UNIT II ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Irrigation development and watersheds – mechanized agriculture and soil cover impacts –
Erosion and problems of deposition in irrigation systems – Agricultural drainage and
downstream impacts – Agriculture versus urban impacts.

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND WATERSHEDS

Irrigation

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to land for the purpose of agricultural production. Effective
irrigation will influence the entire growth process from seedbed preparation, germination, root growth,
nutrient utilisation, plant growth and regrowth, yield and quality.

Different types of irrigation and irrigation systems storage

Surface Irrigation:

In this technique water flows and spreads over the surface of the land. Varied quantities of water
are allowed on the fields at different times. Therefore, flow of water under surface irrigation
comes under wobbly flow. Consequently, it is very difficult to understand the hydraulics of
surface irrigation
Subsurface drip irrigation
Subsurface drip irrigation is a variation from conventional surface drip irrigation techniques. By
minimising evaporation it uses water more efficiently than surface irrigation. The depth that the
laterals (also used in conventional drip irrigation) are buried at depends mostly on the tillage
practices and the crop to be irrigated. It is a costly system that needs expert design and
maintenance

Sprinkler Irrigation:
In the sprinkler technique of irrigation, water is sprinkled into the air and allowed to fall on the
ground surface just like rainfall. The spray is done by the flow of water under pressure through
small orifices or nozzles. The pressure is generally obtained by pumping. Through proper
selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of irrigation water
required to refill the crop root zone can be applied almost uniform at the rate to suit the
infiltration rate of soil.

Irrigation development

The following points highlight the top twelve developments of irrigation under five years plans
in India. Some of the developments are:
1. Extension of Irrigated areas
2. Development of Multi-purpose Projects
3. Development of Minor Irrigation Projects
4. Command Area Development Programme
5. Irrigation Commission and its Principles and Others.

Development # 1. Extension of Irrigated Area:

Five year plans have made extensive arrangement for extending the area under irrigation. At the
time of independence, about 19 per cent of agricultural land of India was under irrigation system
as against 41 per cent in Pakistan, 36 per cent in Israel, 52 per cent in Japan and near 100 per
cent in Egypt. During the planning period, stress has been laid on the extension of irrigation
facilities throughout the country.

As a result of that, at the end of 1997-98, 86.6 million hectares of land was irrigated which
comes about 46.5 per cent of total cultivable area (186 million hectares) of the country? Among
all the states, the extent of coverage of irrigation is highest in Punjab (73 per cent) followed by
50 per cent coverage in Haryana.

Development # 2. Development of Multi-purpose Projects:

In the meantime a good number of multi-purpose river projects has been completed under the
plans for extensive utilisation of river water for irrigation purposes along with other uses.

Development # 3. Development of Minor Irrigation Projects:

Five year plans in India have also made extensive arrangement for the development of minor
irrigation projects including wells, tanks, tube wells, pump sets etc. to extend irrigation facilities
to small and marginal farmers.

Development # 4. Command Area Development Programme:

In 1974-75, the Command Area Development Programme was launched for the maximum
possible utilisation of irrigation potential. Its main objective is to reduce the gap between the
actual irrigation potential and its utilisation.

This scheme was also introduced for increasing the agricultural production from the irrigated
commands. This programme envisaged execution of on farm development works like
construction of field channels, land leveling or shaping and adoption of the warabandi system
(network of distributaries over the command area) for rotational supply of water and
construction of field drains.

Development # 5. Irrigation Commission and its Principles:

In India Irrigation Commission has underlined following three principles for the utilisation of
irrigation water:

(i) To stimulate productivity of land in those areas where sufficient irrigation facilities has
already been developed through judicious use of water;
(ii) Optimum utilisation of irrigation water where such facilities are not developed in abundance;
and
(iii) To conserve water for facing drought like situation where irrigation facilities are
insignificant. The Commission has earmarked the ultimate irrigation potential at 114 million
hectares.

