-sricultural activity is commended as the best, which the king

. .- !tu()tes above eulogizing farming imply that human survival is essentially

. Idrmins, which in turn depends on the soils and rains (environment).
- .. ilt asriculture also originate tiom the past and have been practiced in the
.-,:tteintmemorial.Krishi Gitafurtherexemplifiesthesefacts,foritscontents
- 'r.dom and experience of the traditional farming community of the land
' .:: Kerala in South India. Predictably, the practices outlined in Krishi Gita
..:':rrr. ti1lage, tree planting, and the like; see the commentary by this author)
'-
, :ll. or are consistent with the time-tested agricultural practices mentioned in
Krr.hi-Parashara, Manusmriti, Agni Purana, and Vrikshayurveda, the prehistoric
-,:.ftLtres.

' :-r also mimors the value systems and cultural moorings of the people who
K:rala in a bygone era. In many ways, the history of Kerala is the history of its
-.:.:. .{lthough the modern state of Kerala was founded only in 1956 by merging
.l-,..,ralam speaking areas of peninsular India, the Sanskrit word Cheralam
- ttlatrt), which means 'the country of the cheras', could be more than a thousand
. J The Malaltalam desam, named after the Chera king, Cheraman perumal, is
. - ,\\ n ';rs Cheraman Kalpa or the land of prosperity. There is, however, no consensus
-- iri:torians as to when this kingdom was founded or about other related details.
.:-rthor's lack of expertise on historical aspects precludes further eiaborations on

:rl()st other places, farming was the mainstay of people of ancient Kerala too, and
. -:rl. economic, and cultural order evolved around that; for example, the Brahmin-
.,, Je tmti system of land-tenure and ownership pattern that dominated the Kerala's
- .:l order in the medieval times (http://www.education.kerala.gov.in/englishmedium/
'.,,r)eng/chapter8.pdf; accessed on 15 July 2001). Krishi Gitahas been written as a
- .- rrLtt'se between the Brahmins, who had tenure rights over land in ancient Kerala antl
-, r.1 Parasurama, a great sage and one of the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu.
i::':umably, the larmers of that era too experienced many agricultural crises and
iiir.hi Gita opens with the narration of one such episode by a distrau-eht lot of Brahmins
to Lord Parasurama (Fig. l), and requesting him to abate their agonies by pre:.: -
the'best' agricultural pr:lclice:.

During the 'dialogue', Parasurama imparts knowledge on an array of improved -'

production techniques to the Brahmins. Undoubtedly, Lord Parasurama was a le;., :
exponent of improved agricultural practices and perhaps the 'world's first agncLr1i,, .
extension agent'. The hatchet that he wields symbolizes a potent tool for clearing i,.
growth to promote agriculture. Also for the early man who was a denizen of forest:. : -
hatchet was probably an indispensable tool to facilitate shifting cultivation, the earli : '
form of agriculture. In auother perspective, the axe is symbolic of deforestation .:.-
may signify ecological degradation, if imprudently used.

Regarding the genesis of Krishi Gita fthe time of compilation and its author(s)1. it:.
difflcult to make firm judgments. The stanzas apparently contain no tempor;.
signatures. It is also ditficult to deduce the time of compilation by evaluating tirc
contemporary political events as reference to aspects such as conquests including thal
of the Europeans is conspicuously absent in the entire text. No historically confirmable
rulers are mentioned except the names of a few dynasties (Chera, Chola, and Pandyat.

": : '
l'' . I

.\l
.) ..
\ll ,r.
t1 .L'.

Figure 1. A sculptor's view of Lord Parasurama, the agricultural guru of prehistoric Kerala. 1lrr.
rP::
 - . ::llcd \outhern India for hundreds of years. From the nature of the
' r'\ r. apparent that the lyrics may have been written/compiled over a
.:. e

* :-;r'iLrtl tnra-v be centuries!), which perhaps led to the abstraction of the

. lr.- lr rics. without doubt, have been transmitted through oral traditions
.'.rt n ritings from one generation to another. During that process, the
.l.L-rtirinlv got improvised. What is before us, therefore, is a cumulative
,rh inrpror isations that might have happened over a rather long period of

- ..'.. it is conjectured that the book in its present form looks to be around 300
: This is because the poetry follows two distinct styles: pana and thtillal.
. .. . \.Lmbiar. the progenitorof thullal poems in Malayalam, lived between 1705
- - , Therefirre.
at least the last part of the poem, which fbllows the thullol style,
. ;: less than three centuries old, notwithstanding the fact that other portions of
. - , :ri-l\ have been compiled earlier.

-, ., :i.lelir-rg aspect, however, is that the book lacks reference to major exotic species
,r-riecl by the Portuguese, Dutch, and British to Kerala during the 17'h and l8'h
- - ,.r'rL-\. Examples include cassava (.Manihot esculenta), rubber (Hettea brosiliensi.s),
, . r,.\\ lAttuc'urclitun oc'ciclentale), pineapple (Ananas conro,sus), papaya (Carica
r.ir.1 ). sweetpotato (.lpomoeabatatos),tea(Cantellio,sinensis), coff'ee (Coffeaspp.)
,r rhe [ke (Mohan Ram, 2005). These crops (with the exception of tea and coffee)
r. .,i'- n'rostly tiom the new world tropics and have become runaway successes in Kerala

-:-irin-c the 19'r'century orthereafter. Forinstance, cassava was introducedtoTravancore

.\)Lrthern part of present-day Kerala) during the reign of HH Sri Visakham Thirunal
I S80 lBB5), and it eventually became a staple in the state. Experimental planting of
rubber was initiated as early as 1873 at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Calcutta and the
f irst commercial plantation established at Thattekadu (Kerala) in 1902. Implicit in this

is the tact that the book was probably written before these crops arrived in Kerala, or
became popr-rlar. Likewise, there is no mention of the Portuguese, Dutch, or British
colonization in certain parts of Kerala, implying that the writings of the book probably
pre-dates the l7'r'century; yet concrete evidence is lacking in this respect. However,
namessuchas Parangikiz.hangu(ltne324,Part 1)and Cheenamulaku (line38l,Part 1)
appearing in the text have links to transactions with foreigners, 'Paranki' being a reference
to the Portuguese and 'Cheena' to China or the Chinese in the local usage today.

Another curious omission in the poetry is the lack of reference to the homegarden
system, which was ubiquitous in Kerala fbr many centuries and has been focused in the
supposedly earlier writings too. For instance, the travelogue of Ibn Battuta lPersian
traveler ( 1325-1354)l mentions that in the densely populated ancl intensively cultivtrted
landscapes of Malabar Coast of Kerala, coconut (Coc:os nuciJbra) and black pepper
(Piper nignuz) were prominent around the houses (Randhawa, 1980). Lack of reference
to homegardening and mixed cultures in Krishi Gita therefore may be accidenral. l-. {li !^ c
is not surprising becar-rse homegardening received far little attention than what it u ai'r.
even in the rnodern development paradigms (Nair and Kumar, 2006). The apath,.
il'i,l,*
development folks towards homegardening and other multistrata systems (Kunlir -,
Nair, 20011) is therefbre not newl
IJF'1"" ri,r

Regarding the arrangement of the book, Krishi Gita is organized into fbur parts ( 1 tt, -
with.162, 429.455, and 30-5 lines of poetry, respectively. There is, however. consider'.it -
overlap between the sections in respect of the subject matter coverage. For exalnpl,
aspects relating to draught animals are repeatedly mentioned in Parts 2. 3, ancl -
Likewise. weed control is mentioned in Parts 2 and 3. Notions such as rainfall availabrlit..
as a cardinal determinant of farm operations run throughout the tert. This is perhap.
understandable in a multi-author (?) cornpilation. The different literary styles and the
conflicting ideas about aspects such as fbrest conservation presented in the text alsrr
irnply that the material was presumably compiled over generations.

The language is generally simple and elegant, but at places shrouded in ambiguitr.
There are apparently some errors too in the text. The syntax followed is 'old'Malaytrliint
language with a rnix of many Sanskrit and some Tamil words. About the geographical
fbcus of the book, although Mula,-alam descurt has been mentioned at several places.
"your lands" in the text probably ref-er to the erstwhile principalities of Malabar and
Cochin. Nevertheless, aspects relatin-e to Venctd, Pandy, and Thulu have been described
in the book.

The supposedly three to four or more centuries-old poetry gives many insights into the
agricultural practices including the varieties and tillage practices of an anay of field
crops. vegetables. fi-uits, and nuts, besides the draught animal production systems. Several
of the practices described in Krishi Gita can be interpreted as examples of today's
sustainable/organic agricultural production techniques. implying their contemporary
relevance. Also there has been some early reference to Krishi Gita in the literary works
of the late 19'r'or early 20'h century also. For example, Dr Herman Gundert in his
Malayalam-English Dictionary, which was tlrst published in 1872, made a reference to
"KrishiPcrttrt" (syn.of KrishiGita);yetanotherearlyref'erenceisMenon (1912).Another
version of Krishi Gita is also available (see Gangadharan, 2004).

Written in appreciatiort of the ancient and extraordinary work of one or more anonymous
authors, the purpose of this transla.tion is to acquaint the readers with the original work
which deals with the traditional knowledge of people in Kerala on farming, as well as
their deep insights, which probably runs parallel to, or even ahead of, the developments
elsewhere (e.g., Europe). Nevertheless, it is difficult to make linr interpolations between
the contents of Krishi Gita and other texts on these aspects in view of the problems in
dating the origin of Krishi Gita. It is, however, hoped that the intbrrnation contained in
Krishi Gita will be used to further advance the knowledge base of our agriculture.
 Krishi Gita (Translation): Agricultural verses

'* r rrocation
. . , Lrrrd Vishnu, his consort Goddess Lakshmi, and Lord Ganapathy! Be
, ,r' iree fiom impediments ! Salutations to the great Teacher (Guru) !

-. -, ,1d Hindu ritual to worship Lord Ganapathy, the remover of all impediments,
-, r'i.ctl teacher, before ernbarking upon any new venture.l

- cs t-l

-ri{a\.&rirrra, O Rama, son of Jamadagni, Rama the wielder of the holy hatchet!
-r
.
,*htr Rama, noblest in the Bhrigu clan, and the offspring of Renuka, O God full
'
" tas:ion ! Hail the most famous among the many disciples of Lord Shival Hail the
.
- ,,1' Karthaveerarjuna! The splendor of earth, hail You renowned Lordl

- nes 8-21
: r)f the land (Brahmins) who never get contented with alms of land, after extolling
-.
- rrtues
. of Lord Rama thus from the great temple of Gokarna, ended their grief and
--..:red Him. They repeatedly bowed to Rama and prostrated on the ground. The revered
:..,:ra. sitting in the supreme bliss of deep meditation, when slowly lowered His mind,
, :-.r;h was blended in the glorious rhythm of sound, and looked down, saw the afflicted
,: rrf Brahmins. To the grievously looking Brahmins, the son of Renuka thus spoke.

Lines 22-27
' .\ren't you performing the Vedic rites such as prayers and offering holy materials to the
.acrificial fire, etc. with compassion? Aren't you happy now? It is a matter of great
\urprise that you all came to see me. Be sure that the fondness I have towards you will
never diminish."

Lines 28-39

On hearing the words of Parasurama, the Brahmins replied: "It was amazing hor.r, You
haveki11edthemanybravekings(Kshathriyas),createdthisearthafterremor.ingoCean.{A
and distributed it to the Brahmins in expiation of the killings. And Your Majestl,
"'"
ffiWj,
39TT
,l
us this land of Kerala, which is a much better means to happiness than the he., -

What else happiness is needed beyond this? Yet the simpletons that we ar'e . il.,
submit some follies before you?"

fl-egend is that Parasurama brought Brahmins into this country from the north.
bestowed the land upon them to expiate the slaughter of Kshatriyas. In Sansklit.
word Keralo means, 'the land added on', which is both mythically and geoJo-ric.,
true of the origin of Kerala.l.

Lines 40-50
"In the interminable space that Y<rur Highne ss has given in this universe, you have se1. -

willingly instructed us solely on what is just and unjust. Be kind enough also to corTtnlurt-
on the names of different grain crops, the tubers and fruits for the blessed, with ther:
optimal time of sowing and planting, besides the techniques for proper cultivation.
What other means of subsistence do we have?"

Lines 51-68
Bhargava on hearing the submission spoke again cheerfully: "lt is very good that you
have thought about this and yoll may hear and learn about it now. Atter paying reverence
to the lotus-feet of rny Teacher (Guru), I will systematically describe these things. You
may now listen to the names and other details keenly and withor-rt fear. Indeed, all the
very old seeds (varieties) have now disappeared beyond recognition (became extinct).
The 'brutal' seeds ofthese days are sure to cause certain cutaneous diseases. Ofcourse,
there are clear distinctions between Kerala and outside areas for everything. O Brahmins,
most of the diseased seeds (malady-causing crop varieties) are from other countries.
Fruits and tubers, together with the diff-erent kinds of edible leaves, will make this
(text) excessively Iong."

Lines 69-89
Seeds [of rice (Oryz.ct scttit,ct)) suitable for different types of lands (see Appendix 1):

Every one of you may sow the seed (=cuhlyar) Kamadaru with pleasure. Sow the seed
MukinaveluthcLwith full confidence and Girikashala is also appropriate for your lands.
Avoid sowing the highly reputed seed Cheruvirlz (which ripens in a short time) and the
much-celebrated Dandan seed. With regard to the yield of the seed Vettut:eli ecrri, there
is no cause for anxiety, and so is the corpulent Churunakaril,-an. Both these seeds are
the same fbr the members of the society. Rumours about the performance of the seed 'lr 1-

Wt:lutkcLnnaz is also increasing in these places. The demand for the seed Vellachenellu h-\*,-
'il, {x. 'f

h:r
l,

I
 pret'er to cultivate a seed
called Sampatholan'
- :'.irlr r ielding too The rich
state of Karnataka), all
_,
_r, jr ( norrhern ,rn,
, oi r..uto and the adjoining
' '-,
.-..rn-,i,lated before sowing in the field'

iC*105
cultivars) grown in Kolanadu (=north Malabar)'
- . ' the seecls (varieties or good for Virippu (first crop
called Chet'rnellw is
:r',.ir tlepetrcl on' A seed Karirtchenn'elln
gives very trigtr yietAs' Both
- \lrir to August) and certainly gra\ns' Krtzhiioto" seed is mostly sown in the
'i:tr har e absolutely spherical plague of
t"ili"'''n'i' i''*n' it aoes not suffer from any
- ,.rtrcls. lf Vella It'otn ponnorv*atr zrd Kazhctma are very good for human
=--riirLts maladies)' i.e., from September to
December)'
_ ro.. ForMunclakalr season (second crop,
A seed called
for cJivation everywhere'
. .: r' .{r-rAfti rall seed, which is suitable
j,ui should be sown well by all leading individuals'

res 106-121
particularlr. u*u1]nr.11,].T.,1,.,1:1"":,'-|,,}["r:tffi
-::tl namecl ortrticriv-cntis
',ill;ilil;il;;,i'vatethJva/il:i::"j]:1::T:[3J,:
;lJ:[1,"Jiff
. :lli.i\ gl
jil:Jij1:JJ:'J1ffi;'^:';;;;;;'" jh::f:::':j:::::ig",Tl'ji;
l" i i )il}i3.)llTilT ;;;:;;
,,;11:
;;;; ""* :: :::,rT1",1. H JJ l'l :
,,
*,":':"?T-1*:Y^'J,Ri:[1,T,
"'
tl:
,",:,f*',"i',!J!!';;"1";"';#;:;;'i*'ii'.
:l:il"i'ff::;:;:;xTi,"",-ii'i";:l"ll*:::li'f
legendary Malav'*ttaurrtuLLtL"-:':"'- -;__:_
tn
?:;1,12:";:;:;:;,':i
Kolanaa ttr. Kodanellu can
t-ttt" *ltt certainly perform
r' 'e edS described "i'.:.:.tlll
and it never causes anguish'
.r)\\'n in the mountain passes'

Lines 122-139

and'Kali'All should sow

iarlrgladtoexplaintheseedssowninthemidlandregion(Etlcmadtiwithelegance.
then V.rrippw' Kaziamo'
fo'ippoii'-Aryan'and
These includ
" t",iary*ss' The seecls of Koz^it'ola
\ orta,, Mundapa,i,
^;;;;r;r,rraft"r.hecffi't" seeds can be sown on
i^ in" lands' Unioubtedly' Puncha
.hould be sown *or"'i, "'" (.prmchiut*o ,"i"" to lowland
or puddled rice
ir-clrained ,oit, tr,r"" irr", o year
to March-April). The
besides a rice growing season: January-February before eight
cultivation, not show panicle emergence
KuttancLdar. ariety, if ;;# ony*t.r", will of southern Kerala reputed
(Kuttanacltrrel'ers to the region that is the heariland
months that Koclanen' if transplanted'
unJ io*tuna ricl cultivat;;;'
for its backwarers "'"* yields)' The main difference
(i.e., will p.ouio" assured

e\ can be harvested withoui anxiety

\-\
I

[.
between Cheppilokkadrm and KooyeLlakkctdun is in their duration. Mundukurtl.
Venpala are important fbr the Mtnclctkan season.

Lines 140-157
Mtrnclan is a seed from earlier times than Kurubctlavcut and Chenthculrcutit'cut '.
alsobe'Mtutthnisashorterdr-rrationcultivarthanKumbalovanandChenthctrntuttir.
The seed called Velloyothan has Lrnlimited yield potential. Kuritkoli has no hol
shoots (presLrmably resistant to stem borer and gall nridge incidence, which crrL.--
''*rl "],!"
hollow shoots!). The common Arikurttnrcu variety must be transplanted without de 1..
And the same fbrArr.yonrkali,Thcrnikctli, Chorancrli. andI/ztliyct choranuli. Athiyit'i tn-,-.
be the same as Ariyiri) should be sown earlier than the other types in the expan.r'.,
Vellappcrn nudu (i.e., Palakkad and Thenmalapuram regions; Thenmalapuram, hou cr .':
is not an existing geographical region now, but zrccording to Dr Herman Gundet't .
Malayalam-English dictionary, it is a district south of Palakkad). The black ErumokktLi'
seed is not a shy yielder. Any major diseases will not afflict the seed called Chittcrri.lor
sure. What should be said about the wonder of the elegantly yielding Kodcrkkctz,luttluut;
Vellttlcurinjiis pleasing and Karinkttrin.ii is gray-colored and shining.

Lines 158-171
Seeds such as Annoc:huntban, Nallanguchurnban, and the Chemc'hambut fctr royals.
Mang,amakkappan, Elinchcanban, andthe lrkkilochcmtban that made a mark. as well as
Kotltumbochurnbcrn should be revered in the Palakkad and Thenrnalapuram regions
(.Vellctpptut nodLr). The seed called Vettikkuttaclon will bring prosperity, if cultivated.
Thaloppilh, prmcll' and Chertt Ttcutcll- are the two seeds sown in the Thalt7tprl11,region.
Venkurinji and KorinktrizTl should be sown without hassles. Both Ktttti and Valiva
ktfiti are transplanted seeds (cultivars).