Development # 6. Impact on Food Production:

With the increase in irrigation potential to 89.3 million hectares, the production of food grains
has increased from 55 million tonnes in 1949-50 to 212.0 million tonnes in 2001- 2002.
Accordingly, the per capita availability of food grains has also increased from 395 grams to
around 512 grams per day.

Development # 7. Restoration of Water Bodies:

Under a massive scheme for repair, renovation and restoration of water bodies directly linked to
agriculture landed by the Union Finance Minister in the budget speech of 2004-05, it is proposed
to restore water bodies throughout India to their original glory resulting in a significant
enhancement of their storage capacity.

For this purpose, a pilot scheme to be implemented during the remaining period of the Tenth
Plan was approved by Government in January 2005 with an estimated cost of Rs 300 crore. It is
a state sector scheme, with a proposed finding pattern of Centre: State of 75: 25. Ministry of
Water Resources has approved pilot projects in 26 districts of 15 states at an estimated cost of
Rs 300.0 crore till end December 2007.

Development # 8. Irrigation Development under Eleventh Plan:

The Working Group on Water Resources for the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12) has
proposed creation of irrigation potential of 16 million hectares (9 million hectares from MMI
sector and 7 million hectares from MI sector) during the Eleventh Plan period.
Watersheds

A Watershed is an area of land where all of the water that is under it, or drains off of it collects
into the same place (e.g. The River).

A watershed is an area of land that feeds all the water running under it and draining off of it into
a body of water. It combines with other watersheds to form a network of rivers and streams that
progressively drain into larger water areas.

Watershed Management:

The word “watershed” introduced in 1920 was used for the “water parting boundaries”.
Watershed is that land area which drains or contributes runoff to a common outlet. Watershed is
defined as a geo-hydrological unit draining to a common point by a system of drains. All lands
on earth are part of one watershed or other. Watershed is thus the land and water area, which
contributes runoff to a common point.

Types of Watershed Management:

Watershed is classified depending upon the size, drainage, shape and land use pattern.

a. Macro watershed: 1000 -10,000 ha

b. Micro watershed: 100 -1000 ha

c. Mini watershed: 10 -100 ha

Objectives of Watershed Management:

a. Production of food, fodder, fuel.

b. Pollution control

c. Over exploitation of resources should be minimized

d. Water storage, flood control, checking sedimentation.

e. Wild life preservation

f. Erosion control and prevention of soil, degradation and conservation of soil and water.

g. Employment generation through industrial development dairy fishery production.

Main Components of Watershed:

a. Soil and water conservation,

b. Water harvesting and water management,

c. Alternate land use system.

MECHANIZED AGRICULTURE AND SOIL COVER IMPACTS

Mechanised agriculture
Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanise the work

of agriculture, greatly increasing farm worker productivity. In modern times, powered

machinery has replaced many farm jobs formerly carried out by manual labour or by working
animals such as oxen, horses and mules.

Mechanization may be either partial or complete. It is partial when only a part of the farm work
is done by machine. When animal or human labour is completely dispensed with by power
supplying machines, it is termed as complete.”

“Broadly speaking mechanization of agriculture has two forms mobile mechanization and the
stationary types of mechanization. The former attempts to replace animal power on which
agriculture has been based for very many centuries; while the latter aims at reducing the
drudgery of certain operations which have to be performed cither by human labour or by a
combined effort of human beings and animals.”

Benefits of Mechanization of Agriculture:

(1) It Increases Production
 (2) It Increases Efficiency and Per Man Productivity

(3) Mechanization Increases the Yield of Land Per Unit of Area

(4)  Mechanization Results in Lower Cost of Work.

(5) It Contracts the Demand for Work Animals for ploughing water lifting, harvesting,

transport etc

(6) It Brings in other Improvements in Agricultural Technique:

It Increases Production
Mechanization increases the rapidity and speed of work with which farming operations can be

performed.
It Increases Efficiency and Per Man Productivity
Mechanization raises the efficiency of labour and enhances the farm production per worker. By

its nature it reduces the quantum of labour needed to produce a unit of output
 Mechanization Results in Lower Cost of Work.