Lines 172-185
The seed called Anakkontban has its place in lhe Parampura lands (i.e.. for Lrpland
cultivation). Virippu is the seed from Thulunudn, which is the most prevalent for
Karappururnr Iands (means 'the land above' or uplands; sometimes used to refer to the
narrow strip of land between the Arabian Sea and the Vemabctnad lake in Alappuzha
district). Chettarycut and so Mctnalon,an, as well as the all embracing Kartt knruvct
lKarrfihcr kurttvcr in another version] besides rhe Kuruva seed are ideally suited for the
midland regions; you may understand. Af ini is always suitable for the Mtndakan l.ands.
Both Athb,on and Cherit,orathi.van will certainly give superb results. All these can be
sown in the lands called Kcu"appuram with confidence.

l
 ',*'s ' Ab-1 97

._:.;r.ibe the seeds sown in Ktfitanoclu one by one, which you may listen.
. P,,lArr/l ancl Clterupokkali should be sown appropriately. Those who sow
.-r.11: \\il1 never experience povefiy. Transplantingthe Karikkarl seedlings

' "iultletl prosperity' Kutturyan and Chuvcutnary)on seeds are most suitable
i t-.tt trrrd VennelltL, which are said to be the most famous seeds
for Kuttcmadan
'-:.i rt Citr be cultivated without hassles'

- -es 198-213
..;t.tlplandsinVeltcmatlu(Vencld),therulingseedisPundy.Therobust
.. ,.,:ttrltcut is another preferred seed in the venanoda region. Under dry sown
the Kolcnaz,ha seed is sown. The seed calledVellakkuttadan
is suitable
r.. nrostly
.l.'ti at'eas. Seethtrblngamseed should not be sown in the cold, dull regions with
, with ease in areas where Sheetha'
Lrltl also be: SeetlrcbhogcLLrz should not be sown
. ,L1et)' is grown!). The seed called IJzhuthuvirarrl should
be dry sown following
- -
. . J :r1rr\\ring.The shorl-duration Edcrkkwruva also should be sown in the same manner'
and Pandy regions
_ ., .rr.c seeds, which generally perform very well in the venanadu
- . ,,i present-day Kerala and Tamil Nadu, respectively)'

Lines 214-241
- :.r. tlescribing the seeds venanatltr, let me now nar:rate the seeds used in the
for
people there eradicate poverty'
- _:hborir-rg countries. By sowing a seed called Kar,the
the world'
,. ,ren cat-efully; a seed namely Vasattcmt is famous and shines throughout
: tirrtbc^,tt, Mtilakuchantbat,u,ancl the delicious Chirukacharnbat'u are the three kinds
the world'
:' .eed highly liked by the royals; their reputation is spread throughout
is a seed
Ihr ee crops are possible if these varieties are properly sown or planted. There
,.rl1ecl Kalkantn(ryan, which brings happiness, and so is l/ivlll. The short-duration
pttttttkaru will also give good yielcls in two crop lands without fail. The seed called
Krtrrtkttnruchambattt has golden-colored grains, which is amazing'
Vellamkaru and
are embraced
.\lelttmkaruare seeds witkrhigh yield potential. Puz.hukuchombavu seeds
is another
by the brave kings. The seed called Chembala is also like that; Poombala
problems' The seed
name. Those who sow Maclakkaruwill never experience financial
called lrkilichambt|u is thought to be fit for offering to the Gods.

Lines 242-253
is grown' the cultivar
In the northem lands of Kashmir, an incredible cultivar calle d Matha
namely Orikkole if sown once gives three robust crops a year (i'e'. ratooning)'
r

Vyazhoycrtton yields like this round about 36 times. If re-sown, it is enough for irn
12 years. It is hard to believe that it resprouts and grows upon itself in this manner
seed types so described may be sown by a1l of you without hesitation. .,lffiilIlltlitlttti t,rn''

lffitltttttlrr,,".

Lines 254-271 lffiuttlirrrrri,;ir '' "

rwllllliilll|P I

In your territory known as Malayalam de,sam (present-day Kerala), of'ten it ntar ',. ,ll{,.,1111;, "r,-
possible to grow some of the nay,odhcuz-va^s [nine grains: wheat (Triticum spp.). n-;
lirlurnrrr :
(Or r-zcLscttiva). red gram (Cajarut,s cajan; pigeonpea), green gram (Vigna radicLlctntn':.: "ii:
'IliltilIilI',:-
bean), Bengal gram (Cicer cLrietinum; chickpea), beans (Pftasectlus vulgaris), sesanr:
(.Sesamum indicuni), black gram (Vigrtct nrungo'), and horse gram (Dolichos wtiflonts ''.
sriliGs
However, navodhanycrs are widely grown outside. Listen, how wonderful are the sesanrr
and other wild seeds. There is a type called Karellu and what is tamous in the coastr. lL ri.
regions is Pattellu. In our native lands, it is mainly Panikkuduppan; then hear about ; i::

KuttanudcLn ellu.The sesame type called Go,sandi if cultivated inThuluncilz (Karnataka,

will alleviate calamities. You should know there is a type called Vayalellu, which is
suitable for cultivation in the paddy lands. The ornate grain of Vellellw is delightful to
the eyes. Both large (Valiellu) and small (Cheriellw) sesame are superb for human scalp
application.

Lines 272-283
*mes 3l2i
Foxtail mlllet(Setaria italica), black gram (Vigna mungo), cowpea (Vigna unguiculati)
including the tenderly Karimpar-ar and Chempavar, green gram (Vigna racliata), the
cowpea called Porumkali, red gram (Cajanus cajcut; pigeonpea) - both the small type
(Chertt thuvara) and the reddish Kothampam kotta - besides white mustard (.Brassica
alba) and black mustard (Brassica nigrci); you may hear about all these without doubt.
Kaclakkanni (a millet type?), cambu (Pennisetum typhoides), and maize (Zea may,s) are
also described in detail without grief.

Lines 284-297
L nes 3.3I
There is no wonder that Muthucholam, Aricholam, and other varieties (of maize) can be
grown without grief . Vellac'holcLm has prominent husks. Other types include the robust
Karincholam and Chencholam,besides another one called Velladampu. Remember that
Kurattakkambi is a short-duration variety, and so also is Kwthiravalarz. The high-yielding
kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculattua), cumin (Cuminwm cltminum; jira),black cumin
(Nigella sativa; kalonji), and white cumin, which is overwhelmingly present around
the world, garlic (Allium satittum), onion (Allium cepa), the robust fenugreek (Trigonella
foenum-graecum) cultivar VelluluvcL, chcuncL or little m1llet (Paniclun sumatrense) and
CheruchcLma (small type), and the tempting ajwain (.Trac'hysperntum ammi) are important.
 - r":-J I <'
rtttt(tttt(tt """':";t (sour)' Cltuvonncunarakkalred)'
':' r lttlrftib) \ nc' are Pu.lia;nr1r1kka
tvpes
"fe that k''-' well' the dwarl and robust
,,,fta fwnite) ...t.t,., thnllow).
..:'::.\i'1la""1''"'iirn(white)tn"ottnti:,'i',r:l:,ru::rnr,:?fl
,'t:,.:'#i;ilffi "1?:;l
:1:Jl,;"""lii**i[''::'::::KI1fi1,$?],1,]J;
';i.:T,l';.*ii:':iff.,[ffi';:::::,::".iffi ':';ffi ;lTilli:
,'liilill;,'; ),i $: ;' fi::T ;
ff :;" :'::'l'.-'5,ffi
*"* ;'*: xl ;ffi'xa
,,.."i;liiil,il,:il,1i;;:,:-i,:;"i;|':i;:l*;",},1::"),:',l.,,l:,i,Tl'J:
. tire
MalamParuttLtKULLw'
ir-tln-iacul,ltte
chickpea) flpes an"'it erukadala
(small) and
_ ,,'-.r.rrr , Cicer
arietinunl:
--- ':J Httrrtturt'

-,es -113-324

jorp rphophallus0,",""'r'tjojr"rltvp"t Chenaandcheruchena

.:----'Lrlistenwithoutridiculewhenthenamesofcropplantsaredescribedone
, I ,..nrllrr_f"*r* the yams \Dioscorea'sp'p')'
the sma11-sized
.. . r'v r'u*ol;;i;;'
likecl
Among
.. .,iiqr1 to'u"'"tin"i'*'**" iir.'i's' In taro (cotocasia
'i'"avl'tii':''t''Lu'gutD'Jto|ibundrL)'theshapely
,r,,. as well 'u"f
"r;;;;;; 'l'"i**""ir''"*''it
thick outer rind'
..\\ehavern"'*Lirrr"ldirgt<orliir'a*rrta,andthelthereisthemulti- tryp"having
' :.i \ cllrrch n"t"indtie ParcLngikizt''on'gu

1es 325-334
(Xanttrosu"'"
",""n';';;;nem'bu, Palchembu' and
i.tnr cltetnbrr or-cocovam
."":.;;;buor,coco,^*(::::.?::::i,,"rn':':i::;i'*'ol,*r',,:;T#::''l:
=,r,,,rr,r, Pezlta
ard Pezha tvnes' uy'1":n:,-T,.ll-,.
types' Kt'riltrcnettt""),,"'ilii,rruraker-an, rn" roundish
i.trr(ttl artd j. and the
(-rr,,ttLwaket;an,ur-,d
;J,. u. " - f: ! ri ^'ii: f"Y,"Itrfliii;,l um D o,, o, o
,. i, t t e ntb uare other
u
y ( i
"
1';i"":,';o*iffi:TJ1ffii'"-ffii:i,t'ffi?:,:;'i:;!::;:;:,:';1,^il1?']i';::;:
',\;n*;n';;f;,iliilf XJi:;i-'-:'i#',?,',,1'ilrn!,'i,:;,:;"'{)',f
a) ty pes M alit
(C u rc
:;;, i
um o d m e st i c
turmeric
r o.ft'i c i tt cile)' andthe
,t i b e

J Clterukodi are PoPular'

Lines 335-355
:
\nrong J;;;",1"
fruits, the divine
"
king
u,'," ki s Kadatr'
n g iis
rsl:ilil::iltr1;i::Hl #';::;:'
andbrahminical.
".111*:" lil;;.;""i"Ut.tOtvine ur**clctn, aTtd
'rrithpoo,an
" ariKadolipo!r-at1'".tn"l::",: ,mnnn.the splendid irir,
*11m,:r[f;i::,:;::,#i],nir::i#'i:;:;t**txl"!,il',,iil;"*
:*;;,tli::?l,fliilii,;1flff:T:1:ii:;*!i:l:m:::llnt':'^i,:;o;:i:,,i:,:,
i,'TJJl::iliii*:f.:nl^;[Iiffi ]]:if#lf l
ilJ'f#lffl:li'"li;f
;,:*:;l,xilfl a_rtut tlPL
|ij-ion ln the:iltil:n'-"ili:::::Tl3*;::,l,lm;ill',1;'ll','it'i"i;
neighboring
on
reglons, pe\an is a t-vpe of
rnorher one is ,."-,i,"1' iii: .t,*l;::::':?fl
?;
'iil,i,'"T'l!!I!i,.'",, d u'* nd ri
;;; ;;";;' * u a' t'.. ou' ,"0 -i.,ri,r r u n er r

ull* ;[ J:, i;J:i:' lJlJml[',):;Hl:

r

banana. Malavazhakkrz is similar everywhere, but the central core of its fiuit\ rl
stony (i.e., a seed fbrming type).

Lines 356-365
Diverse types of ash gourd (Benincasa hispida) are encountered, which constitur..
fascinating group of ash gourd-pumpkin (cacurbita moschata; SQrlr-r.r.
Clutrukkurubalcnga is a type of ash gourd which will not become gray. others inc,..,-
cucumber (Cuctmtis .scttivus) and the extremely juicy oriental pickling melon (Cut r,,
melo vat. cononrut) having types such as ChattotlLe and Chavathekka. Another iten
watermelon (.Citrullus lanatus). Listen carefully, it has types such as Venkuntnuttii ^

and Kuromathookko'. it is said that these are variants.

-.
-rrBE "l'l !-
Lines 366-372
Among the bitter gourds (Momordiccr charantia), the short Mundankaipnfrrta and ntanr
other types such as the long Kondakaipctkko are available. Snake gowd (Tricltoscuiltt ,
cucumerintr) types include Veppadelanga, Mundunpodelanga (short), the high-yieldins
Kondapaclelanga, and the increasingly white Kctngapuclelanga. Ivy gourd (Coc'c.ittiti
granclis) types are Cherukovakfta (small), Perrumkot,akka(big),andVellakottakka(whitet.
please bear in mind.
* 1'1
g.q {2#
Lines 373-383
Lime (Citrus spp.), acid lime (Citrus auruntifolia), pomegranate (Punica grurutnni),
and Vadukopuli naranga (.Citru,s pennivesiculatci) are important. How beautiful is the
Vallinarango? IllinorangaandEelinarongoareothervariantsoflime. Chili(Cctltsiclutt
annttttm') called Mulakum thondi, the long and bitter chrli (Kaippan ntulaku), the
innumerable small chili bearing Cheru mulaku, the large wild chili (Kattu muLaku), and
the not that hot Cheena mulaku are seen. It is amazing that the long bitter chili (Kcrippan
mtilaku) is called 'my own arrow'. The small bitter chili, large spotles s Konda mulaku.
long Kaippon mwlaku, and the burning Mwnclan Kaippan ntulaku (short bitter chili) can
be grown on your lands.
.C,: - -

Lines 384-392
Lines +.+<
Among the coconut (Cocos nwciJbra) types, Cheruthenga with small nuts and the exotic
cultivar called Dhrtatran (with more nut water) are popular. However, the coconut type Tit.':;
called Go*'ripathro, is rarely seen outside this land and it has two variants : Kcmnikkoorcut uhe:,
and Kumbhakudavan. lll |:l ..l
Lines 393-411
Thorny brinial (Solanummelongena; eggplant) types Cherumullikka,Valiyattu Mulichi,
\ etlinrullan vazhuthanagrz, and that el ongated Mullan vazhuthanaga areprominent. Pincli

.tt-,htihananga is as big as the size of a small jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus).

Know that Kottakkadanvazhwthctnanganever withers (long shelf life), and Kozhikkodan
,.
cr:hutltanaga is the most attractive on earth. Mundanpanni vazhuthananga and the
Iong-seeded Thengan, which is the prince among brinjals, are also important. Let this be
known that AlengadaLz brinjal fruit is about one cubit long (r.e., 45.4 to 55.5 cm). What
is most widely cultivated elsewhere is often the brinjal cultivar Nurapurvam.
Clrcnathandarz brinjal fruit often looks like ivory.

Lines 412-423
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) types are Bhadari korimbu, the rapidly expanding
Itlaikarimbu, the one called Rasadali karimbu,the juicy Surakarimbz, the bluish-colored
lleelakarimbu, andthe milky white Vellakaritnbu. Now we will see the glory of tobacco
(Nicotiana tabacum'): tobacco types include the desire increasing Kappari, Manneri,
Vadakkan, Madanandakon, Choppadan, andthe pungentPachapukal,ila. The type called
Paschimam tobacco gives happiness, and not surprisin gly Kizhakkan (eastern) also.

Lines 424-447
Among the southern betel leaf (Piper betle) types, Mukkanni is the best quality.
Kozhikkodan vettila is similar to Chozhamandala vettila in quality. Appozhekkodan is a
type of betel leaf enjoyed by married couples. Kuz.hikkattiri vettila gives no fetid taste,
even when over-ripened. A type called Kolla vettila stains your teeth the most. There are
different kinds of Njali vettila (leaves on short shoots). Cultivate Kodivettila. What a
wonder isVellavettila, which is widely adored inVellanadu. The highly repttedKongani
vettila,besides the most elegant and defect-free Namaghappathi vettila should be definitely
known. Chelatho vettila will not be damaged even a month after plucking it from the
vrnes. Vellayettila, which is from the area of Vellanoor is another type. Young women
enjoy the Chuwoorbetel leaves that keep off tiredness. We will not use the fully matured
leaves from young betel vines much.

Lines 448-462
There is an arecanut (Arecct c'utechtl) type called Thulunadan, which is creamy inside
when dehusked. Kozhikkoclcm arecanut will never transgress, even if harvested after
maturity. It is amazing that the arecanut called Ramanadan looks like cmtla (Ettblicct
7

officintrlis; Inclian goosebemy) fruits. In Vellunudu, Velldakka (dried arecanLrt). \\ i

delicately rinded is most popular. The sharp Edttnadan, the world famous P
arecanut, and a remarkable Aarankam, are strmetimes grown extensively. uhr
amazing.

Parasurama thus instructed the lords of the land about the difTerent kinds of secd:

This Bhorguvivacharita (Practices of Bhargava) is declicated to Bhargavarama.

End of Bhargaviyacharita, Part 1.

Parl2
Lines 1-18
A delighted Lord Parasurama, foe of the son of Krithaveerya (a demon), elaborate.r
further on how to can:y out the agricultural operations including animal husbarndry (th.'
rearing of bullocks) and other aspects of larm management. "Those who do not practie e
agriculture will have no means to subsist on etrrth. To alleviate poverty. theretore.
everyone should commence firrming as early as possible. The commodities required tbL
the coming years must be anticipated and acquired in advance. Raise the ground fbr'
constructing cattle sheds; the posterior ends of which should be juxtaposed to one another.
Mangers should be placed at regular intervals along with water troughs of diverse types.
Dig the manure pits behind the barns and equidistantly fiom it. Bullocks, oxen, and
buffaloes should be separately tethered in the barns, without clutter."

Lines 19-24
O Lord, who is utterly pure, Giver of supreme Joy, God, Lord of all living beings,
Shiva! The God with sun and moon as the eyes, one with a glorious neck, consort of
Bhavani, O Lord, One who has a swift trident, Lord of Mountains, and Lord of Gods !

By reverentially chanting the l2 appellations of Lord Shiva thus, Bhargavarama sanctified

himself and resumed the instructions again.

Lines 25-44
O lords of the land, all of you may listen with clear minds. Cattle sheds must be
constructed with horizontal and perpenclicular supports so that it should not sway when
the anirr-rals are tethered. Feed the animals continuously at night and look after them
carefully. Those who do not take care of the livestock cannot think of practicing
agriculture!Animals should be washed and bathed daily by all agricultural operators.
Plows and yokes should be definitely arranged during the previous year itself. Hoes,

I
 .. eling boards, solid bed-formers, plowshares, scythes, maces' and spades should
1er
.,r r.emain in immaculate condition, and so is, stilettos, sickles, axes, axe-handles,
",ro haskets. and other containers.
.. roLrgh some of these implements like hoes and plowshares can be construed as of
- -,.1r origin, the traditional farmers of Kerala certainly had access
to local variants of
-'.r. e .g.. the country plow with metallic shares called kozhu.f

Lines 45-58

ilte workforce is inept, that will certainly increase the monetary losses again. In
-:Jrtion. when farming becomes a passion, even the affluent ones may fall into
the
.-:bt-trap. For storing the harvested produce, a separate hangar should be constructed.
Tr.. landholder himself should pay proper subsistence in kind to the workers. Cultivation
.,:rer closing the farm roads (paths, trails, etc.) will lead to the decline of tillers' Those
,. ho cultivate after removing or pushing the farm boundaries will elude happiness even

.:r rhe yoncler worldl Men who demonstrate that they can do away with farm roads
.hould not think of subsisting on agriculture.

Lines 59-68
people who respect the venerable elders ancl having devotion to God are ideally suited
ior farming. Those individuals who are over-indulgent in bodily pleasures should never
look after agricultural operations. Drshonest persons should not tread the farm lields as
a-uricultural practitioners. lFurther] those mindless folks who consume alcohol in between
and during the course of the field operations should have no place in farming. Distrustful
individuals who are weary of reporting accounts truthfully also should never be involved
in farming.

Lines 69-78
Water is most important for agriculture; all should bear this in mind. Farmers should
fence the fields prior to sowing and planting at al1 times. If manures are not applied in
the fields, the sown or plantecl crops will not grow vigorously. Moreover, it will lead to
too bad or substantially reduced crop yields. Those who incorporate green leaf manure
in the fields will certainly get bountiful rice yields.

Lines 79-88
Men who downsize the fielcl risers (bunds) should be beaten with canes Lrntil they break
(exemplarily punished). Risers should be erected in the upper fields - nll should
remember that resolutely (a convention in which the owners of upslope fields nlake the
r

fleld risers presumably to avoid conflicts among the neighboring farmers). Ar oi.r
locations with steep slopes for providing water passages (gaps in risers). Remove weed.
on the paddy field risers during Virippu; and heed to the rationale for this. Clearly, the
green grasses will remove nutrients; do not think of this as an aesthetic measure onl\,.

Lines 89-96
Long time ago, after seeing the farming methods adopted by the sage Daclheechi, a kin-c
named Mahendrapala practiced agriculture until his death. Several location-specific
agricultural techniques are prescribed in Kashi Khanda. These can be narrated almost
non-endingly, so I am limiting the explanations completely.

Lines 97-112
The tasks to be undertaken during the summer season are courteously described fbr
your informationl After f'encing the fields properly, firewoocl should be stockpiled by
all in time. Whenever the firewood shecls are packed to their capacity, stack the materials
outside firmly. The fuel that has been subrnitted during the previous year must be drawn
during the curent year to finish that. Fences should be beautified (kept in shape). Increase
the l-ence height thoroughly by re-tying it with firmness. The gateposts ancl steps should
be properly set in the ground. Materials tbr the houses should be firmly plastered with
mud (i.e., mud worked up slantingly against the walls to strengthen it). Items like tamarincl
(Tamarindws indic.a) should be mixed with salt and stored.
Lines 1El

Lines 113-128
Sesame oil, coconut oll, Schleichero o11, genuine castor (Ricinus contmunis) seed oil,
and others should be procured and storecl in larye jars for a living. Cheenikka l-:, -
-eood
(Acercia concinna) also should be gathered; all these operations should be completed
befbre mid-March. vakcr (Albizia spp.), herbal shampoo powders, salts, and such other
materials must be prepared and kept in reserve. Mango (.Mangffbra inclica),lime, and
-t.-.. . ,-
without exception Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis) fruits, should be preserved
\.,,
properly. The houses should be thatched and repaired immediately and everyone should
remain comfortable. After that, make good mats of elephant grass (Ochlanclrcr
trat,ancorica) to dry the food grains. Let it be known that the wise people will Lines 17
conscientiously acquire all such materials and keep it safe.
Rair',.,
Lines 129-140 of \;.'
5to'-
Al1 the unused and big jungles may be, without doubt, burned and made cultivable by t\\ Lr l .:
removing the mixtures. The green leaves that are edible to cattle should be brought plac:
 *r
il
t#
f.iir,

where Kuttadcm (a
,, . , ieed rhe livestock. Complete the dry plowing of the fields
. : . .L:-ie rr ) is sown; pulverize the clods by smashing until the arival of clouds with
-.: . thuncler. fAccording to Vidwan C Govinda Wariar, another version of Krishi
-- .:;res that the Kuttadcm fields should be prepared without delay.l Let that remain,
. ntru talk about another aspect.

-ines 140 (second half)-160

- ,-erlain that crops nurtured in good times with irrigation are exceedingly gratifying
.:re mincl. Wherever water resources are available, everyone should therefore make
: ,r isions fbr inigation. Irrigated Colocasiaand other crops should be planted by digging
.. closely (dense planting). Plant eastern bitter gourd and snake gourd seeds properly
r pits. and trail them on trellis. In cold regions, these crops yield substantially less
.r.rits. Pre-germinate the brinjal (eggplant) seeds early in beds and keep the stock of
.::.1lings reacly (for out-planting). Seeds of Amaranthus types Arakkeera and Cherukeera
.:ould be germinated by sowing seeds in separate basins. Kandan keera ytelds well in
.re long run regardless of whether direct-sown or transplanted. Mundankaippakka (a
:itter gourd type) bears very well both during the dry as well as rainy seasons. Likewise,
L'rtrukcL(another bitter gourd variety?) also perfbrms very well. Brinjal (eggplant) should
he planted in small square plots on deepened garden beds.

Lines 161-172

An abundant supply of both channel and lift (e.g., using swing baskets) irrigation water
is essential (for summer vegetable cultivation). For cucumber, dig holes in the ground,
smoke the pits (by burning leaf litter in situ), and apply a slumy of water and manures.
For all these crops, apply copious quantities of wood ash in the soil and germinate the
seeds. Do not try to grow these crops in termite-infested areas, which would be an
exercise in futility. How fascinating will be the summer ash gourd and it should be
cultivated carefully and trailed on to trellis (pandal,s). Likewise, the cowpea cultivar
ValLithandan should be protected fiom water stress always.

Lines 173-180

Rains definitely occur outside of Kerala when the sun's position is in the constellations
of VrishchikamandThulctLz (mid-November to mid-January). If there is precipitation tor
5 to B days over a two-month-period, then it is regarded as adequate. Even if only one or
two rains are received in those days, it is sti1l considered satisfactory. In our native
place of Mctlaltalam (de'sani, the earth, however, is much more benevolent'
r
Lines 181-190
Listen to a tale trom Aga,sQachorita, which is described in the ensuing section fThis
anecdote, however, is not available in other versions of Krishi Gita - Vidwan C Govinda
Wariar.l Cheran, Cholan, and Pandyan were three valiant kings on earth. A11 the three
belonged to the south (peninsular India). They controlled three kingdoms and were
endowed with long life. The three confabulated among themselves on the problems of
eratic rains, which ruins the world imemediably.
Lrnes 221

[The dynasties named after Chera, Chola, and Pandya ruled this land supposedly from
ancient times until around the l5'h century AD (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Chera_dynasty; last accessed on 4 September 2007). The early Cheras ruled over the
Malabar Coast, Coimbatore, Karur, and Salem districts, which now form parts of the
modern states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The Cholas were in the eastern Coromandel
Coast and Pandyas in the south central peninsula. The Sanskrit word for Chera is Kera
and alam means country. Thus, the name Kerala or Keralam may have meant 'the
country of the Cheras'.] \a
!.1,

Lines 191-200
They all agreed that it is because of the lack of compassion on the part of Lord Indra Lines 2-
that the world is being devastated like this. As devotees of the Enemy of Desires (Lord
Shiva), let us now consider what we can do to stop this. One of them suggested that we
Th; --" -
5.i - ::
have absolutely no other option other than to do penance. On hearing this, the other
l\ ,,.. ,--
kings exchanged thoughts. As there was no better advice available on this in their '
.lnc ,'" l.
ref-lections, the other kings concumed.
inti:-.: * -.

Jirrt-.i-, -
Lines 201-212 \\a r. -:
The three unanimously decided that the one who alleviates the troubles of his devotees,
the God of Gods, the Great Indra, the ocean of compassion, mlrst be seen immediately Lines 2

with our own eyes. He is the creator of the rains and the God of fortunes. We will
relinquish the affairs of the state and entrust it to our respective ministers now itself. oL'::
\\ trl.: :
They summoned the three chief ministers, who were then advised to manage the state.
The ministers were asked to run all matters of administration in the respective countries life , :' -

in a coordinated and harmonized manner.

Lines l

Lines 213-228
After assigning the responsibilities of running the kingdoms in this manner, the kings
tt.
proceeded to undertake penance. The four cardinal directions were guarded and the
l-l\i
l',
j
kinsssatinatriangularposition.Renouncingthedailyceremonies,theybecame
irrto *t i.t Lord Mahenclra
was introduced'
;onscientious, and .l"anri their minds, (sensual
\11 the outer SenSeS in the exterior, abandoned their occupations
",g,o,,.a
pleasures)bythen'and-withoutgriefreachedinward.Becauseoflackofficklenessof
rhebody,theminddevoidofdesiresbyitself,unknowinglyandinvoluntarilyattained
the lif'e's mission, which is amazing'

Lines 229-248
Sirrceplaceandtimewereleftbehind,themindalsowasdevoidofthoughts.Thusthe
klngs,foralongtime,likethesageVishwamitrabefore,worshipedDevadevaintheir of
the chivalry antl rigor of the penance
rr-rind. for the fulfiln, ent of their mission' Seeing
themightykings,theLordcheerfullyunno,n."dtothecelestia]sandthegroupofsages
thus.Well,Ihavenevefseenonyon.worshipingmelikethisbefore.whatasurprise!I,
the Lord of Heavens, should quickly
,"rolr" ih" gri"vances of these monarchs and
from me' if
that whatever boon is sought
protect them. You may have heard everywhere
chosen.willsurelybegranted.Utteringthesewords,theLordoftheUniversewent
near the kings.

Lines 249-262
ThevanquisherofVritra(ademon),Lordlndraencounteredthevaliantkingsthen.
Saseethi(Indra),whoisbenevolenttothedevotees'Commandedtothedisciplesthus.
Whatreasonsyouhaveinmindtodwelllikethisdoingpenancetome;declarepositively
andwithoutreluctance.Hearingthis,themonarchswokeuptrompenanceand
immediatelybowedtotheLordingriefandspokerespectfully.Theonewhochallenged
Jamba(ademon),oLord,certainlywehavenoothersolaceotherthanyou.Whatmore
getting a glimpse of your Highness?
we your servants can have other than

Lines 263-266
yet no one is
on earth without your knowledge I
o Lorcl of the fortunes, nothing happens
worshipingyourHighne"'Nothi''gotherthanaggressivethoughtsdominateseveryone;
life on laritr has indeed become very difficult'

Lines 267-276
YourLordship,wehavelostourdesiretoruntheaffairsofthestate.However.withthe
compassionfromYourHighness,whatagoniesoneafthcanremainunabatedforthese
deeds, no one is tortunate nowl o
Sea of
kingsl Even atterp"rforJing the sacrificial
r
Grace, excessive rainfall, etc. causes many insurmountable miseries on earth. We, the -.rmE6 3,2'-
human beings and your servants, have no basis to infer that.

Lines 277-282
Be it so, today these men will succinctly describe all these (woes) to you. This universe
subsists because of the rains that the Lord of eight forms of matter (five elements plus
sun, moon, and AhcLm or self; Lord Shiva) produce. We pray that the agonies owing to
lack of rains on earth may be abated by providing sufficient rains for us, O the Lord
who bears the moon; O the Creator of Rains (Lord Shiva) I The kings thus told the one
who vanquished the demons (Lord Indra).

Lines 283-291 nes 345

Ll
The subduer ofPaka (Indra), after noticing the distress ofthe sovereigns, spoke again. I
will straightaway give whatever you want from me. Now let me know the way in
which you want the rains to occur. as per your wish (i.e., the prefened distribution in
your respective territories).

Lines 292-304
After hearing the kind directives of Lord Indra, the brave kings consulted each other.
How wonderful are these words when reminisced? It is for sure that nothing happens on
earth without the knowledge of Your Highness. Yet we, your servants, will present our
Lines 35
woes. We are greatly upset; the lack of rains has caused absolute loss of virtue s (Dharnru')
on earth. Rain now defies all norms; and the values of all commodities are not ascending .\i.:: .'
(symptoms of an agricultural crisis and economic depression). It can be said that famine- kir..; -:''
like situations are prevailing, and all these are happening because of our misfortune! :l.1Ilr'-
pr..1:
Lines 305-324
pI(ra..:-:l
Long time ago, the great and renowned sage Agastya created a hard mountain from
which originates the river Thalakkavery with bountrful and perennial water resources.
With that your servant Cholan today takes care (caters to the water needs) of the Chola Lines 3(
lands. The sage remained in the south doing penance (acquiring knowledge and power)
Chtri.,:. --
fbr some more time. The mountain peak, on which Agastya sat, became known as
Agastr-akooda. Because of the benevolence of the sage, water immediately oozed forming
to uti;--r-
the river call ed Tttntraparni, which f-lows incessantly. In Pandy nadu , sometimes Pandyan to nri:-J -

survives because of that. O Lord of the Universe, the righteous Cheran king depends allrl l- ..
entirely on natural rainwater. O benevolent God, please salvage us, who are aggrieved Oll tl'.r' : -
like this. ntcL-i'.,.
*res 325-344

_--:. .re irntagonist of Vala (a demon), was elated to hear this and the 'sea of
.. i.: thus. I will make new rains for each of you over four separate months. I
--:--:r.r procluce and Send rains to your satisfaction. You may have to do one
:-:re listen. Have minds with undiminished brightness, be virtuous, maintain
. :'-.ir'rn of law (doing duty), protect the righteous people, and uphold honesty'
.-_ ;r \ou and your descendent kings remain fair and just, Indra's words will
- .:r:1. I swear this by the feet of Lord Vasudeva. You may also re-allocate amongst
.. . :. the rains that I gave. After pronouncing thus, the pleased celestials and Lord
-,rti:hed.

nes 345-357
, l:..1 u ith the time-shares (of rains), the kings cheered up immediately. Besides, all
j .:.itilbitants of earth and its core elements became absolutely happy and contented.
-: iptrflsrchs then mutually divided the rains without grief. Cheran took Midhuna,
',:,ltrkct, Chingam, and Kcmni (mid-June to mid-October), the incessantly raining
:: -:.rrilt months. It was decided to give months such as Thwlam, Makara,
Vrishchikam,
-: Dltcutu (mid-October to mid-February) to Cholan; and the remaining four months
: rJ-February to mid-June) were gladly accepted by the Pandyan king.

Lines 358-366

\fter allocating the time-shares in this manner, they departed to their respective
,ingdoms. After a year in which the rains were received as per this pattern, they all
:rarted again. The kings who were like siblings enquired among themselves (about the
precipitation characteristics). A cheerful Cheran reportedly remarked that he received
aciequate precipitation. Cholan said that he had the most bountiful rains. Pandyan also
proclaimed that rains were too heavy.

Lines 367-387

Cholan then decreed to give the months of Vrishchikam andThulam (i.e.,mid-November

to mid-January) to Cheran. Pandyan additionally gave Medam and Edavam (mid-April
to mid-June) to Cheran. "The rains that I gave should be in between (the main seasons)
and it will be known as Erlarnarry (summer showers)." "Since I, the Chola king, am well
on the eastern corner, this rain should specially bear the name easterly rains (Ki:lrukkarr
ntazha).Often the clouds would approach from the east and thunder will certainly precede
f-

the rains. The winds also will blow from the east and the fork of lightning will flash
simultaneously. My rains will shower during the late afternoons (when the shadow is
about 5 feet long). Since Swarfti is my birth star, when the sun is dwelling in that
constellation, this rain will never diminish."

Lines 388-401
The Pandyan king was amazed to hear this and then he remarked. "The characteristics
of the rains that I gave today are the large-sized water drops with water bubbles and
hailstorms; water bubbles will be of high proportion. This precipitation alas will be L nes 3-2
most intense during the Rohini niattwvelct. My rains will mostly resemble the easterly
rains except for its direction." He told the Chera Perumal (king), "you are compassionate
to me, and I certainly have no qualms." And this convergence of minds of all was
incredible!

lNjattuvela=Njottunila or a fbrtnightly climatic unit; the 365 days of the year are divided
i:_. ,
into sets of l4 days called njattuvela, each one bearing the name of a lunar asterism or --

'star'. For example, when the sun comes to Bhorani star, then it is called Bharani '.,---,.'
, B:.-* -'
njattuvela; see Appendix 2.1
:\i --

l_ \-- '- -

Lines 402-413 \Lr_.

...
Since every one of us has fulfilled our missions, we all f'eel contented. As it would bring
prosperity to our lands, these great people certainly followed it (the agreement) up. It is
LL]!
due to the incessant showering that we all have the rains called Anali. Thiruvathira is
-
; -r-.:- -
my birth star. When that njattuttela comes, there will be heavy and continuous rains
during day and night, which will increase fruits, roots, and other crops. Saying thus, the
Lines 2r
beaming kings departed on a happy note.
f. \, .-
L ,

a..'--,-.
Lines 414-429 I Lll.. --'
\tr\\l'. ---
Cheran established substantial Mala,-alam areas to form a principality, which became ..- I :
ir-rti
known as Cheraman kalpa, or the land of prosperity, whose fame transcends the whole 5'[t-rp-: -
world. Since morality as a percept was created and propagated, he acquired the name tillle , . '
Cheraman Perumal and because of this, the world also got this name. I concur with this
and that everything will be quite all right. I also make a categorical promise that life Lines 3
will be easy fbr all of you during my time. Lord Parasurama proclaimed thus. Hearing
1l,t' :

this, the Brahmins cheered up, and attained supreme joy. And all led a happy ancl
dunl-.: -
contented lif'e at that time.
thell. : *
End of B har gav iy ac harita, P art 2. iuB;.
Part 3
\tter nicely ingesting moderate quantities of milk into the body, the paradigm for
agricultural trade on earth was described.
(D.
[lt is suspected that a line or a few words are missing in this part of the original text
\o. 298). So it is difficult to deduce the implications precisely.l

Tributes to the Teacherl

Lines 3-23
O Lord who is utterly pure, Giver of supreme Joy, Lord of all living beings, Shiva, the
one with a glorious neck, consort of Bhavani, Supreme Lord, one who has a swift trident,
Lord of Mountains, Lord of Gods, and the God with Sun and Moon as the gracious eyes
(Shiva)!

By chanting the 12 appellations, which reflect the essence of Lord Shiva, the wielder of
the holy hatchet (Parasurama) sanctified his thoughts and spoke again remaining there.
O Brahmins, all of you may listen with clear minds. A1l the methods of cultivation are
based on what the sages told a long time ago. Plow the light dry soils followed by clod
crushing. Keep the lands clod-free, and plow it again meticulously on the day following
summer showers. By working on the hard substrates devoid of moisture, however, no
one should 'kill' the draught animals faultlessly (i.e., ruining the animals by subjecting
them to undue hardships). Give not less than 10 plowings before the seeds are sown in
the field. Openings in the embankments to drain water from the fore-plots must be
closed forthwith and the bunds strengthened by packing it with earth.

Lines 24-33
Everyone should consider rainfall availability while planning agricultural operations.
Furthermore, finish working the light dry soils as early as possible and without laxity. If
sown during heavy rains, seeds will be kneaded with c1ay, and direct sowing will be
futile. In places where the seed (rice) type Odanchalu is broadcast-sown, nothing will
stop from getting unduly low yields. Remember that in the Kuttadan sowing fields, the
time of sowing should never be delayed even slightly.

Lines 34-41
Vattan seeds will not tolerateexcessive heat. Therefore, all should sow this carefully
during the Bharani njattuvela (Appendix 2). Sesame (cv. Pattellu) also must be sown
then, but it should not be mired in water. Mundampalll (rice) comes up well when sown
in Bharani and so is the little mrllet (Panicum miliaceum).
 Lines 42-54
Excessively sandy locations certainly should be avoided for nursery work. Those r'.:
do not know how to raise seedlings should never practice agriculture. Dead helr:.
shade-grown seedlings, weeds, and diseases constitute the four enemies of agricultur.-
Nursery preparation lor Virippw should also start during the Bharani njuttuvela and ...
the utmost in Karthiko: some may do that for the Pallinjal lands (the temaced uplanri.
used for paddy cultivation) also. Wet sowing is done by all in Roltini for livelihotru
security.

Lines 55-66
If the rains are bountiful, then agriculture will be flourishing everywhere. Sowinc
Karippali from Bharani (njottuvela) onwards will lead to poor performance during
Viripptt. Vottan and Mtnclappal/i seeds are certainly dry sown during Bharaniand, alas
at the utmost, into Rohini or Karthiket (niattuvelas). Wet sowing should not be practiced
anywhere inthe Malayalam (clesam) after Rohini.

[The ancient people seemingly learned to live with the vagaries of monsoon by predictin_e
rainfall occuffence as a flnction of astrological/planetary positions and adjusting the
crop planting in accordance with that.l

Lines 67-86
Varieties such as Parambil and Modan shoLrld be sown in the uplands during Bhorani.
Some farmers would sow Cherumodan andother similar varieties with great expectations
in Rohini too. It is said that Rohini is appropriate for sowin g Purarnban kaz,hama. Even
Mcilctvrtottu can be taken in this way. All should start sowing Arit:ari (Ariviri?') with
care in Blrurani. Always nursery should be raised separately in Bharoni or Kcrrtltika for
the Virippu (season). The seed called Virippu is of longer duration than Ariviri.In general,
both under direct sowing and under transplanted situations, Ariviri gives similar yields.
Taro, elephant-foot yam, sugarcane, and the like should sprout well befbre Rohini.
Sometimes wet sowing is done towards the end of Edavarn njattuvelo for OdukkcLthu.
Considering all aspects, sowing is done in Makoyiram (njattuvela) for the seed (cultivar)
called Valfiathu also.
'13i
Lines
Lines 87-110
if u:r:r. '
For Virippw and other similar cultivars, transplanting should be early, without the 1ie id.
seedlings ever getting over-aged. Transplantin g the Virippu crop may extencl up to the sllb\tl .:. ''
Thiruttathira njattuvela in some places. Those who transpla nt Virippu during Puncu-thant l-t-ttlt-tl:.'"
niattuvela are awful farmers. All should sow Karimk lro nurserv in Rohini without ()11 tll... '

ffii]
$r
 .,,:rarion. Sowing Ktntbctlavan in MakqiraLn is fine as it is a long-duration variety'
- -. . \ltttrckrkctm pala and Kttdanerl, which are masters of Mundakan (season), and the
all Karimkwra
::1ost Arlfrk arcili seeds, should be sown early in Bharani. Complete
listen to the
.:..r.)-sowin g in Karthikct or Rohiti itself. All of you may assiduously
.-i ihar for Pallinjallands,virippu is the seed. when all the Pallinjal works
are over,
applying green
..:Jertake KQrimkura planting. Do not transplant'Karimkura without
r.nanure and this should be done at the right time for Virippu
also' Manuring is
.,ri
are yet to understand that.
-:,rrical for paddy crop and some farmers

Lines 111-122
Ttr prevent weed seeds from germinating simultaneously,
manures should be properly
germinate
"umed before application (wood ash application). Wild rice and weed seeds
Even if
quickly and in close proximity when direct sowing is done for Virippn'
tiansplanted, wild rice persists during Virippuin certain locations,
which is astonishing'
Some people cheerfully say that site differences are responsrble
for this, which may be
situations' When new
true but seed differences (admixtures) are also relevant in other
join together to oppose it' Listen, all
rains and seeds are combined, wild rice and weeds
other crops except these can be grown without hassles'

Lines 123-138
Lands which receive water flows from six diff'erent sources, viz.,
farm ponds, oozing
into the field fiom a
tiom palmyra palms (Borctsstts Jlabellifer), concluits letting water
groundwater springs
river, water flowing through manure pits, mountain streams, and
will certainly give high yields. In fields with har<l rocks, although one should make
sudden swerves while cultivating, high yields are probable. I am telling you now with a
lime deposits, some
clear mind that on lands without water springs and having enduring
should know that' So
other crops (other than rice) would perform better; most farmers
water is present or not' If
also are the parched fields regardless of whether congealed
rising rock ibrmations occur on either side of the field or even if
life-saving water
resources are available, the situation will not be different.