It has been accepted by all that one of the methods of reducing unit costs is to enlarge the size c*

the farms and go in for more intensive farming. It is found that the cost of production and the

yields can be adjusted properly if mechanization is resorted to.

It Contracts the Demand for Work Animals for ploughing water lifting, harvesting,
transport etc.:

In actual operation, costs amount to little when machines are idle, whereas the cost of
maintenance of draught animals remains the same during both periods of working and idleness,
because animals have to be fed whether they are doing work or not. It is advantageous to use
tractors when a great deal of work has to be done in a short time.

It Brings in other Improvements in Agricultural Technique:

In its training come improvements in the sphere of irrigation, land reclamation and the
prevention of soil erosion. The present-day dependence on the monsoon as the only irrigation of
crops in India can be obtained by a more scientific approach.

Case against Mechanisation of Agriculture:

But the case against the use of farm machinery in India is equally strong.
Important arguments against mechanisation are:

(1) Small Sized Farms:

The existence of a large farm is an essential condition for mechanisation. For proper and best
utilisation of agricultural machines, holdings will have to be large and should be (bund together
and not scattered in tiny plots as is the case in India

2) Surplus Agricultural Workers:

The basic defect of mechanisation is that it will result in too many agricultural workers
becoming surplus. Millions of farmers will be thrown out of land and will have to be provided
alternative sources of employment.

4) Poor, Illiterate and Ignorant Farmers:

The Indian farmers are, in general, poor and, therefore, will not be able to buy expensive tractors
and other farm machines. Besides, the farmers are uneducated. They will not be able to
understand the use as well as the working of expensive farm machinery. This criticism can be
easily answered. Farmers can always join together and purchase expensive farm machinery. Or
the village co-operative society can purchase it and hire it out to farmers.

(5) Imports:
India may not be in a position to produce farm machinery on a large scale. Necessarily,
therefore, she will have to depend upon foreign countries. This is only a short period problem.

(6) No Increase in Productivity of Land:

Mechanisation may not increase productivity of land. In India, the crucial problem is to increase
the productivity of land, because land is a scarce resource of the country. The increase in the
productivity of land is much more important than the increase in the productivity of labour In a
country like Japan, where mechanisation of farming is not adopted, productivity per hectare has
been maximised because of intensive cultivation.

Scope of Mechanisation of Agriculture in India:

The prospects for wholesale mechanisation of agriculture are not very bright in India for
more than one reasons :
(1) We have seen above that we have surplus farm labourers who seasonally unemployed and
underemployed. Mechanisation would further result in greater unemployment.

(2) The holdings are very small, while machines can be used on large farms economically and
effectively.

(3) As yet our production of tractors has not been sufficient to meet the requirements. Also we
are short of power tillers and tyres and tubes.

(4) Indian cultivators are largely ignorant and illiterate and have not yet developed the sense of
receptivity for the same.

(5) There is also lack of facility for standardised spare parts and servicing of machines.

Soil cover impacts

Soil cover and reforestation is a mechanism to protect soil from water loss. Like the protection
of an umbrella, soil cover and reforestation protects the soil and the microbes within from the
impact of sun heat, rain and wind. It stops the soil surface from sealing, and reduces the amount
of precious rainwater that runs off.

With a reduction of moisture loss in the soil, groundwater resources are protected, soil quality
and agricultural production can be improved, and water use for irrigation can be decreased, thus
optimising the local water cycle.

Soil moisture loss (and also soil degradation) can be minimised through different techniques of
soil moisture conservation: soil cover (with living plants) and reforestation, mulching,
different tillage techniques, and soil amendments. Soil cover is common on agricultural land.
Reforestation is common to protect water protection areas and groundwater resources, or to
prevent soil degradation in non-agricultural sites.