Lines 139-146
then the crop
If water stagnates perennially in the fields coupled with a reddish tinge,
currents and stony
yields will be adversely affected. Listen, fields with rapid stream
near the bar or river
substrates will never give -eood yrelds absolutely. Lands situated
lands and cultivate
mouths also will not give -eood yields. And those who acquire saline
on that should be called fools.
 Lines 147-152
AI1 should cultivate lands with a high relative proportion of sand and soil after addin,-
manures. Then in the coast-way, two cultivations (crops) are possible in the swantp..
lagoon-fields (kole) and wetland s (puncha) and how high yields are obrained, you shoul.;
know!

Lines 153-162
Chennellu (red rice) is most suitable for the kolelands and it will mature within three
months. Drain the water using Kolethoni (= a dewatering device also called Marathotti
in some places) up to a depth of about half a measuring rod (14 inches or 3-5.-56 cm).
Mud should bubble up at sowing time and then it will deflnitely give high yielcls. Make
small square spaces in the fields and sow the seeds in the middle. Due to submergence.
when endurance is lost, transplant the seedlings by cutting the seedling beds into bits i-ines 20$
and throwing them around. This system is, therefore, known as Vettikuttadan (also a
cultivar,
_-
see Appendix 1).
.:- -l-

Lines 163-176
Vattcm and Niavara will grow very well inthe kole Iands. In some places where coldness
intensifies during Punchu, white Njavara would excel. In the months of Mcrkorcun and
Ktrnbham (mid-January to mid-March), black Njat,ora seeds should be certainly sown.
So etlso is Vatlctn and it can be harvested in the month of Meclam (mid-April to mid-
May) itself. Kole should be protected fiom submergence. Those who have kole cultivation
may have to engage a relatively large worktbrce. During Thiruvathira njattuvela, it
Lines anc
LL-
sometinres happens that the koles are submerged. During the times when kole lands are
submerged, it will certainly be an enduring disgrace to them. ,-

Lines 177-192

when submergence is excessiv e, Kuttaclem will perish uncler water. Kole (arso a variety)
is sown without any glitch at some places whilst the sun is in Meclctm. In a place called
Arimpur (a place in Thrissur district), all these have been perfbrming very well for a
long time. For the puncha lands of Vellonadu (or where water is abundant), droughts
seldom occur. Ponds and wells with their fresh water resources may be sutllcient for
this. Waterholes, canals, reservoirs and the like, besides the nearby river water are
additionally available. Puncha is the best (season) for ponnarlcmherebut Kazhctma
Lines 2'l

may suffer fiom certain inconsistency problems. What is increasingly retumecl in harvests Yott:'. ...'
dLrring Karthika and Rohini (njattuvelas) from the inlands is the Puncha (cultivar). fl.\7r1;.-
- les 1 93-208

.,]-jl.Ilaill.TheuplandgraincropsshouldbesownwhenthesunisintheMidhunant
.. rJ betore mid-Kttrkiclakam
(mid-June to mid-July)' These should be sown after
..'.intheuplandsandadoptingtherecommendedpractices.Afterclearingthe
,. .rh terrific wilcl growth, ttre taimers should sow
the red gram (pigeonpea) seeds'
,.:r rr irh motivation in R:ohini, it will give a sterling performance.
In addition, if
--,1 ;-lud black gram are sown at the same time' they can be cut
simultaneously' In

.:li.ltlclswithprofusegrowthofthctkctra(Cctssiatora)andwherethewildindigo
varieties such as Cherunrotlan can be successfully
t', t\i(t
ltttrpurea)ptanis abound,
. It $,i11 also break fbrth in great numbers
in the wildlands wtth ccLreya cu'borea
'::t).Commonmillet(Panicummiliaceu.n|,fbxtailmilletandothersalsomaybe
n in the r'rplands with inspiration'

Lines 209-225
nSa,eo,whenatrue'honest,andpureman(Vellan)worshipedthegreatlndra'all
.:r.dscame(toearth)'Thedeceitfulcommonmillet,whilecoming,expresseditsmind
, \'cllan that it will not be present in those regions
where water is abundant' It also let

::ri'knownthatbeingadwoteeofLordVishnu'itwillremainonlyinthoseplaces
are consumed by the
present. As the grains
here the devotees of Lorcl vishnu are also
,,.
be excessively hot' It also promised
J.\ otees of Lord vishnu, its bocly has turned out to Since
irr iinger in the furrows where it is put
and would emerge only in times of scarcity'
Remember that truth causes everything
rr.uth existed, the seeds grow truthiully on earth.
ancl Truth is God itself on this earth'

Lines 226-240
(Vallan) to
earth, as implored by fhe tribals
ln the bygone era, when seeds descended to
with Modun rice at that time' after making
a
Indra. one of the grass species came along of
solemn vow. Even if separated, we shall
remain together forever' It is because this
Virippu simultaneously' despite the best
pledge that wild ri." uni weeds emerge with
affwed along with sesamel and so is
elforts to separate them. Likewtse, cassia tora
at that time. Having told thus, they remained
Cleontespp., which co-evolved conceitedly coquettes'
as companions. Some would know
that a little bit: sometime they remained as
creepers; even under the most desirable
Similarly, common millet is associated with some
them'
conditions, it may be hard to differentiate

Lines 241-250
(Lettt'tts
high stocking of common weeds
You may listen that sowing in jungle sites with
aspercL)willneverp,oduc"an.vthing.Alsodonotsowinjungleswhereagrasscalled
cheng,ana (Imperata cylindrica?) is present and where irumul (Xylia xylocarpct) (an ),F

indicator of laterization) trees occur. Likewise, avoid sowing in jungles where bamboo
thickets abound, and on rocky or gravely patches in the forests. If you sow in the forests
with many wild animals and also in the cultivated lands with a large population of lLines 289-2S
domestic animals (high grazing and browsing pressure), harvesting will be impossible. _i- -- -
r':,, 1' '-r-Lcii' :
Moreover, the cost of production will escalate. -"1€
,''-3liill] [:
-,-,r1 ri\.'
[All conditions described in this para, apply to the jungle sites where shifting agriculture
is in vogue. By the way, shifting cultivation was widespread in several parts of Kerala up -ce,Jling. ,re U
to and after the late 19'h century (Pouchepadass, 1995).1 i e li. r'. h:rr :he
ht dtr llr-r'i fi:
-,,.

Lines 251-260 Junng 1[3 -trf:r'

The plowman (Ary-an') usually faces five types of uncertainties, which I will narrate and Lines 299-3
thou may listen: whether seed drying is enough or not (for storage), whether water level
in the field is optimal or not (water management), whether the seed rates are appropriate \lake deP're.>

or not, whether a severely lodged crop will rise out of water or not (submergence), and manUre. 'in*i :
whether the yields are optimal or sub-optimal for harvesting. Undoubtedly, you must grains it-rr ct'rl'l:
u ho do nt'rl ki
bear in mind these five risks/unceftainties.
not think t'f :;

Lines 261-270
Lines 305-(
Nursery should be sown inlhe Mnkam and Ayillyam njattuvelas (see Appendix 2) with * h."r F
Those
dlan.If sown later than this for the Mundakan season, there will be no grain and straw u.ork u ith kr
left for harvesting. The small-seeded sesame variety should be sown in Pooram u'ould ne\ er
(njattuvela).If higher yields are desired, then sow the big-seeded Valiellu in Makam;
the t'relds .'n :
this will break forth in large numbers even if sown on gravely substrates. Opportunity
plou'the 1.*l"
for this exists in Ayillyam (njattuvela) also, whenValielhz must be sown with suppleness.
of bullu|.: ";

yourself- \"'
Lines 271-288 fire f-lan-ie. r':

For proper sowing of the nursery, it must be targeted to work the surface of the field into Lines 319
a slush. Let this be known that those who do not attempt to produce seedlings may be
called fools. Know that no one should sow the nursery with less than six plowings. Hold the Pi"'
Not less than eight plowings are necessary for sowing on terraced lands. Duration of (could ais"
the nursery is 20 days both under wet and dry conditions. For Ariviri,using the seedlings for crushin:
sprouted from the seeds shed while reaping will greatly increase the yields, you may different t1;
know that. If the previous season had excessive rainfall (very wet), then Ariviri sprouts and the tPnt'
can be surely harvested. For Mundakan, if inured seedlings (yellowish) are used, then it onto thern
may require planting more seedlings per unit area. Generally, three hills per cubit (-46 informari'rr
 on
. . 56 crn) are recommended. However, those who live on the fatms may raise it by one

I irr 3 cropped lands.

Lines 289-298
njattwvela (the 14'h lunar
,\rr1n is often planted with deftness by all Ilntll Clithiro properly'
and jointed, then they will not yield
.rsrerism). If the seedlings are over-matured
densities are used' It will be also wonderful
if the
re gardless of whether iigh seedling
soon after pulling the stalks at harvest itself'
If transplanted
.eecllings are transplantell
considered excellent' Those
iiell. when the stalks start decomposing in ,i,,, i' is again
in the fields followed by plowing
$.ho do not resort to green leaf manure application
clLrring the Mundakatl-crop should not think
of enjoying their meals!

Lines 299-304
dump green leaf
llake depressions in the field to a depth of -35 cm intermittently,
manure.andfillitup.Thosewhoarenotcapableofkeepingadequatequantitiesof
and those
scarcity season)
grains for consumption during the month of Karkitlakam(the
who do not keep enough straw to feed their
livestock during the month of Kanni should
not think of subsisting on agriculture!

Lines 305-318
or more bullock pairs do not need to
Those who plow the lands with ten-and-a-half
plow with two-and-a-half bullock pairs
work with knives and spades. But those who
to work relentlessly)' Pond water in
would never be able to llave the fields (i.e., forced
prepare the land for plowing properly' Repeatedly
the fields on the previous day itself to
level forthwith' control the head pair
plow the land by attaching the plows at the lowest
specially. clearly, you should plow the lands
of bullocks with aff'ection, separately and
yourself.Nooneshouldbeatthebullocksevenjestingly.Thoseevilpersonswhouse
fire flames to scare the animals causing burns
will never progress in the final reckoning'

Lines 319-328
thigh handles while plowing' The inhabitants
Hold the plow (.kolkarl) deep using tail and
Malabar by sea) mostly use buffaloes
(could also be translated as a caste that came to
by attaching a leveling board' They mount
for crushing the clods and leveling the fields
e.g., with handles, with double-edged blades'
different types of plowshares successively,
and the spouted. Strong bullocks must
be used fbr plowing after attaching the plou's
onto them *ith fust"r]"rs. Let it remain thus, now listen with care the foll0rving
information.
Lines 329-345
Retain the coconut bunches on large spreading ptrlms showing consistent performltnc.
for about twelve years (proper selection of mother palms) until they are fully nlattlrc
Then lower the seed nut bunches slowly to the ground and germinate the seedlins'
nearby. For plantin-e, make deep pits, put river sand in it, and apply common salt in th.'
top layer. Plant coconut (seedlin-es) with confidence during Thiruvathira titttltn'eltt.
On saline sites, coconut perfbrmance will be excellent. Definitely, termite incidence i:
a5 -'-
not substantial in those salt-al'fected lancls. Mature arecanut bunches should be harvested -
ancl brought clown carefully. Germinate and maintain properly (another version
says'

germintrte lncl maintain with optimal watering). When the incessant rainfall starts, plant
allthese.

Lines 346-365
Since the ancestral spirits are increasingly fascinated by the jack trees (jackfruit), plant
them in close juxtaposition [Hindu rnythology] (another version says: plant immediately).
For this, collecl fl-esh seeds fiom early fiuits, sow immecliately to augment germination/
growth, ancl plant them in pits made cluring the rainy season. Anyone who cannot cultivate Lines 3

arecanut palms shoulcl not pretend to be agriculturists today. The heavens are never lost
to all those who plant coconuts. Those who make delicious jackliuits are privileged
here, as the agents of the God of Death (Yama) dare not approach thern per a decree by ,:
Lord Yama. Those who plant avenlle trees now are sure to experience prosperity -:.--
eventually. Those who do not cultivate plantains and banana are absolutely imprudent
farmers. And those who do without palmyra palms will never be good.
a -- .

Lines 366-373
There are three types of palm trees, all of which the f'armers should tend well [oresumably,
Lines
the palmyra palm (Boru,ssus .flabellffbr), talipot palm (Cory7tha wnbraculiferu), and \i

todr.ly palm (Cort,ota urens); but no further mention of the types in the version of Krishi r.l . - --
Gita I havel. Plantain fruits of the cultivar KadaLi should be grown by all and entrusted
f'l
to the wise people fbr temple-worship. To adorn the deities, maintain ornamental gardens it', .-.
in the temple premises. Those who plant ornamental gardens will evade the eternal Tl. -.
cycle of births and deaths in this universel ihl r.';

Lines 374-381 Linet

There are nine types of masticatories, all of which are available in the .lanbrl islands. F.::'-
island of the Pnrunic
lJcmbttclvipcLor Rose Apple Island fbrms the innermost concentric
continents. According to Ptrrtutic cosrnography, the earth is divided into seven concentric
 - - J,-rntinents (sapta-dvipa vasumarl) separated by seven encircling seas' The
..:..r.1tS are stated as Jumburlvipa, Plaksaclvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kushctdvipa,

.ltttclt.iltcL, shakaclvipa, and Pushkctradvipa.l The human inhabitants

of Jombw
. two lines are absent in
-. and other places enjoy all the nine masticatories. [These
:h.r texrs: Vidwan C Govinda Wariar.l Masticatories (chewing) bring happiness
::e n-iinds of people. All those who daily proffer betel leaves will attain Lord Samba
..Lr\\ er of fearlessness: Shiva) easily.

Lines 382-391
, :-.;e u orshiped by theHindu God of Desires (Kamadeva equivalent to the Roman god
who are the
. ..\\ e - cupid), the betel leaves are cherished by everyone. For Brahmins
the betel leaf is divine. The betel vine should
-:i,rrreeS of the Lord of Desires a1so,
-i::ain united with Lord Brahma eternally (implicit message: handle with care, otherwise
r 3\ may rot!). Likewise, arecanut palm (betel-nut palm)
and others should be cultivated
abound on
_:iigently by a1l. There is no end to describing such materials (crops) as they
.:rc 1and.

Lines 392-401
\11 shoulcl cultivate Jadayan kalpam (a variety of betel-nut) and
offer it to the sages'
chili planting should be done with resolve during the Thirwvathira niattuvela. People
uho grow black pepper (Piper nigrum) will end their miseries in life absolutely'
All
shoul<l lead a life by cultivating the nine grains [wheat, rice, red
gram (pigeonpea),
sreen gram (mung bean), Bengal gram (chickpea), beans, sesame'
black gram' and
everything in
horse graml. I have now spoken with undiminished brightness about
Mala-r-alam (desam) (on croPs).

Lines 402-413
(neighboring
Now I will te|l you about the cultivation methods in other countries
The entire
kingdoms). Mostly tank water is diverted into the fields for irrigation.
wise people
pop-rlation of the Chola kingdom sustains by bringing Kaveri waters. The
regions say that one should not sow on wet soils with excessive moisture'
i, ih"
"urt..n who plow the land four times, will certainly do better; but sowing after
Those farmers,
three plowings also may not reduce yields substantially'

Lines 414-423
Farmers say that 2Vt para (a local measure of 8 or lO idangazhi rice)
seeds is
approximately equivalent to one kcrlam (a Tamil measure equivalent lo 72 ntorrtcrtl: see
Gundert's English-Malayalam dictionary, p.226').If one kalam of seed is sown. it rr.,, Part 4
yield up lo 40 kalam without hassles. Nursery is sown early after incorporatin-q -qre.:
leaf manure in the field. Those who plow with one pair of oxen (extent of land that cr:: Lrnes 1-€
be worked with a single pair of bullocks in time) will get yields of about a thousanc -. = ,1,

(kalam?) during one season. But after three plowings, the field must be dug with spade .,'...
{Para, idangazhi, and nazhi were the most common units in Kerala. Historically, w&ge: . "-... :
in kind for tenants and temple offerings and taxes were paid in these tnits. Idangcr.lti t'
an indigenous volume measure. Even though not a standard measuring unit these days. it
is still a common household reference unit to prepare rice for the day. Also rice filled in
para is considered to be an auspicious symbol representing prosperity. One para oI Lines F18
paddy = I .2 kg lll0 para = I idangazhi;1/+ iclcLngazhi = | nazhi. These measures are
\1ilJ3::-
made in wood, iron, and bell metal.l l-..iit.t-g .
.n ullo'.'. 1:

Lines 424-437 ) L'Jt !lll . [-

11 1:-
'p"l,
Ifthe four sides of the land make up 12 feet, then it constitutes one kuz.hi. This is the
measure of kuz.hi [the smallest measure of land plot equivalent to I square foot. Hundred l-\:t1'r'.'. - '-
illlC t). .. . -'
kuz.his make a kaani and five kaanis a veil, which is similar to the northern India's
CILISe: - - -
bighal and if surrounded by depressed lands, it constitutes the rice paddies! Farmers
htlltl..t- .l-.:-
usually plow up to 1000 or 2000 kuzhis of paddy lands (in a day?). It is imperative to
- '
ti-re pe :: .-

make nursery and transplant the tender seedlings of Karuvasanam (a cultivar). During
Or h,-rr': '"' ',

the months of Midhunam and Karkidakam (mid-Jrne to mid-August), mostly everyone of pi;,;l::..:'
cultivates with no risks. The crop will mature and is ready for harvest in the months of Nfalar.,.',.:'
Makoram and Kumbha (mid-January to mid-March). The seeds also should be sown Ir Sel.;:':,
without grief befbre the end of Karkidakam (Aadi), it is often saidl
Lines 19-l
Lines 438-455 Crop. "',.
Vedrc .,'-:
When water in the tanks rushes down following its opening, without fail secure the
astfolrr-i-.
banks strongly by putting support stakes. Let this be known that the honorable individuals
if plor" :r,:
will sow the crops early for the markets. Those who do not plant the Aadi seed (rice) are neYer ;.:..
inane, according to the farmers. Mustard, red gram (pigeonpea), cotton, and Bengal
gram (chickpea) are sown in the jungles (after clearing). Cumin and other small grain Lines 23-
crops are harvested twice in some places. Where forest cultivation is done, it is entirely
dependent on natural raintall. Having said these, Lord Parasurama retired and sat down. If drt '='
Afterwards the lords of the land who heard all these rejoiced and were all very gratified. intenll:;:-
to anrr::-.r:'
This is the end of Bhargaviyacharita, Part 3. the ttl.'': -.
 Parl 4

* nes 1-8
: ,,' lrr-r is eternal, with pretty hair, intoxicating like the honey-wine, O Lord Vishnu,

- ,rc' u'ho finds delight in the soul of the universe and attains happiness in incense,
..- r:.i to the devout; O the Lotus-eyed, You give Salvation, O Lord Vishnu, You are the
:L'r\ ading Lord in dark hue. Reciting these names, Bhargavarama spoke to the
:r :-::rrnlns who settled after renouncing their desires.

t-ines 9-18
.:rr;e the seasons are changing, all should be cognizant of the times. People of the
"-.1rns class (Kshathriyas) must particularly heed to this. Furrows made at night will be
.:r.,llorv. If sowing happens during night, then crop yields will be abysmally low in that
.:'.r:on. Know that the forests should not be f'elled. even in times of distress. Rice seeds
. ,\\ n in the furrows made during vishti mtst be reckoned as losses.
\:trologically, vishti is one of the nine causes of inauspicious hours. That is, vishti is
,ne of the 7'r' moveable karanams or the 11th constellation of the lunar fortnight; other
-alrses of inauspicious hours include Gulikun, a demon or the son of Satum; the hot
hours of the day; the bad hours in every 'star' (four Indian hours or naz.hikas per star);
rhe perilous times in the first 15 stars; ekorgalam; Sarpasiras or dragon's head; ladam
r)r horse shoe; and Vaithrutham (the sun and moon aligned in the same ayana or course
trf planetary movement). For more information on this, the reader may consult a
Malayalam astrological calendar; http://www.jyothishadeepthi.com last accessed on
12 September 2007.1

Lines 19-22
Crops will not yield well if cultivation has been initiated in the zodiac signs (.rasi in
Vedic astrology; Appendix 2) under the spell of Gulikan (a 'shadowy' planet in Kerala
astrology, not visible in the galaxy and it is also not found in other systems). However,
if plowing started during the auspicious times of Vrishchikam rasi, then the crop will
never fail.

Lines 23-40
If dry sesame is sown on Fridays, it is sure to fail entirely, but Wednesdays are
intermediate for dry-sown sesame; the seers proclaim this explicitly (Thursdays accordin-u
to another version of the manuscript: Mdwan C Govinda Wariar) ! Saturdays are alu,ar,s
the most auspicious for sesame, the sages declare this also unanimously. Wednesdavs
are also trouble-free and it is most applopriate for the large sesame, in my reflectit': ' -ll19S 39- t

Taro and elephant-foot yam, if planted on Tuesdays, will rot, decay, and perish. Li:ir:
oriental pickling melon, barnyard millet (Echinochloa crusgalli), black gram' brrn.l''
(eggplant), coleus, cucumber, cowpea, and chilies planted on Sundays are sure to peli''
especially if sown in an opportunistic manner. For greater yams, certainly avoid ih'
delirious Saturdays. Raise bananas in pits taken during the zodiac signs centerecl t':
Jupiter.

is intimately linke 'r

fAccording to the author(s) of this document, the crop performance
io the calendar days on which seeds are planted or sown. Broadly, the central planetalr
position of Jupiter is auspicious for agriculture, and it brings about all-round prospentr
this perceptiorr :i.; -l
the scientiflc basis of all these, however, is questionable. Nonetheless, -
is to some extent in conformity with the present-day concept of biodynamic fannir-rg. i .,.-." -

which again is somewhat controversial. According to the proponents of biodynamic .11.-.:.

farming, the 'biological' practices improve soil health, and the 'dynamic' practices .:I.'..1., ,
'
.

prorrot" the metaphysical aspects of the farm, e.g., planting seeds during certain lunar
phor", to adapt to the natural rhythms of the planetary system (Steiner, 1993)' Lines 73-
Experimental evidences supporting the stimulatory effects of biodynamic farming are.
however, hard to find (e.g., Jayasree and George, 2006).1 1r i, -.. ..

r\,t',.., -

Lines 41-52 tf;-l1l. l

i11'e.L' ' -

Agricultural operations carried out on the auspicious days and during the propitious- oi \./. .

toot<ing housei of zodiac (rasl) will be splendid. For planting coconut and arecanut,
all
l)rlit.
rasls other than the boisterous Karkidakcm and Medarn bode well. Fruit trees and other
f(r Llll -: -
crops planted here on days with peak moisture availability will f-lourish. Jackfruit and
other irees can be planted without impediments even on forestlands. Certainly, trees [n . "'.
and other crops must be planted cheerfully after taking meals. In the fbrest areas being Atttl .

converted to townships, avenue trees must be planted' Gtrr .:.,:.-

Lines 53-58 Lines 79

On the full moon day of Chingam (.,sithathithi'), all forms of life increases and brings
Dnrl:'. -
about agricultural prospe rity. [Thithi or lunar day is defined as the time required for the
1ir .',.
longitucleof themoontoamplify by 12" overthelongitudeof sun.Thirty thithis constitute
t-l-. ., . '
a lunation. which is the interval between two new moons, roughly 29.5 days' Thus,
itt-ti

A \irt','''
there are 14 thithis each between every new moon and full moon and vice versa.]
-

lll(11...
lunar day on which the moon is ascending, construction of residential houses can be
-

completed as prescribed. Astrologers, however, tend to avoidThttlctm and Makoro rasi,s

the ;: -'
in.Ll.
to escape from certain calamities like fire. fAnother version says: the astrologers avoid
--

those rasls represented by serpents, elephants, and crocodiles; Vidwan C Govinda lll(li . - .

Wariar.l Ye 1'11-: - '

-ines 59-72
..-,r tojrutctwidth and IOO -tojanalength are the dimensions
of aparo' which is a
' there will be
- . .:.rial measure. In times
when there are three paras of rainfall available'
.. .'rllcl prosperity. If there is
just one parcl,regardless of whether a large number of
four pcu'as ate
:- jrrl-rle u." in farming, (agriculture will be at a loss)' When
"ngug"d
.''lrlable,povertyonearthwiltbeknownaswater(probablymeanscroplosseson
-.-..t)untofexcessiverainsl).Withtwopara.s,watelwillbenearlyScarcefortheVirippu
.;'.ISo[.Waterwi]Inotusuallyexceedfolrparas,thisiswhattheseershavestated.
to the amount of rains received over the
pttru isa local measure of rainfall equivalent
(Para as a measure
.:1.1-a mentioned; much similar
to the modem measure of hectare meter
YojcLna is the longest unit of
,,i Yolume for grain is, however, more popular in Kerala).
Its length is calculated to have been
linear measurement employed in ancient India.
.ipproximatelY 7 to 8 km'l

Lines 73-78
to another during the vernal equinox
It is said that if the passage of sun from one sign
just on" po'oof rains' lVisltu signifies the sun's
r\tisltu) falls on Saturdays, there willbe
rr-ansit lo the Metlam zodiac.It is a
festival held in the state of Kerala (and adjoining
month
areas of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu)
and falls on the first day in the Malayalam
otMedam(April_May).)IfVishufallsonSundaysorTuesdays,thentherewillbetwo
or wednesday, then there will be all-
para,s ofwater on runa. it vlshu falls on Monday
round victory and rainfall will be four
paras'

flnsomeversions,ltVishufallsonMondayorWednesday,therewillbethteeparas. c
poro, will occur, it is said - vidwan
And if vishu fallson Thursday or Friday, iou,
Govinda Wariar.l

Lines 79-88
manclcLlam, it is possible to eafll a
During the times when vishrz falls in the varuna
describin g Vishw effects on crops and
livelihood by farming without difficutty. [In
animals, fowMatrclollo"ou""s-Agni'Vctyw'Vartma'andMahendraarerecognized'
vernal equinox'l During the tin-res of Mahendra
varwtaLs the westem course of the sun's of
and lhere is no doubt for this. The minds
manclalcun,poverty will be the punishment, down
the times of Agni mandalerm' water rushes
the celestial beings will retract during four
the vayormantlalam'These are the
in all directions when the sky configures into
falls successively over time during the
manclolason earth into which the lunar asterism
sign to another'
vernal equinox when the sun passes from one
Lines 89-109
Wariar']
fThis block is from
D' No' 295: Vidwan C Govinda

Thefarmersshouldthusobserveandstudytheseasons"andsowcropsintir:'
observe the prevailins \\ 1|'' _ 1eS l--
a rl

rains during the rest of the year,

accordingly. ro preaicfitre
patterns.Ingeneral,.,in,n..o,duringtheseventhmonthafterthewindsstartblorrinl
|ThuLam(october-No""*r,*lbecomestt-,"s"u"ntt,*o,lnl1|,etlcun(mid.Aprilt'
,star, or the lunar associated *i,1, u fo*i. t1'at
nj,ttut'ela (Appendix 2)' it u i)l
mid-M.ry)iscountedasthefirstmonth'i'e''thenewyearstartswithVi'sfu'lDuringth''
"rr"'ir* counting from Tiulant (--Eclavom or May-June)' everyotre
cause rains. In the 7rr, *"r,r-,
oi:x".rru, this period coincides with
the
will experience heavy rains. [In most.parts which ottn'nt' for most of the nearlr
to nog"'j'
Southwest monsoon ''"o'on liune
3000mmofrainfallreceivedbythe'tut""'"'yyear'Thesecondpeakinrainfall
distributioncorrespondstotheNortheastmonsoon,.o,on(September-october).These
with more
the wet season (June-october)
constitute
two monsoon seasons together stop blowing
every month in -o* to.utions.l If the air cuffents
than 200 mm of rainfall
inChithirattjttttuveltt.thentherewillbe,^*,a*'i,glheAswahl,njctttul:elcL,Thewind
thatblowslromTltt'Ll.cutttoMakortttt,i,p."g,ont;-startingwtthMetlcnn(April-May)
Afier the delivery
it brings r"rir, ,n" foetus of clouds'
andKcLrkidakarz (July-August), Observe the
is complete, the reJainin! ruir,
*itt o.."ur'*hen winds are blowing'
t'tnbha (February-March)'
blows au.inftn" :o days ot r<
asrrological day on ;i.h wind in the
astrotogi.ui-Joy from ChithircL to AvittaLn and
Rains will o..r. o,-rit-,e 10,n

succeeding f our months'

Lines 110-123
Letthatpause.Nowlookatthecriteriaforselectionofanimals.Thereareincreasingly
gravedefectsforttrecattlehere.tffearlesslyspoken,goodcattleshouldhavearobust It is
fr"r^, forehead; frfi, *i,f", horis bent backwards are better'
rump. Gaze at their -a
essentialtolookatthebelly'Cattterruithblun..uil,shoulclnotbeacceptedwithout
should never be used in
(i.e., not u a"rirout" trait). Bulis with curved spines
reluctance and soft skin are
activities. inirnur, with straight-and evenly raised backs
farming
increasinglY Preferred'

Lines 124-143
Animalswithsolidhorns'evenifstrongmayhaveg:-fttt:Longhoofedanimalsare
certainlyi,opp,op.io*foragricultu*r"p"'".*ns.Likewise,animals.whichexhibit
with ease' A.short and stiff bone
in the
not be
large rocking motions, shoutrl ".;r;
N"bJ;;;uld accept with. deference elephant-like
beny will ,rut. -ony frout"*r. dependable in
used for plowing *o,., .o'urr"* rr-torra not be abundantly
bulls. Animals
j;tting foreheads and short horns generally
agricultural operat;;s. itutts wltn -r"d;;;
have greater longevity. Bulls without homs should be separately coupled while plowing,
ii hich will give these animals greater endurance. It may be short-statured animals, which
is a def'ect according to the heroic people. A whitish uvula may be a symptom of 'poison
te ver' .

Lines 144-159
Animals with discontinuous urination should be universally acquired for plowing. Look
at wretched cattle and examine its gums. It is said that cattle with defective teeth-line
has the fault of becoming easily fiightened. Acquire enthusiastically cattle with mottled
skin. Always animals with excessive sneezing, dyspnea, and drooling, or that fight with
each other to obstruct (agricultural operations), and the cattle with nasal blockade may
better die than put to hard work (avoid such animals!). Cattle with well-fbrmed teeth
are said to fetch better prices always. For cattle with whitish head, no one needs to
examine the teeth meticulously.

Lines 160-181
BLrlls with blotches throughout the body cannot be properly used for good plowing.
Animals having slender horns may be procured regardless of their unruly temperament.
Bullocks that look like large rattan baskets are not considered good. Cattle with inwardly
arched h6rns are ideal fbr fieldwork, if they have robust rumps. The huge eastern bull
will not show any cheating at work and so are the increasingly truthful buffaloes. lf you
want to complete the fieldwork in time, bullocks with spotted skin should be made to
work rigorously everyday. Bul1s often have longevity of about 24 years, clearly proclaims
the 'science'. For buffaloes the life span is said to be around B0 years. It is said that the
bulls borne out of diminutive cows also will be stunted. The maximum life span of such
shorl bulls is 20 years.

Lines 182-207
Infertile buffaloes will be better (for farm operations) even though they do not bear
calves. It is the hump that matters fbr the buffalo; the teeth are damaged every moment.
It is certainly a difl'erent matter for the cattle, regardless of whether fed day and night.
If the animal has big humps, it will have great intrinsic strength. If the animal skin is
fine, then it will f'etch a dilferent price ['have high strength' according to another version
of the manuscript: Vidwan C Govinda Wariarl, and it may be hairy too. If hairy and the
bones are protruding. such animals will be lacking vigor, especially when thel' are
young. Healthy animals will not have loose dung coming out of the anus. Knou' that if
the rump is large and rvide. then such animals will have greater longevity. Milch butfaloes
surely have unbearable bodill, aches. If the animal produces dark-colored durtg. r ou
can deduce that it is not expeliencing any trouble. Know that if the eyes are lilled urth
r
rheum, such animals experience untold miseries. Animals, which eat continually. are
just whiling away time, you may note and animals with distended abdomen are certainh
an indicat ion ol- overeati ng.
Lines 25
Lines 208-227
Castrated animals to some extent will not fight with each other much. lf castrated at o1d
age, however, the animal may be exposed to several risks. Animals, which are separatell
tethered, need no special training fbr all these. Listen, the cattle continuously exposed
to the odor of dung may suffer from grave problems. Moreover, if it is buffalo dun-e.
then the odor may even cause mortality in cattle. If there are large cavities in the teeth-
line, the animals may not be able to devour fbdder grasses. Presence of awns on the
grasses, however, is a good trait, some people here opine. It is certain that if buffaloes Lines 2l
and bulls are paired under one yoke, it will fail to complete the farming activity in a
timely manner. Know that no one should send the animals for plowing at night. Increasing \,,,. .:',

sleepiness will make the animal drowsy during the day, and will adversely aft-ect the llir::.,--.
f-eed intake. L::l-. " .-'
utli - .-"'
Lines 228-239 b.'i, : . --

a(rll i.'.-' '

If the animal's feet are sprained, it is not at a1l good, and the work will also be greatly Ilrrl !,,'
upset. It is said that dark buffaloes, with long and stout form are excellent. If the horns lLtrJ it.
are roundish, and less dark, such buflaloes may be acquired with pleasure. lf the horns tlllr'il- . "
are curved, stout, and flat, such male buffaloes will behave most insolently. lt is, therefore, tfll- - -- -
necessary to protect the cows; the kings also should know this utmost. Thus discharged
Thi: l, , r
are the characteristics of the animals, which you clever people may take note of.
Be..'
Lines 240-249 pLi,:l-.J'

The agricultural seasons spoken here are certainly based on opinions of the sages fiom
antiquity. Adopt the agricultural practices as I prescribed and carry out farming without Lines 2

fail. Now you may all go back to your respective homes, and remain happy.When Lord
{P.L:'
Parasurama commanded the Brahmins thus, the lords of the land became happy and
contented and bowed with fblded hands before him. Lt r.l :
Si19r"
Lines 250-263 alt t:-
inr , ,.
The group of Brahmins with pleased minds praised Lord Parasurama who protected ODrr --.
them. Hail Bhargavarama, hail the protector, the destroyer of the malevolent Kshathriya enli,* r'

clans, the God who shields the Kerala Brahmins, one who was sent by Lord Shiva, one p1.-,,'.
who is fond of the faithful, guarantor of the world's welfare, O slayer of Hayan, the \ al'>.
worshiper at the temple of Gokarna, and the protector who rendered us the Brahmins
worthy and resplendent, You gave us the present status by qualifying us to receive gifts
 i ntost appropdate time. We the learned Veda-Brahmins have thus become wofihy of
:itrflor titd dignity.

Lines 264-275
per your
.- :he past, however, things have turned topsy-turvy, which may be surely as
.hl. It is both awesome and amazing that Your Highness instructed us to resort to
.:lltng of the evil,
lling oI ounng difficult
especlally during
evll, especially ulllruurr times wrrLu deprived
drru when
ullrcs and uvPr food' When
of food.
total devotion and clear minds, and bowed
:c Biahmins praised Lord Parasurama with
:iore him
^-i,-.a I ord who is the fbe
detiohted Lord
him, ao delighted tbe of the son of Kruthaveerya spoke to the
--:r out and erudite Brahmins thus.

Lines 276-295
\ou, that you have reached a comfortable state because of this, but listen to the eternal
(murthis). Therefore,
;ruth again. Undoubtedly, the God took the form of different forces
I am making this pronouncement here today. Earth, water, fire, wind, sky, sun, moon,
rnd man are the eight forces guarding the universe always. These forces pray and bow
belbre Lord Shiva. If you also with your mind, word, and deed, pray the Lord with
.-ompassion steadfastly, the Lord himself will see to the well-being of the versatile
hordes of lovely life forms on earth. Man comprise of both Jeevatma
(individual soul)
to
tnd Paramatma (t,ltimate soul). And a true man should pray to Him in his Jeevatma
anoint himself with Paramatma (God). To attain this state, they should bow before
the

true guru (Sadguru) with anguish and compassion, and considering him as God.

This forms the end of Bhargaviyacharita,Part 4'

Be it so, let the grains increase! Be it so, hail the great teacher; hail the sun and
all other
planets.

Lines 296-305

[Part of D. No. 295 or 297: Mdwan C Govinda

Wariar']
The
Lord Parsurama after commanding thus went and lived at lhe Bharga Mountains'
praised Bhargava
sages Bharga and others were pleased to listen to the discourse and
alone with affection. The lot of the Brahmins also returned to their households after
invoking in their minds the jewel of the Bhrigu clan. Afterwards, they reflected again
about the methods of attaining happiness. Salvation is attained only through
enlightenment. They were all pleased to hear this; and they all lived happily.
(All were
plea"sed to hear thii and lived haughtily forever or without enmity foreverl
in other
versions of Krishi Gita. )

End of Krishi Gita

 Epilogue
l-1\ tr-\'.-_
Krishi Gita, compiled at an unspecified time in history, summarizes the agricultLrral
practices of ancient Kerala and its neighboring regions. The contents are presumably a .,.-
, 11.1 -.
mixture of the pre-existing information in Sanskrit, and perhaps other Indian language . rnl lti \
texts on this subject, spiced up with the experience and observations of the early farmers " \
IatllLr
in interacting with nature. There was apparently no other or no better illustration of the Jr ttrt'. : '
farming technologies of ancient Kerala. Not surprisingly, Krishi Gita formed some sort c'tti. t '
of an ancient equivalent of the present-day 'package of practices recommendations for
crop production'in Kerala. As in the case of many other traditional knowledge systems, Itl r tt-"-'
the poetry style adopted by the author(s) allowed easy transmission of the contents i-1ttell.ir..
fiom one generation to another, at a time when paper and printing technologies were in Ker'.,,-,
non-existent. \L-\ e1.:l
aclecir.t.,:.:
The central theme of Krishi Gita and the thread that runs throughout the stanzas is rlocleit-. '-
increasing production in harmony with nature. Lord Parasurama, however, advised his r00_1, I

disciples to clear fbrestlands to facilitate agriculture, wherever appropriate; this is specir,l:' '
presumably in tune with the prevailing agricultural paradigrn of shifiing cultivation. abotrt :1 . -

Aspects relating to land tenure fbrms yet another f'eature of this treatise. However, this in Knr
did not get an explicit treatment, except maintaining the line that the land belonged to more 1l: -

the Brahmins and they conducted the farming activities. Most significant, however, is of Ke:-, -.

the divergence from other ancient Indian texts (e.g., Smritis) that entrusts the occupation
of agriculture to Vaisyas and Sudras (e.g., Ayachit,2002). This is not surprising in view Or.-r' .' --
lT)anl-t-:
of the Brahmin-Navar Jennzl system that dominated Kerala's social order in the medieval
to tlte :r'
times as mentioned earlier.
chan: : '
About the crop production practices described in Krishi Gita, the old adage "Take care Cl"oP\ -. --'

of the land and the land will take care of you", seems to hold good. In general, these Ser.-t'.,
traditional agricultural practices signify the innate relationship between humans and \\'e Str': l-

nature, and strive to perfect this association. Indeed, the early agrarians closely monitored land.-.- .
-
the naturul phenomena te.g.. precipitation pallerntand the production praclices were SUl-llIl- ':

adjusted to that. The emphasis was on optimizing productivity rather than maximizing it; KLtt-tt',: -
and never on over-exploitation of the resources but using it in a sustainable manner. ne\\el.--
attrib.-..'
Needless to say that many of the concepts and recommendations contained in Krishi Gita u'tth.,:'
were subsequently integrated into the modern 'crop- or commodity-centric' farnl: I . -
recommendations through institutional and/or on-farm research. Implicit in this is the o\ cl-a ' .-
contemporary relevance of these prescriptions. And the traditional practices are receiving Gitrt.
 . :.,r'rl scientific attention nowadays. Vedic agriculture (Nene, 2002; pp.8tJ-E9t.
, farming (Steiner, 1993), and organic farming are particularly important in
-, , l.rntic
. ...-\pect. Production and economic matters that were ultimate in the agricultural
- ....rpment paradigms not long ago are gradually giving way to environmental, societal,
..rcial concerns. "sustainability - meeting today's needs without compromising the
-
- :ir oftuturegenerationstosatisfytheirneeds-isakeyissueinalllanduseactivities
" (Nair, 2006). Sustainable land use practices generally combine the biological and
--.rr
:r.rnric agricultural practices and have the potential to mitigate some of
the negative
-
- 'r-.ts of chemical agriculture.
.- r iew of the increasing importance of traditional knowledge systems, recently some
,:.ie nlptS were made, albeit isolated, to catalogue the indigenous
knowledge on farming
l Kerala (e.g., Sreedh aran,2OO4; Prasad, 2006). The authors of such publications and
.:-\ e fe1 others perceive that the ecological rationality of the ancient knowledge system is
the
,,.lequate. Some of these rhetorical writings, however, go to the extent of denigrating
nodern scientific knowledge and eulogizing whatever is traditional (e'g', Sreedharan,
ll)0-1). It probably reflects nostalgia on the part of these authors - usually folklore
assertions
:pecialists. While there are many good things about the traditional knowledge,
including some of those reflected
.Lbout the rationality of indigenous knowledge systems
Therefore'
rn Krishi Gita have been based on conjecture rather than any rigorous analyses'
rnore rigorous and systematic attempts to characterize the indigenous ecological
knowledge

of Kerala are necessary.

changes in the
Over long periods in the history of land use in Kerala, there have also been
manner in which our countryside has been fhrmed. From the medieval
paddy cultivation
to the modern-day dichotomy between precision farming and organic agriculture,
such

changes were unprecedented and it impacted on far more than

just the production of
measure'
crops. Agrarian reforms and land tenure adjustments prompted this in no small
Several of the ancient practices were also substantially altered because of the
influx of
western agricultural ('scientific') concepts. Such changes probably transformed the

landscape of Kerala, and in certain cases, even altered the socioeconomic

milieu. For a
readers are referred to
summary of the recent changes in Kerala's land use pattern, the
Kumar (2005). The traditional systems and crop varieties also were displaced when
2004)' Yet
newer crops and cultir,ation systems were introduced (Kumar and Nair,
coexistence
attributes such as hatmony with nature, sustainable production, and peaceful
with animate and inanimate objects make one ponder about the value of the traditional
farming systems. ln particular. the present-day agricultural crises of Kerala and
the

over-exploitation of natural resources might make one hanker for the days of
Krishi
Gita.
 References

Ayachit SM. (Tr.) 2002. Kashyapiyakrishisukti (A Treatise on Agriculture by Kashr .: -

Agri-History Bulletin No. 4. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, lndia , : '
pp.