Advantages

Increases soil fertility and soil moisture

Protects soil from sun, wind and rain, reducing evaporation and compaction

Plant debris provides organic matter and nutrients to the soil

Reduces erosion

Prevents silting of rivers, lakes and reservoirs

Reduces runoff and enhances infiltration

Reduces work for weeding

Disadvantages

Pesticides may need to be used

To prevent from bushfires, a buffer zone around the field is necessary

Heavy agricultural machinery can damage the soil

Heavy agricultural machinery results in more permanent damage to the soil than previously
believed by researchers. This may lead to poorer crop yields and increased pollution from
agricultural land.
The result is called soil compaction and it concerns the negative effect of driving heavy
machinery on soil that is used for growing plants. Soil compaction is characterised by increased
density of the soil, reduced air volume and a reduced ability to drain off surplus water.

Erosion and problems of deposition in irrigation systems

Irrigation is essential for global food production. However, irrigation erosion can limit the
ability of irrigation systems to reliably produce food and fiber in the future.

The factors affecting soil erosion from irrigation are the same as rainfall—water detaches and
transports sediment. However, there are some unique differences in how the factors occur during
irrigation and in our ability to manage the application of water that causes the erosion.

All surface irrigation entails water flowing over soil. Soil type, field slope, and flow rate all
affect surface irrigation erosion, with flow rate being the main factor that can be managed.
Ideally, sprinkler irrigation will have no runoff, but application rates on moving irrigation
systems can exceed the soil infiltration rate, resulting in runoff and erosion.

Using tillage practices to increase soil surface storage and selecting sprinklers with lower
application rates will reduce sprinkler-irrigation runoff. Irrigation can be managed to minimize
erosion and maintain productivity.

Direct Environmental Impact of Irrigation

Because irrigation systems deal with redirecting water from rivers, lakes, and underground
sources, they have a direct impact on the surrounding environment. Some of these impacts
include: increased groundwater level in irrigated areas, decreased water flow downstream of
sourced rivers and streams, and increased evaporation in irrigated areas. Increased evaporation
in irrigated areas can cause instability in the atmosphere, as well as increase levels of rainfall
downwind of the irrigation. These changes to the climate are a direct result of changes to natural
moisture levels in the surrounding atmosphere.
Indirect Environmental Impact Of Irrigation

Irrigation systems also have an indirect impact on the surrounding environment. These indirect
effects may not be as immediately noticeable as the direct issues. Additionally, these effects take
a longer time to develop and produce longer-lasting changes. Irrigation can result in the
following indirect impacts:
Water logging

Waterlogging occurs when the soil becomes oversaturated with water, promoting anaerobic
conditions. With anaerobiosis, plant roots become unhealthy due to a number of chemical
reactions, including a reduction in soil iron and manganese oxides.

Soil Salinization

Soil salinization happens when the salt content in soil increases above normal, naturally
occurring levels. Irrigation draws a significant amount of water from an area, moving it to
agricultural or landscaped lands. The area that has lost a significant amount of water is often left
with concentrated salt levels in the decreased water levels left behind. High salt levels make it
difficult for plants to absorb the necessary amount of water and nutrients from the soil.

Ecological Damage

Ecological damage takes longer to occur and notice than waterlogging and soil salinization. One
of the most significant causes of ecological damage is in reduced downstream river flow. When
river flow is dramatically reduced, it can lead to disappearing wetlands and flood forest
ecosystems. Additionally, it results in insufficient drinking, industrial, and municipal water
supplies. Because less water finds its way into the ocean, coastal erosion may occur, which
damages coastal ecosystems such as mangroves and their habitats. In addition, saltwater makes
its way from the ocean into estuaries in increased amounts, which significantly changes the
ecosystem and habitat of these waterways as well.