Gangadharan M. 2004. Agricultural practices of ancient Kerala. (In Malayalam. r I:

Krishfiide Nattarivukal (Sreedharan VK, ed.). DC Books, Kottayam, Kerala, India. p:
65-1 r. Sreedharan
f .rltlrt .:ll- . \:
Gundert H. 1812. Malayalam-English Dictionary. Sahitya Pravarthaka Cooperatit;
Society, Kottayam, Kerala, India. 988 pp. (Reprinted 2000.)
Steiner R.
Jayasree P and George A. 2006. Do biodynamic practices influence yield, quality, and Btrrdr li.:t:'.. -l
economics of cultivation of chilli (Cap,sicunt anTnuum L.)? Journal of Tropical Agriculture !p.
44(.1-2'):68-10.

Kumar BM. 200-5. Land use in Kerala: changing scenarios and shifting paradigms.
Journal of Tropical Agriculture 43(1-2): 1-1 2.

Kumar BM and Nair PKR. 2004. The enigma of tropical homegardens. Agrofbrestrl'
Systems 6 I ( I ): 135-1 52.

Menon KPP. 1912. Kochi Rajya Charitrom. (In Malayalam.) Mathrubhoomi Publishers,
Calicut, Kerala, India. 210 pp. (Reprinted 1989.)

Mohan Ram HY. 2005. On the English edition of Van Rheede's Hortus Malabaricus by
KS Manilal (2003). Curent Science 89(10):1612-1680.

Nair PKR. 2006. Whither homegardens? In: Tropical Homegardens: A Time-tested

Example of Sustainable Agroforestry (Kumar BM and Nair PKR, eds.). Volume 3 in the
Book Series "Advances in Agroforestry". Springer Science, the Netherlands. pp. 355-
370.

Nair PKR and Kumar BM. 2006. Introduction. In: Tropical Homegardens: A Time-
Tested Example of Sustainable Agroforestry (Kumar BM and Nair PKR, eds.). Volume
3 in the Book Series "Advances in Agroforestry". Springer Science, the Netherlands. pp.
1-10.

Nene YL. 2002. Progress report 200 1 : Asian Agri-History Foundation. Asian Agri-Hi story
6:81-91.

Pouchepadass J. 1995. British attitudes towards shifting cultivation in colonial South

India: Case study of South Canara district 1800-1920. In: Nature, Culture and
 Guha R'
Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia (Arnold D and
eds.). Oxford University Press, New Delhi' India. pp' 152-184'
Report'
Prasad RM. 2006. lndigenous practices in farming systems of Kerala' Project
State Planning Board and Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy,
Thrissur, Kerala,
India. 192 pp.

Randhawa MS. 1980. The History of Indian Agriculture' Vol. 2. Indian Council
of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi,India. pp. 414-415'

Sreedharan VK. (Ed.) 2004. Krishiyide Nattarivukal' (ln Malayalam.)

DC Books,
Kottayam, Kerala, India. 144 PP.

Steiner R. 1993. Agriculture: Spiritual Foundations for the Renewal of

Agriculture'
Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association, Kimberton, Pennsylvania, USA' 310
pp.
Commentaries
 CommentarY

B Mohan Kumarl

TheverseStartswithadistressedlotofBrahminspraisingLordParasurama.andseeking
presumably to
on improved farming techniques,
his benevolence and knowledge
overcomeanagriculturalcrisis.Apparently'cropfailuresweresporadicinancientKerala
(inSouthlndia),asitisheretodayl,"".http./1164.|00.24.208/lsq14/supqn/
of Krishi Gita considers
on 31 July 2007). Tie author(s)
squen.asp?q ref=,l.,tast accessed creator
expertise and traditions, besides
parasurama as the fbuntainhead of all agricultural
ofthelandcalledKerala'ThelegendisthatLordParasuramawenttothecliffonthe
seashoreandflunghishatchetintothesea,andtheseareceded.Thenewlyemerged
]andmasswasdonatedtotheBrahminssupposedlytoexpiatetheannihilationof
KshatriYas.

Notwithstandingthemythologicalunderpinningsofthislegend,itgives".**."1"-1:l::in vogue rn
times, besides the lancl tenure System
to the regression of ,"u in th" olden
ancientKerala.Geologicalevidencescorroboratethatsealevelfluctuationswere
CommononthewestCoastoflndia.Substantiatingthis,Nationallnstituteof
oceanography(1973)reportedlowersealevelsinthewesternshelfoflndiadueto
glaciationsduringPleistocene.Yetanotherinstanceofgeological'unh1aval]1+:i:
peninsularlndia,whichhasbeenmentionedinKrishiGitaistheformationofamountun
(presumablyBralmtagiriinCoorg)fromwhichemergedtheriversystemofThalokkallet.l
(lines305-320,Pafi2).ltisreasonabletoassumethatplatemovementsandcollisions
resulted in such eruptions'
over a geological past may have

Indeed'theearlyculturesidentifiedthecelestialobjectswithGodsandspiritsand
relatedtheseobjects(andtheirmovements)tothephenomenaofrain,drought,seasons, charted based
and tides, and it is reflected all
through the text. Agricultural calendars.
year), were used to
(measuring the Jay, month, and
on the positions of sun and moon regarding the
and harvesiing. AlthouBh,l:":..trttons
deduce optimal times for planting
mostappropriaten.jattttve-lasforcultivatingarableCrops,sowingricenursery,anddirect
meteorological
fields .ui u" rationalized in a modern
sowing and transplantirrg of rice
perspective,recommendationsconcerningidealdaysforcertainfarmoperations,based
some extent questionable'
on port"na, and beliefs, are to

Kerala 680 656,

(KAU), College of ForestrY' KAU PO' Thrissur.
1. Kerala Agricultural Universtty Kerala, lndia
Nadathara, Thissur 680 751.
Inclia: Present address: No -18 . Pushpiivihar'
(email: bmkumar'kau @r gmail com: bmkumar@ufl.edu)
Geographical focus of the book Itncl c1Lt.,.

landt'1u."
Although the overall fbcus of the book is Malal,ctlam clesom (mcrlcL = mountain + alcurr edapho- -
= kingdom together meaning 'the living/inhabitants of forest kingdom'), "your lands" ClOP:a-'-
mentioned repeatedly in the text may be the erstwhile Cochin and south Malabar (Calicutl Signiir. -.

provinces, as the practices (including cultivars) described in the book show a close insect tr..'.'
linkage with these regions. Nevertheless, both these locations are not explicitly named beeu u'; -.

in the book, yet frequent ref-erences have been made to the adjoining areas such as Tltckk,; -

Kolanadu, Velappcut nudu, Venanadu, Pondv, and Thulu. The focal area of the book. Orpttit.i
therefore, can be regarded as entire Kerala and the neighboring kingdoms. (Gttrtri -"
variu'iil '
Locally adapted paddy varieties xnfl $r:. - -

At the behest of the Brahmins. Lord Parasurama chronicled the extinct and extant of Varieties
paddy varieties and landraces (lines 68 253, Part l). Appendix 1 gives a summary of
-ilre ittl-:-
the crop varieties suitable fbr difl'erent ecoclimatic regions of Kerala and the neighboring
lands. The 124 rice cultivars mentioned in the book may be an overestimate in view of disaPP- --r -

the presence of several nomenclatural variants. Variations also exist among the difl'erent three-.. -- --" -

versions of Krishi Gita in this respect. For instance, Sreekumar (20011) reported a total the f.Lt'::'

of 108 rice cultivars and landraces based on Krishi Gita, while Gangadharan (20011) A-cricL.. -

accounted for 87 varieties only. Significantly, in a recent survey, Prasad (2006; pp. I 02- fact tl--'- -

117) mentioned as many as 167 local types of rice fiom diff'erent parts of Kerala, bret-.1:: '
implying the rich genetic diversity of rice that once existed in Kerala. Haan. :
celllLli ' " -
Special mention was made in the lyrics to the locally adapted varieties of Kolanadu 'platl -.-
(northern parts of Kerala), midlands, uplands, mountain passes, and submerged areas, httu : . -'
besides those for Kole, Ktrttunad4 Venonadu, Thulu, and Pandl'. Native rice varieties $CIlc-"-- -
were generally pref'erred for cultivation in the era of Krishi Gita and the ar-rthor's 1antlr.-- - '
skepticism for exotic cultivars is particularly evident in lines 62-66 (Part l). Criticism varie . "
of the exotics and modern technology are fashionable even today, especially among the take -,-: -

Indt., . -
folklore specialists and at times by the public (e.g., Gangadhararan, 2004; Sreedharan, -

2004). Strangely enough, Kerala is a land where the farmers have patronized a large et ttl . -
number of exotic species and cultivars since time immemorial. Examples include the
many high-yielding dwarf rice veuieties (Kumary and Bai, 2005) and several crops such Plantin
as cashew, cacao, pineapple, and the like. Apparently, the approaches adopted by farmers
and that o1- the authors of literary works are asynchronous.
\\'u-t '
thr- ,' . -' -

The traditional rice varieties were also characterized by considerable divergence in cr.rltl' .."'
duration, plant height, tillering ability, pigmentation, panicle and grain characters, as (Par-

well as yield and organoleptic properties. Such heterogeneity in morphological, yield, &1 r- i-
 populations or
.ind quality traits signifies that the traditional f'armers have selected
lanclraces of crops to meet explicit consumption requirements
and/or to suit certain
e Many of these landraces were grown only during a parlicular
tlapho-climatic exigencies.
.ropSeason(Virippu,Mundakan,orPttncha),implyingtheirphotosensitivenature.
Si-unificantly, certain traditional cultivars possessing a pool
of resistant genes against
stem borer however have
insect pests like plant hoppers, gall midge, leaf folder, and
and Bai, 2005). E'xamples include
been used in modern rice breeding programs (Kumary
Kochuvithu,
Tltekkan, Erovappanch, Thekkcmcheera, veluthacheercr, Karivennel,
chennellu) and scented
orytondt, orumundctkarz, and the like. Medicinal (e.g., NjavarcL,
rice
(Garulhakasala, Jeererkascila) rice constitute another category of fabulous Kerala
(George et a1.,2005; Jacob
Yarieties of the yore, but receiving renewed interest now
and Syriac, 2005).

Varieties running out

varieties of crops have
The author(s) of Krishi Gita laments that many of the traditional
unabated even today' About
disappeared (lines 55-60, Part 1), a process that continues
11.,1se-quarters of the original varieties of agricultural
crops have been already lost from
the farm fields betwe"n tqso and 1995, according to an estimate
by the Food and
is suggestive of the
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 199'7). This
then' as of now' Plant
fact that extinction of crop varieties has been a recurring feature
'variety running out' (e'g'' De
breeders of recent times have designated this problem as
second half of 20'r'
Haan, 1953) with the influx of modern varieties especially in the
associated with the
century, besides the unprecedented changes in land use pattern
,plantation und com-"icial crop booms' that Kerala experienced (Kumar, 2005);
Gita. Maintenance of
however, this process got accelerated in the focal regions of Krishi
genetic diversity, collection, documentation, and conservation
of the traditional
landraces are, therefbre, vital. By the way, the sui generis system
for protection of plant
communities' and
varieties, which integrate the rights of breeders, farmers, and village
been recently adopted in
take care of the concerns fbr equitable sharing of benefits has
Act (see Brahmi
India for evolving the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers'Rights
er a\.,2004).

Planting systems of rice

of rice productlon in
Wet sowing, dry sowing, and transplanting were popular SyStemS
was practiced in some
the olden days (lines 122 l3g,Part 1), as it is today. Ratooning
in lines 211:51
cultivars, albeit sporaclically. The author(s) of Krishi Gita mentions
years; such varieties' hou ever'
(Part 1) that certain rice cultivars could yield for about 12
are non-existent today to the best of this author's understanding.
Part I of KrishiGita highlights the need for puddling the fields befbre transplanrr:.- \lthtlLtu:-. ll'
Recent scientific studies from India and elsewhere have elucidated the beneficial eif.'. . .lotlllll:tll.
of puddling.Forinstance,Fukushima etal.(2005) reportedthatwatercontentof tuii.- I1-iete li'1'3'1-
-
'
puddled soil was higher than that of plots puddled once and its oxygen diflusion rat.-- rrrc-rriditl- ":
were lower. Although puddling destroys soil aggregates, reduces the macropores. ar:.. r.rslicttlttri-, .- - -

increases the micropores (De Datta, l98l ; Sharma and De Datta, l9B5), it disperses th.. -'
I-rou er ct. i-.. -
line particles and clogs the soil pores reducing infiltration and percolation rates. Clearlr. l00l t. Lrk. ' '-
.
the compaction and translocation of clay particles create a zone of high bulk densrtr practic-J r-:
and low hydraulic conductivity transforming the porous substrate into a hydrologicallr rnfortrati,': . ':
impermeable plow sole or hardpan (Ghildyal, 1978; Iwata et al., 1995'). Although the the Sotlth."-' -

early agrarians of Kerala did not recognize the physics of puddling, the beneticial effects poultrr i:,:':: ' --
of puddling were probably well known to them.

Criteria for
Other crops
As alr.-at' '-
Undoubtedly, the principal focus of the book is on rice. However, to augment food grain been the .:: -- -- -
production, Lord Parasurama advised the farmers to grow certain other grain tor r'r'ork l:., - '
crops too, e.g., nc:adhotl y-cts or nine grains - wheat, rice, red gram (pigeonpea), green straight-''' ' ' --
gram (mung bean), Bengal gram (chickpea), beans, sesame, black gram, and horse granr ':
and cLtrr.'-'
- especially in times of scarcity. Not obviously all these crops can be grown everywhere hoofs. E.'."
in Kerala, but certain climatic or edaphic niches do exist, where some or most of the moitled ':
crops can be cultivated. In addition, the cultivars and locally adapted strains of several i}l f illlsCll .r':' '

vegetable crops, tubers and yams, spices, banana and plantain, coconut, zrrecanut, betel earll fril'l: -''
vine, sugarcane, and the like have been enunciated. these itr;- -
stretlgth -,:' -- ''
Draught animals disea:.' : .'
aninlal-: - '-
Aspects relating to animal tending constitute a special focus of Parts 2 and 4. It is
proclaimed that those who do not look after the animals can never be good agriculturists
Jungle an
(lines 33 34, Part 2). Traditionally, the large ruminants provided draught power for
land preparation and haulage. Over a long period in the history of agricultural As a Pr' ::' .-
modernization, however, the use of mechanical power increased and the use of draught fbr erP.. - "

animals declined. Despite this, draught animal power continues to be used on farms due speciir;.,
to the smallholding size and hill agriculture in certain parts of India (Singh, 2000). ilelltl ti -. -

India also possessed the finest breeds of draught animals. However, as with the traditional of brtn,:::'-
crop varieties, the massive cross breeding programs undertaken since independence, structLi:.: -. .

has led to erosion in this remarkable animal genetic base. Concomitantly, the strong extel']\i. - --
linkages that once existed between crop and bovine husbandry, a central theme of Krishi &l'e&: .:l --
Gita has been weakened considerably. 200r .

N til
,J
Although milk production, both for domestic consumption and for sale, constitute a
dominant objective of integrating large ruminants into the production systems today,
these aspects have not been addressed in Krishi Gita. This is presumably because of the
overriding importance given to draught animals in a predominantly crop-based
agricultural treatise. Milk production and aspects relating to selection of good cows,
however, have been addressed in other ancient texts (e.g., Kashyapiyakrishisukti;Ayachit,
2002). Likewise, there is no mention of poultry rearing in Krishi Gita. As the Brahmins
practiced vegetarianism, this is perhaps not surprising. Yet, according to reliable
information, several poultry birds, including chicken and goose, were domesticated in
the Southeast Asian region over 3,000 years ago. Concrete evidences regarding when
poultry farming started in Kerala are, however, not available.

Criteria for selecting draught animals

As already mentioned, the primary reason for cattle husbandry in ancient Kerala has
been the draught utility of bullocks. Signs of healthy animals with good temperament
for work have been described: robust hump, inwardly curved horns, capacious stomach,
straight-spined, and evenly raised backs (lines 110 to 239, Part 4). Conversely, short tail
and curved spines are undesirable traits, and so are short and thick horns and long
hoofs. Excessive sneezing, dyspnea, and drooling are other negative attributes, but
mottled skin and whitish head are good signs. Dental attributes such as color and
arrangement of teeth on the gum were perhaps the most important criteria used by the
early farmers to select draught animals. Interestingly, there are some similarities between
these age-old concepts and the contemporary selection criteria for draught animals:
strength and stamina, sustained speed over a period of work, medium size, heat tolerance,
disease resistance, and the like (http://www.vuatkerala.org/static/eng/advisory/
animal_husb/buffal o/breeding. html ; last acces sed on 6 August 2001 ).

Jungle and fallow land cultivation

As a primary strategy for augmenting food availability, Parasurama stressed the need
for expanding the area under cultivation. In lines 129*134 (Part2),the farmers are
specifically asked to clear forests and burn the debris to make the land cultivable, a
trend that prevailed until recently (Pouchepadass, 1995). In pursuance ofthis principle
of bringing more areas under food crops, our national and state governments have also
structured the "Grow More Food" campaign and the like along these lines. Such
extensification as well as intensification, however, led to clearing of substantial forest
areas and the loss of structural integrity of the remaining forests of Kerala (Kumar,
200s).
7

lntrinsic conservation ethos of the early farmers based P:.:*:

used in I:-- -
Although fbrest clearing has been suggested as a means to expand cropped areas (Parr \L1ch Lrrar::-
2), elsewhere in Krishi Gita (lines 12-52, Part 4) the farmers were encouraged to plant intere.: ,':-- -
-

trees and other woody perennials. In particular, in line l5 (Part zl) the agriculturists are
asked to stop forest clearing, which is extraordinary in an era of seerningly abundant Manttrirr-- -"

forest cover. The apparent contradiction between Parls 2 and 4 of the poetry is presumablr
Greeke'. -:
because of the divergent needs of the people, such as to raise food grains on the one
har e 1i'. ': *
Thc-oPh: ','. -
hand, and to protect the environment, on the other. Crop productivity during the Krishi
Gita era was presumably modest, i.e., comesponding to the pre-chemical agricultural
that ricl'. '
is the i':-: .
-
productivity plateau. A steady increase in population may have waranted bringing more
hat e ed-,:::
area under crops by clearing forest. However, the authors clearly understood that this
eSPeCl;1., "
could not continue indefinitely and forest destruction should be stopped. So much so.
erperitl',r: "

the approach was to resort to clearing fbrests in times of food scarcity and to bring more
pIe SLll11.:!."
lands under tree cover at other timesl

Expanding the line of forest conservation, and consistent with the objective of providing Summel
better tree cover on the landscape, planting fruit trees on cleared forests, garden, and
other leffover lands, avenue planting, as well as leaving vestiges of forests in the midst In Parr l
of cultivated landscape, presumably to maintain floristic richness and diversity, were canieti *-
recommended (lines 337-368, Part 3 and lines42-52,Partl).Although this is consistent veget;i .
with the present-day concepts of social fbrestry, agroforestry, and wasteland development, etc. ). f :r-'":
it is remarkable that such an understanding existed in the minds of Indian people much SllCIl .!"

earlier. The earlier works of Varahamihira (c. 700 AD; Bhat, 1981) and Surapala (c. SUIllIl--r-]'

1000 AD; Sadhale, 1996) also echo similar sentirnenrs. sustltii..,:.

withirl:-.
sctcir-r:- -
Manuring
Amor,. -,
Quite apart from meeting the draught energy requirements of farming, the domestic (1ine. -:--
animals were also important to the early agrarians for maintaining soil fertility. With and t: ::-.'
the advent of the chemical era in agriculture, however, this dependence on animal- parti.l- . --:

derived and other forms of organic manure has diminished. Yet non-chemical sources pn)'r''-
of plant nutrients are becoming increasingly important in the context of organic farming stlmlllJ: :
and other sustainable production systems. (httP: .'

-
Jr-rlr I '
Aspects relating to manuring of the rice fields and especially about green manuring and Ker;.r.., ---
wood ash application to rice and other crops have been dealt with extensively in Krishi
Gita(lines73-18 and 165 l66,Part2;lines 107 ll0 and147-I52,Part3).Bytheway, The .''--.:
evidences of manuring crop fields during the Vedic period are available in Rigveda,
Krishi-Parashara, Manusmriti, Agni Purana, and Vrikshayurveda. Specifically, animal-
based preparations such as Panchagavya, Amrit pani, and Matka khadin have been
used in India during the Vedic times to enrich soil fertility (Thimmaiah, 2006). Although
such preparations were disregarded during the era of chemical agriculture, there is some
interest on these now (e.g., Jayasree and George, 2006).

Manuring field crops was in vogue in other ancient civilizations too. For example, the
Greek epic poem "The Odyssey", attributed to the blind poet Homer, who is thought to
have lived between 900 and 700 BC, describes about manuring the vineyards.
Theophrastu s (372-287 BC) recommended abundant manuring of thin soils but suggested
that rich soils should be manured sparingly (Tisdale and Nelson, 1975).Implicit in this
Krishi Gita supposedly figuring much later in history, may
is the fact that the authors of
have adapted such time-tested recommendations from the pre-existing literary pieces,
especially those from the Sanskrit language, oI may have evolved it by adaptive
experimentation. It is, however, hard to say which course they precisely adopted -
presumably a combination of both!

Summer season field operations

In Part 2 (lines 91_138), Lord Parasurama gives a clear focus on the operations to be
caried out during the summer season. He urged the farmers to collect firewood, extract
vegetable oils for cooking and lighting pulposes (e.g., coconfi, Schleichera, castor,
etc.), preserve fruits and vegetables by pickling, and gather non-timber forest products
such as shampoo powders (e.g., Acacict concinna, Albizia, etc.) and salts during the
summer season. The underlying principle here is presumably conservation and
sustainable utilization of the resources. Some of these products also may be shared
within the local communities, or sold out/bartered, which again is important in a
socioeconomic milieu.

Among the field operations, summer plowing of the paddy fields needs a special mention
(lines l4-23,Pafi3).Recentresearchhasalsoindicatedthatsummerplowingisbeneficial
and it may stimulate rice productivity (e.g., Y:han et a1.,2004:). Deep summer plowing
particularly reduces the incidence of insect pests, diseases, and weeds, improves soil
physical properties, and increases the water-holding capacity of the soils. Consequently,
summer plowing has now become a part of the technology package for rice in Kerala
(http://www.vuatkerala.org/static/eng/agri-calend arlagri-calendar.html; accessed on 15
July 2007). What is amazing, however, is that this information was available to the
Kerala farmers almost two to three centuries ago.

The author(s) of Krishi Gita advocates repeated plowing (up to 10) of the drylands
interspersed with clod crushing soon after the onset of monsoon showers (lines 3-23,
Part 3). In view of the difficulty in working on hard dry soils, Lord Parasurama cautioned
that the draught animals used in these operations should not be over-stressed (lin.'. Weed mani
316 3lB, Part 3). Also, the notion of prevention of cruelty towards animals, which r- "
l-rrrtl P.::.-.' .. --
now well entrenched in the contemporary le-eal frameworks is highlighted. Afte:.
ii: tltrLii'i':. - -
describing the agrotechniques for summer rice, Lord Parasurama narated the summer
e rltfe llai.a'--
vegetable production systems, which again is widespread in Kerala today.
disPet...,1
har e br'r-- --*
Periodicity of agricultural operations and njattuvelas been etll' ------

cardinal determinant of farm operations probablr

The notion that rainfall availability is a Part I rrl \- '
runs throughout the text (lines 24 110, Part 3 and lines 173-180, Part2). The earlr seeds ol - ' -: '
agrarians divided the 36-5 days of the year into sets of l4 days called njattuvelu,v, each Crolul(i' - ---
one bearing the name of a particular star (fortnightly climatic units; see Appendix 2;. flefli1teti ': ' -
Njattuvelas were the cornerstones of traditional farming wisdom and specific field evolr ed .' -.- *
r,vithttr,r.. "-'
operations were carried out during pre-designated njiltuvelas. Suffice to say that the
l'esolu'aa'.: -
ingenuity of the traditional farmers to optimize the time of field operations based on
tt'onl th.' ' -
their experience with stochastic events such as precipitation reflected in these lines is
remarkable. In certain cases. variety- or situation-specific prescriptions for sowing/
purposr '
planting have been made [e.g., Mctdan (upland) rice, sesame, little millet, etc. in Bharoni
njattuvela, Cherttmodan in Rohini and so on]. Hydrolog

Irigating the summer vegetables using litt and flow inigation methods to supplement Tank:. ',' : '
S()Ul'C C'
the natural rainfall has been mentioned in lines 160-162.Part2. Tank and river waters ..
partictrl-: -'
constitute other sources of irrigation water (lines 405-408, Part 3). An interesting
and u1-..- .
anecdote from Agastyacharita concerning rainfall distribution pattern of the peninsular
Cl'oP Pr1' ; '- - "

India is available in lines I 8lrt 13, Part 2. Implicit in this story is the highly stochastic
CrOP p.-:.. *'-
nature of precipitation over different parts of peninsular India. Hydrological features of
u llll 1l-:, *,
the rainstorm events (e.g., intensity, drop size, etc.) comprise yet another embedded
feature of this legend.

Krishi Gita also implores that the best way to understand the periodicity of rains is to
monitor the prevailing atmospheric conditions and wind pattern (lines 59-109, Part 3),
which is precisely the way in which the modern-day meteorologists predict weather.
Amazingly, the early inhabitants of Kerala deduced considerable infbrmation abor-rt
rainfall availability by evaluating the prevailing atmospheric conditions. Such
advancements in meteorology are not surprising since astronomy and mathematics were
well developed in early Kerala (Anitei, 2001). By the way, Aryabhatta, the first known
astronomer to have used a continuous system of counting solar days, is said to have
been born in 476 AD in Kerala (http://www.crystalinks.com/indiastronorny.html; last
accessed on l7 September 2007).
Weed management
LordParasuramaplognosticatedthatrampantweedgrowthwoulddeprivethecropof
itsnourishments(resourcepre-emption:linesll:,-l27,Part3),whichisnowwell
'Clean' cultivation methods that curb the
entrenched in modern scientific literature'
admixtures or that arises from soil seed banks
dispersal of wild rice seeds through seed has
ash application in lieu of organic manures
have been advocated. Likewise, wood
encouraged, as it would reduce weed
infestation of the fields'
been
(co-evolution) between the
part 3 of Krishi Gita highlights the intimate association
seedsofcertaincropsandweeds(e.g.,seedsofwildrice,weeds,andcultivatedrice;
some broadleaved weeds; etc')' Parasurama
Crotalariaand sesame; common miilLt and co-
Part 3) to drive home the point that Some
narrated a legendary story (lines 201-251,
during the early life cycle' Sites infested
evolved weeds mimic the crop plants especially bamboo
with noxious weeds, with high degree of laterization, forests with abundant
-and pressure
resources, gravely substrates, siies subjected to heavy grazing and browsing
have been described as unsuitable for farming
from the wild and domesticated animals
purposes.

Hydrological asPects
Tanks,wells,rivers,streams,springs'canals'andreservoirshavebeenmentionedas
(lines 123-138 and 185-188' Part 3)' In
sources of water fbr irrigating-farm fields
soils with high percolation rates'
particular, lands with rock formations, coarse-textured
andwherewaterstagnationcoupledwithiron(Fe)toxicityoccurareunsuitablefor
cropproduction(linesl3g-l46,Part3)'Propermanuring'howwer'wouldensurebetter
cropperformanceinmanysituations(lines-148-t52,,Part3).Muchofthisisconsistent
with modern scientific thinking on these subjects'
generally characterized by high yields'
Although the low-lyin g kole and punchalandsare
giving proper drainage is crucial for sustaining
the author(s) of KrishiGita thought thar puncha
productivity. Agrotechniques to alleviate
suimerg"n." problems of kole and
choice of varieties' season of planting'
and
lands have been advocati, which include
culturalpractices(lines153-192,Pafi3).RegardlessofthefactthatSomeormostof
crop varieties recommended have sin"e
the" become extinct' the cultural practices
the
Consistent with the need for proper drainage'
do make sense even in the present context'
intheKuttctnadrcgionofKeralathathadbeenundersubmergencefromthehistorical
as polders by constructing ring bunds.
past, rice fields were progressively reclaimed possible
have also shown that the leaching made
Recent experiments (e.g., Mathew, 2004)
bytheadoptionofasubsurfacedrainageSystem,helpedtoimprovethesoilchemical
crop yields'
in the rice root zone resulting in increased
"ruirontn"nt
_:-

o' :lta\ 1l'..

The author(s) of Krishi Gita also reflects upon the risks associated with the presence
to Ire -a iallll
copper-colorecl scum on the water surface (lines 138-140, Part 3), which is due
toxicity, as it is now known. Iron toxicity is a widespread nutrient disorder of wetlalltl
Seeds. n
rice grown on acid sulfate soils, Ultisols, and sandy soils with a low cation exchange
lor"' tt'
capacity, moderate to high acidity, and active Fe (easily reducible Fe), and
l00t'' Lortl P.,: -'.
moderately high in organic matter. Iron toxicity reduces rice yields by 12 to
of Fe toxicity stress, and soil the tl" ---'
depending on the Fe tolerance of the genotype, intensity :ttrC K
fertility status (Sahrawat, 2005). However, Fe toxicity can be managed by using Fe
-

practices (KAU'
ntll5al' -
tolerant rice genotypes ancl through soil, water, and nutrient management areir. p -''
200D. deeP::''-
ciuadl:'-..'
Auspicious times for agricultural operations itt ric.' .-

-
claul.ii. "

Inthefinalsection(linesg-5B,Part4ofKrishiGita),LordParasuramareiteratesthe bottn.l-.: -'

do's and don'ts of good farming methods. For example, tillage and sowing seeds at Se tl5 \l1''

night are taboos. Inability to place the right quantity of seeds at the designated spots, lir e.t' "
which will lead to sub-optimal plant populations, may be the rationale tbr this. The
bottom line erclvocatecl in Krishi Gita is that cropping and tillage should be carried Cr"rlti', -

during auspicious times. They prescribe specific times, days, and the like for these' &ttr-tl I I

Although these may have been relevant in the olden times, abounded by uncertainties, '
trotr',

many of these prescriptions are probably meaningless in the present context.

uilh: -'
(e.s \ -
In addition, mythology has been invoked in the context of cultivating certain plants that s l-t lt.i :
jackfruit
needed extra care (e.g., betle vines: lines 382-388, Part 3; coconut, arecanut, i.l\ i-tl .

tree, and plamyra palm: lines 351-368, Part 3; ornamental gardens:

lines 371-374^Part tl-ri':--"
religion and culture
3; plantain Kctclctli: lines 369-370, Part 3). This is clearly a case of (1ack':'
Yet
being used to protect, conserve, and/or produce resources for human sustenance' Se u-ti'
to born
another instance of this is the allocation of individual species of trees
persons

a particular lunar asterism, again to ensure some degree of conservation

(Appendix
under
2).

Such ideas, especially those relating to auspicious times, were also consistent with
other ancient texts. For example, in Lokopakara (c. 1025 AD), the Kannada
poet

Chavundaraya also specified eight ruling constellations for southern lndia, dr-rring
which
seed sowing should be done (Nene, 2006). Another example is Kashyapiyakrishisukti
(Ayachit, 2AO2; p.87). The recent biodynamic farming concept, which considers the
metaphysical aspects of the f arm by atlapting the natural rhythms of the planetary system
(Steiner, 1993), also advocates 'auspicious times' tor canying out agricultural activities.
However. scientific evidences in support of such claims are not available' The traditional
and
farmers may have evolved such practices based on their long years of experiences
 this cannotbe substantiated in a modern
they may have their own justification; however,
scientific PersPective.

practices
Seeds, nursery stock, and other cultural
suggestions, which broadly conform to
Lord parasurama, however, made several other
For instance, use of quality-planting
the modern crop production recommendations.
in the rice nursery preparation'
stock for rice transplanting, 6 to 8 plowings i9-i:]::l
per unlt
number of over-mature rice seedlings
nursery duration fbr rice, planting more
green leaf manure application in -30 35 cm
to
area, planting three hills per yarJ, and
deepintermittenttrenclre,dori,gMunrlakanSeason.Aspectssuchastheunholy
nursery stock. weeds, and diseases
quadripartite alliance of insect peJs, shade-grown
inriceproduction(lines46-48,Part3),fencingtheplotstoreduce.grazingandbrowsing
damagebyanimals,propermaintenanceofthefieldrisers(bunds)todemarcate
boundaries'savingpaddygrainsfordomesticConsumptioninKrlrkidakam(scarcity
season),earlysowingtogainmarketaccess,andpreservingpaddySffawtofeedtheir
livestock were also emphasized in Krishi Gita'
jackfruit and the like received some
cultivation of tree crops such as coconut, arecanut,
attentiontoo.Fori,,tu,'.",loweringthefullymatureCoconutbunchestotheground
performance, and sowing in large pits filled
from coconut mother palms with consistent
withriversandhavebeenrecommended,whichmakesagreatdealofSenseevennow
(e.g.,KAU,Iool).Applicationofcommonsaltinthetoplayerofthesoil,providing
shadeinthenursery,out.plantingduringThiruvathiranjattuvelawhenrainfall in
are other important recommendations
availability is assured, and selection of site plant fresh jack tree
(Part 3) the need to
this regard. Significantly, in lines 349-352
implying the recalcitrant nature of the
(ackfruit) seeds immediately has been stressed,
Jeeds. which would otherwise lose viability quickly'

ManyotheraSpeCtSsuchastheneedforselectingpropersitesforconstructingcattle
sheds,diggingmanurepitsneartheshed,careandmanagementoflivestock,needto
keep the farm implement, u,,d tools in
sufficient number and in good shape, leaving
and the need to have a competent workforce
necessary footpaths and trails in the field, for
feature in Part 2 of Krishi Gita (lines
45-89). The author(s) also stressed the need
commodities' especially food grains' for
anticipating the requirements of agricultural
(crop planning)' Lines 161-166 Gatt 2)
properly planning the production process
particularlyhighlighttheneedforsterilizingtheplantingpitsbyburningtoannihilate
the soilborne pathogens before planting
,uir,,,"r-u"getables, besides the role of wood
practices are relevant in the present context
ash as a source of nourishment. ,Ut these
that of the modemsolarization
and especially the effects of burning may be similar to
practice (Katan and DevaY, 1991)'
 (,.rngadh'lr
$ .'
interpersonal relationships with the ' --
The recommendation to maintain proper rr it}:l:. -.
farmers, which are necessary fbr the peaceftrl coexistence
and neighboring
and honesty as personal traits l.t.,t'..,.
community, and the need to maintain integrity Lieorgt P!.
greatdealofsenseeveninapost.modernsocio-culturalperspective.AlthoughKr-.: _

it also mentions about certain attribtttes !

-
t,i l-! ''"

Gita is primarily an agricultural t.euti,", likr- i1::..

handling law and order' and the
rulers namely virtuousness, fairness in
332-338, Part 2).
rr ii'-
aspects such as tillage. manurins'
overall, Krishi Gita covers not only biophysical I
and socio-cultural aspects' It descriL'e ' lrr ata 5.
management, but also lbcuses socioeconomic p1 actici' .rrtJ \:":
consistent with the modern agricultural
-

an affay of concepts which are either

or worked as their Progenitors'

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 Commentary

PK Ramachandran Nairl la

Agriculture has always been a work in progress but firmly rooted in the piist. .\l:: -
lrlai-l.-'-
the infusion of modern science and technology has caused some drastic and .i.---
changes in the way in which agriculture is practiced in some parts of the derei, :- .
I t;:,r1"11..: -

'-
.rr.ruil--- -,-.
(tropical) world during past 40 years and for a little longer duration in many purt. ,

industrialized world, agriculture has always represented a slow evolution from the :. . \lt)fr- 1.1".- -
mirroring at any period in time the prevailing aspirations, beliefs, culture, traditi, : -
in Kt.i':-. -'
and even perversions and taboos of the community that practiced it. In fact. .'.,- Illll-: a::
"i
agricultural practice and system is a cornucopia of'various physical traits of its loc.,., .iit'e ci:', .'
biological traits of its components, behavioral traits of its practitioner, and the soi... I}-ttr:c--l;-.
traits of the society. No wonder it is called agriculture, a form of 'culture'. IllJt ll.L -
beetl ., -
"
A rather disappointing f'eature, however, of the culture of'agriculture is that much of ii.
pL'ofli ' .

past is lost or mired in ambiguity. Traditions and virtues that have always been ri.
r-lt1e:ti, l-- ,:
essential component of the practice - the art - of agriculture used to be handed dou r. itltd tl'1.' -: --

from generation to generation, leaving little or no trail of documented records. This ir totlill'. .:.' -
particularly true in the old-world cultures. in which perhaps it has been 'unethical' tt, Th.rt i':-:--
leave written (or other decipherable) records of how to do things and when. Much ol it-t tt'.]-, . '
the ancient wisdom has thus remained unavailable and unknown to those outside the \ rLlLli
circle of very few who were privileged to be associated with the previous generltion\ ilcc0f c.:. -:
of practitioners. Easy access to such treasures of knowledge could lead to their rapid
dissemination and even commercialization in this era of globalization and inter-regional Quite ,.: -,
and international interactions; but perhaps that is exactly what the original innovators l'eLr1L-ir '''

C lIE I-
were afraid of and wanted to avoid!
thrtrt,,: :'.

In any case, any new-found record of old-world agriculture is a treasure, at least desct..: .. "
academically. The 'unearthing' of Krishi Gita by the Asian Agri-History Foundation titlle' t *:-
(AAHF), Secunderabad, India and the painstaking effbrt of Prof. B Mohan Kumar in totlll '

translating it into English are, indeed, of monumental significance. True to the tradition dar.l, -

of ambiguity and anonymity that are characteristic of such treasures, the authorship and sttch;,.-
time of compilation of the four-part verse of agricultural practices of Malayalam desatn -:i
OtIL\ I!l:
(today's Kerala state and some adjoining areas in southwestern India) are unknown.
Based on various leads including the language style ('old' Malayalam) and other scholarly Frtrll: .-: "
assumptions, Dr Kumar surmises that the piece must have been written or compiled at The ;. .- -
least 300 years ago. inttt ., . "'

of r .,-.:. .
l. University of Floric1a. Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (email: pknair@ufl.eclu) loc;-,:: : '
 intricate knowledge
No matter when exactly it was compiled, Krishi Gita exemplifies the
practiced a f'ew
of its authors/compilers on the various aspects of agriculture that was
of the Malavalam desam'
centuries ago and the rich heritage of the culture of agriculture
the various varieties
The extent of infbrmation contained in the detailed naratives of
nuts, and
(cultivars) - mainly of rice, but also of an aray of fruits, vegetables, spices,
other crops - and the 'best' practices to be fbllowed for their
cultivation is truly amazing'
and managing the
Information is also provicled on animalhusbandry related rearingto
draught animals for best results.

More important - even intriguing - is how most of the directives and recommendations
Of course,
in Krishi Gita stand the tesr of scientific scrutiny by today's knowledge.
'authority' to issue
times were diff'erent then; the narrator/author may have had the
the underlying reasons for
directives of 'do's ancl don'ts' without having to explain
questions of 'why' and 'how'
those clirectives; they did not have to face the banage of
that have become the standard norms in any scientific discussion
today' It must have
'do's and don'ts' affecting
been acommon practice those days to deliver any discourse on
just accepted without
people's lifestyle as a divine directive, so that they would be
questioning (as it is even today in many societies). Perhaps those directives must have
hacl the seal of approval of the rulers or powers that be of
the time such that it rvas
criticisms - on them'
totally disrespectful if not forbidclen to cast comments - let alone
on the reasoning ('scientific basis'
that is perhaps why we do not fincl any explanation
of the
in today,s language) underlying the recommended practices. our appreciation
behind those directives
value of the verse will increase if we try to unravel the reasoning
that is a challengel
according to our cuffent knowledge of scientific agriculture. And,
nature made a few centuries ago had to be
Quite understandably, a compilation of this
l-ord and the 'inner
replete with elaborate descriptions of the virtues and glory of the
are spread
circle' of His 'cabinet'. Krishi Gita is no exception. Such divine narratives
To this can be added the
throughout the verse, constituting roughly 257o of verse.
structure of the
descriptions of the various dynasties ancl some glimpse of the social
make up about half of the
times (Part 2). Together, these two categories of descriptions
in those
total volume of l65l lines of verse. Perhaps it may have been inconceivable
days to compile a treatise on agriculture - or, fbr that matter,
any such activity - without
as rhetorical and
such eulogies. According to today's norms, these may be branded
outside the scope of a focused piece on agriculture'

fiom the 'grain''

From an analytical perspective, however, the 'chaff' can be separated
can then be -urouped
The directives and exhortations in the remaining half of the verse
of a large number
into a t-ew categories. First. there are descriptions (if not prescriptions)
suitable fbr specitic
of varieties (cultivars). mostly of rice, but also of other crops, that are
locations. soils, seasons. etc. This constitutes most of Part 1. The
fairly long
 J call ril:" o'' . ' -
narrative on selection and management of draught animais in Part .
'farp nlallrselllenl - .

in this category. A second category is what can be called "i. i: .-

'do's and doll'l'' irl -' .l::-i.-'.- - -

Part 3 but also in some other parts, that describe the ..,-f-:'-:-'
seeds to $ hrrl ' " - -
agricultural operations, ranging from selection and plantin-e of
called water management and postharvest technology in today's
agricultulltl p;-Lr ''.'- -
.4.i,.":-.'
The intimate knowleclge about such a large ar:ray of issues. their
implicit ct'n'::
Illtrrl . -' -

sense and rationality, and the easy-to-understand narrations

make this \L'!:l--
$ h.'1" : -''
f'ew directlrL-: '.'
particlllarly valuable part of the treatise. Third, there are quite a lLl\t .t '
seemingly defy reasoning according to our present understandin-q
of the scielli'- .'

planetary constr-ilrrlr
'. e\PIr,l,'.
agriculture (or they are based on knowledge of the influence of Kli.hr t'
that is beyond the comprehension of this reviewer!)' In many
(if not a1l) cultut'"
of certain tin-ies oi i:r'.
traditional beliefs abou,-,cl about the auspiciousness or otherwise The ;,':-- ''.
day. For example, most people of Kerala, irespective of
their religious background' 'r:.:- it dtre ' :'.

said to avoid'rahtt-katim' ,a supposedly inauspicious span

of 90 minutes each clar thr'' 1l ,,
iltl \tI.. --
new' Similallr '
falls at clifferent times in diff'erent days of the week, for initiating anything illlllll'r-' -
(as well other parts of India) to sL-t
it is very much a part of Hindu tradition in Kerala as ItlltJ 1- :
for perfbrn'rinu
the astrologer's calculations and prescriptions of auspicious occasions hu:L'.,-- '-:.
may appear to defy sciencu-' '
weddings and other social events. These beliefs and traditions ilt-tP,'l-"' "

can explain the

But that is why they are traditionsl That is perhaps the only way we 31'9tls" "
can one explain the
strictures on pref'erences of days of week for sowing. How else Ket;',-'' -

as sesame sown on a
reasoning behind directives and statements that certain crops such n(lt a '-' J

Friday *"r" ,u." to fail whereas the same crop sown just a f'ew hours later (Saturday) \\ n\ ,. :
strictures that certain
would produce a bumper yield? How else can one explain the ,tt.'t - -t'
(Part 4)? Prof. Kumar tries to
days are good for sowing certain crops but not other crops Or-lt. K'::-'
reLate this sort of relationship between day of sowing the
crop and its performance to
rellti. t ,'
is not familiar with'
the concept of 'brodynamic farming', which this reviewer il-i-i1''' -- --'

scientific explanations' tl tlll' --::

All statements in Krishi Gita, however, are not above or beyond
of this reviewer for
A few passages, though mentioned in passing, caught the attention Atl:""-
(lines 9- 8), there is a statement:
their underlying scientific merit. For example, in Part 4 o\ i:'
is amazing that
"Know that the fbrests should not be fellecl, even in times of distress'" It Git.,':r-
even in those days, when fbrests were in abundance, were
in no danger of extinction'
CL)li.
the value of fbrest to
and were possibly considered as a hindrance to 'development', I1li1L1:
'
recognized so clearly
agriculture (embodied in today's concept of agrofbrestry) was kt-ttt''' ..
and unambiguously. Scientific significance can also be ascribed
to the statement:
lll N. '
.,However, if plowing started during the auspicious times of vrishlhikarn rasi. then the
i1Part,l, lines l9-22).rf Vrishchikam rasi refers to the period of or Il'.
crop will nevlr faif hc-fl --:--
second cropping season
November-December, then that roughly represents the end of the the .-: ' -
of the crop stubbles
of Kerala. Plowing the land at that time will facilitate incorporation the -l':
may be seen in relation to a
into the soil and hasten their decomposition. This directive
popular beliefTstricture that prevails in Kerala, which stati'. i(-.
.

Makaram (January-February) will mean the peril of Mulutrii,;" :'-

significance of this belief could be that January-February is the ii:..;
'-
stubbles will have decomposed and the soil nitrate level will be at rt' f e .::.
rain at that time before the beginning of the regular rainy season and therei.':.. ': ,
" :
season will cause substantial leaching loss of soil nitrate. Onset of rain: .L '' ": r
months later heralcls peak agricultural activities that coincides with the mons()oll >i-:''r-.

when best agricultural use could be made of the accumulated soil nitrates. The:e .,r:
just a couple of examples that makes this reviewer confident in saying that scientillc
explanations and underpinnings could also be found for several other statements in
Krishi Gita.

The content of Krishi Gita is intriguing not only for what it contains, but also fbr what
it does not. It is interesting that a treatise that describes animal husbandry in such detail.
all such descriptions pertain to the draught animals, with no mention at all of the milch
animals. Cows have been an essential part and important constituent of Indian agriculture
and life for so long in history that it is totally incomprehensible as to why animal
husbandry pertaining to milch cows was left out of Krishi Gita. Similarly. several
important crops of Kerala such as cassava and cashew are not mentioned. Prof. Kumar
argues that Krishi Gita was perhaps compiled before the introduction of these crops in
Kerala. That could be true of 'recent' introductions such as cacao and rubber. But has
not cashew been in Kerala for several centuries? In any case, it is really intriguing as to
why the mixed system of growing various trees, shrubs, and herbaceous crops in intimate
associations as in homegardens is not mentioned in Krishi Gita. As Dr Kumar points
out, Kerala homegardens certainly pre-date Krishi Gita. These 'omissions' are only
relatively smaller aspects of the mystery component of the work considering that several
important aspects such as the author/compiler, date, and motivation for producing the
work are shrouded in mystery!

An issue that comes up in this context is whether satisfactory progress has been made
over the centuries in capitalizing on the rich heritage teachings and messages of Krishi
Gita. Has Kerala agriculture made substantial progress, let alone the 'quantum leap'
commensurate with its past glory? Considering that phenomenal progress has been
made in agricultural development in some places, it needs to be evaluated if the expert
knowledge on various varieties (cultivars) of crops and their management as contained
in Krishi Gita has been used for further progress; for example, in breeding new cultivars
or in other such pursuits of modern agriculture. Basking in the glory of rich and old
heritage and feeling rightfully proud about it are certainly covetable; but it behooves of
the descendants of any heritage at any time to build on the past glory and stay abreast of
the developments in the field and be in the forefront; then only can we really feel proud
of the heritage. Heritage is not just what one inherits; it depends on what one does ya
the inheritance.

Once again, I wish to profusely compliment AAHF for 'unearthing' Krishi Gita ad
Prof. B Mohan Kumar for his superb effort in translating it and thus making it availablc
to contemporary readers. It has indeed been an honor to have been asked to write e
commentary of such an important treasure; on the one hand it made me feel proud as
the descendant of the rich heritage it portrays, but sad on the other in that my lack of
adequate knowledge on the socio-religious and cultural background of those times made
me unable to do a better and more scholarly job of this commentary. I can only hope
that agricultural scholars of Kerala will take it on to themselves to throw some more
light on the value, relevance, and scientific significance ofthe teachings and directives
of Krishi Gita.

#
Appendices
 Appendix 1. CroP varieties
in Krishi Gita (based on version D' No'
298)'
ilrp-r*i",i"" a"t"tiu"d
Cultivar Locations where predominantly grown
Crop
Rrce (Oryza sativa) Aadi ',1^.-^i:.
Anakkomban ParamPura lands
Annachamban VellaPPan nadu
Arlan Midlands
Arikkarali or Arikkirali Kolanadu' Kerala
Arikuruma Midlands
Ariviri, Arivari, or Vellappan nadu
Athiviri (?)
Ariyrmkali Midlands
Athiyan Karappuram' Mundakan la.nds
Ayini KaraPPuram' MundakcLn lands
Chambavu Pandy
ChembaltL PandY
Chemchamban VellaPPan nadu
Chennellu Kolanadu
ChentharmaniYan Midlands
Cheppitakkadan Midlands' ill-drained soils
Cheriyorathiyan Karappuram' Mundakan Tands
Cheru PandY ThalaPPillY
Cherumodan Kolanadu'jungle cultivation
Cherupokkali Kuttanadu
Cheruvith Thulunadu
Chettarytan KaraPPuram' midlands
Chirakachambavu PandY
Chittari VellaPPcLn nadu

Choranali Midlands
Churunakariyan Thulunadu'Kerala
Chutannatlan Kuttanadu
Dandan Thulunadu
EdakkuruYa Venanadu' PandY
Elinchamban VellaPPan nadu
Erumakkari VellaPPan nadu
Girikashala Thulunadu' Kerala
Irkilichambavu or Pandy'Vellappannadu
Irkkilachamban
KarJakkazhuthan Vellappan nadu' Venanadu
Kala
Kali Midlands
Kalkanmaytm PandY
Kamtrlara Thulunadu' Kerala
Kar PandY
continued
Crop Cultivar Locations where predominantly grout
Karikkan Kuttanadu
Karimkura
Karinchennellu Kolanadu
Karinkali Midlands
Karinkurinji Vellappan nadu, Thalappilly (direct-
sown)
Karippali Midlands
Karu kuruva or Karutha Karappuram, midlands
kuruva
Karuynsanam
Kazhama Kolanadu. midlands
Kodanellu Mountain passes
Kodanery or Kudaneri Midlands. ill-drained soils
Kolavazha Venanadu (dry sown)
Koora Kuttanadu
Kole Submerged areas
Koovalakkadan Midlands. ill-drained soils
Kothambachamban Vellappan nadu
Kozhivalan Kolanadu, Iow-lying lands
Kozhiyala Midlands, wetlands
Kumbalavan Midlands
Kumkumachambavu. Pandy
Kunjivithu Kolanadu
Kuruva Kuttanadu, Karappuram, midlands
Kuttadan
Kuttanadan Midlands, ill-drained soils
Kuttaryan Kuttanadu
Kutti Thalapp illy (transpl anted)
Madakkaru Pandy
Malayoottu
Malayudumban Kolanadu hllls
Manalary:an Karappuram, midlands
Mangamakkappan Vellappan nadu
Matha Pandy, northern lands
Melamkaru Pandy
Modan Kolanadu. jungle cultivation
Mukinavelutha Thulunadu, Kerala
Mulakuchambavu Pandy
Mundakan Kolanadu
Mundakanpala Midlands (Mundakan season)
Mundan
Arecanut Lr
Mundapalli or Midlands. dry soils
Mundampalli
Nallangachamban Vellappan nadu
Nikethan Kolanad u. jungle cultivation
Nivili Pandy
Njavara Dry soils
continued

#
Crop Cultivar Locadons * trre graJr.,rrurrrmia .5lmt
Odanchalu
Orikkole Pandy
Odukkathu
Orthidiyan Kolanadu
Pandy Venanadu
Paramban kazhamcL Kolanadu, uplands
ParambiL
Payyanadan Kolanadu
Pokkali Kuttanadu
Ponnaryan Kolanadu
Poombala Pandy
Poonkaru Pandy
Poothan Kolanadu, uplands
Puncha Midlands, ill-drained soils
Puzhukuchambavu
Sampathalan Thulunadu, Kerala
Seethabhogam Venanadu
Sheetha (?) Venanadu
Thalappilly pandy Thalappilly
Thanikali Midlands
Uz.huthuviratti Venanadu, Pandy
Valiya choranali Midlands
Valiya kutti Thalap p illy (transPlanted)
Valiyathu
Vally Kolanadu
Vasanam Pandy
Vo.ttan Midlands, dry soils
Vazhakannan Thulunadu
Vella kozhivalan Kolanadu, low-lying areas
Vellachenellu Thultrnadu, Kerala
Vellakurinji Vellappan nadu
Vellakkuttadan Venanadu. flooded
Vellamkaru Pandy
Vellayathan Midlands
Venkurinji Thalappilly (direcrsown)
Vennellu Kuttanadu
Venpala Midlands (Mundakan season)
Vettikkuttadan Thalappilly
Vettuveli eari Thulunadu. Kerala
Virippu Midlands, Thulunadu
Vyaz.havattom
Arecanut (Are ca catechu) Aarankam
Edanadan
Jadayan kalpam
Kozhikkodan
Puthur
Ramanadan
continued
Crop Cultivar Locations where predominanth gn-n*m

Thulunadan
Velldakka Vellunadu
Antaranthus sp. Arakkeera
Cherukeera
Kandan keera
Ash gourd (.Benincasa hispida) Churukkumbalanga
Banana, plantain (Musa spp.) Attu nendran (CaP-sic:r": ;r
Chili
Chingan
Eranadan
Kadali
Kadalipoovan
Kali
Kannan
Karuvazhakka rt'r
Coconut (Cd'(l-i
Kunnan
Malavazhakka
Munthan
Nadan
Neeran
Cotton ( G() i-{r :';'r':'
Nendran
Peyan
CowPea
Ponnan
Poovan
Ra,sath.ali.
Vannanirumudi-kunnan
Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum; Cherukadala ElePhant fo'rn-)'r'r
chickpea) Homam (AmorPhoPl:;;iu-'
Betel leaf (Piper betle) Appozhekkodan Fenugreek ifnei
Chelatha yettila t ua
foenturt-qr'tt
Chozhamandala vettila Yam (Dio-si"'r;
Chuwoor
Kodivettila
Kolla vettila
Kctngani vettila
Kozhikkodan vettila
Kuzhikkattiri vettila Giant cftcn:rz trl
Mukkanni (Xantltts+-t':; *'
Namaghappathi vettila
Njali vettila
Vellavettila Vellanadu, Vellanoor
Bitter gourd (Momordica Mundankaipakka
charantia) Kondakaipakka
Untuka
Briryal (S olanum melongena; Alengadan
eggplant) Chenathandan
Cherumullikka Indian beens
Kottakkadan
Kozhikkodan

continued
 i' rhr
Cultivat Locations rlhere preoomi:;j1:"r
Mullan
Mundanpanni
Nurapur-vam
Pindi
Thengan
Valiyattu mulichi
Ve.llimullan
'.-- 1 r fa;rsicrtttt unnuum\ Cheena mulaku
Cheru mulaku
Kaippan mulaku
Kattu mulaktL
Konda mulaku
Mulakum thondi
Mundan Kaippan mulaku
Coconut (Cocos nucifern) Cheruthenga
Dhruvam
Gowripathra
Kannikkooran
KumbhakudaYan
Cotton (Gossl'Pittm sP -) Kalpaparathi
Malamparuthikotta
Cowpea (.Vi gnrt unguicul ata) Chempayar
Karimpayar
Porumkali
Vallithandan
Elephant footYam Chentt
( Antorphophallus pae oniifolius) Cheruchena
Fenugreek (.Tri Sonella Velluluva
Jbenurn- graecum)
Yam (Dioscorea sPP.) CheerthakaLlan
Palneendi
Cherukizhangu
Mukizhangu
Pidikiz,hangu
Vallikizhangu
Giant chembu or cocoyam ChuttuvakeYan
(Xanthosoma sagittifolium) Kozhikalan
Kuzhichembu
Malaraman
Marakkandan
Nanachembu
Palchembu
Pezhn
Poozhichembu
Indian beans (Dolichos lablab) Attukomban
Chittamarakktt
Chuvannamarakka
continued
Crop Cultivar Locations where predominantly grown Crop
Mullanamaraka Tobacco (,\it'di
Mundanamaraka
Pollanamarakka
Puliamarakka
Vattanamarakka
Vellamarrakka
Ivy gourd (Coccinia grandis) Cherukovakka
Perrumkovakka
Vellakovakka Turmeric tCrrt
Lime (Citrus spp.) Eeli naranga
Illi naranga
Vadukapuli naranga Watermeloo ((
Valli naranga
Maize (Zea mays) Aricholam
Chencholam
Karincholam
Kuravakkambi
Kuthiravalan
Muthucholam
Vellacholam
Velladampu
Oriental pickling melon Chavathe
(Cucumis melo var. conomon) Chavathekka
Red gram (Cajanus cajan: Cheru thuvara
pigeonpea) Kothampam kotta
Sesame (S e samum indicum) Cheriellu
Gosandi Thulunadu
Karellu
Kutta.nadan ellu
Panikkuduppan Cultivated lands
Pattellu Coastal regions
Valiellu
Vayalellu Paddy lands
Vellellu
Snake gourd (Trichosanthes Kondapadelanga
cucumerina) Kongapadelanga
Mundanpadelanga
Veppadelanga
Sugarcane (Saccharum Bhadari karimbu
fficinarum) Naikarimbu
Neelakarimbu
Rasadali karimbu
Surakarimbu
Vellakarimbu
Tar o (C ol o c as ia e s culent a) Karinchembu
Velinchembu
Parangikizhangu
continued
Crop Cultivar
Tobacco (N ic otiana tabacum) Chappadan
Kappari
Kizhakkan
Madanandakan
Manneri
Pachapukayila
Paschimam
Vadakkan
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) Cherukodi
Malivrm
Vayanadan
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) Kuramathookka
Venkummattikka
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