Socioeconomic Damage

Reduced water flow can also have other less obvious effects on socioeconomic health.
Specifically, irrigation may lead to decreased fishing and shipping opportunities. One example
of reduced fishing opportunities can be seen in Pakistan within the Indus River. Here, water has
been over extracted for agricultural purposes. This has threatened the local fish populations
which causes an imbalance in the natural food chain. Over extraction of water in the Indus River
also affects local human populations, who rely on fishing as a source of dietary protein and
economic activity. Shipping opportunities are also affected as large ships and other water
transportation vehicles are left with insufficient water to appropriately navigate, reducing trade
and economic activity in certain areas.

Agricultural drainage and downstream impacts

Agricultural drainage
An agricultural drainage system is a system by which water is drained on or in the soil to

enhance agricultural production of crops. It may involve any combination

of stormwater control, erosion control, and watertable control.

Classification of agricultural drainage systems.

While there are more than two types of drainage systems employed in agriculture, there are two

main types: (1) surface drainage and (2) sub-surface drainage.

Figure 1 classifies the various types of drainage systems. It shows the field (or internal) and the

main (or external) systems.[2] The function of the field drainage system is to control the water

table, whereas the function of the main drainage system is to collect, transport, and dispose of

the water through an outfall or outlet. In some instances one makes an additional distinction

between collector and main drainage systems. Field drainage systems are differentiated in

surface and subsurface field drainage systems.

Fig.1.

Applications of Agricultural drainage

Surface drainage systems are usually applied in relatively flat lands that have soils with a low or
medium infiltration capacity, or in lands with high-intensity rainfalls that exceed the normal
infiltration capacity, so that frequent waterlogging occurs on the soil surface.

Subsurface drainage systems are used when the drainage problem is mainly that of shallow
water tables

When both surface and subsurface waterlogging occur, a combined surface/subsurface drainage
system is required.

Sometimes, a subsurface drainage system is installed in soils with a low infiltration capacity,
where a surface drainage problem may improve the soil structure and the infiltration capacity so
greatly that a surface drainage system is no longer required.

On the other hand, it can also happen that a surface drainage system diminishes the recharge of
the groundwater to such an extent that the subsurface drainage problem is considerably reduced
or even eliminated

Long Term Impacts from Agricultural Drainage

Good drainage improves the productivity of agricultural soils. Consequently, most watercourses

in lowland Whatcom County have been modified to better drain adjacent lands. New

watercourses (ditches) were constructed to further drain land and make agriculture possible.

Modifications such as channel straightening and removal of streamside vegetation have had

large and often negative impacts related to water quality, water quantity, fish, and fish habitat.

Increased Winter Storm Flows - Prior to modification for drainage and agriculture, winter
rains were intercepted by vegetation and absorbed into the ground. Drainage infrastructure

facilitates rapid surface flows that can result in damage to fish and habitat and to increased

flooding downstream.

Reduced Summer Flows - Historically, winter stormwater was stored in wetlands and in the

soil, becoming available at a later time to supplement low summer flows. Drainage

infrastructure removes water from the system during winter and spring months, resulting in

decreased summer flows and associated negative impacts to water quality and fish.

Vegetation Removal - Trees and shrubs that once lined watercourses were removed in order to

allow access for modifying the watercourse. Water quality protections and fish habitat provided

by the native vegetation were also lost.

Disconnection from Floodplain and Meander Zone - As watercourses were deepened and

straightened to improve drainage, they lost connection to the surrounding floodplain and lost the

natural meanders essential to fish habitat

Short Term Impacts from Drainage Maintenance

Drainage maintenance activities have negative impacts to natural resources including water

quality, fish and fish habitat. Vegetation removal using mowers or herbicides, dredging and

other maintenance work can muddy the water, kill fish, and remove fish habitat. Specific

impacts include:

Removing Fish Habitat -Riparian cover, aquatic vegetation, submerged woody debris, and

channel features such as pools and riffles are all essential habitat features for fish. Grass, shrubs

and trees along channel banks provide shade that helps mediate temperature, supply nutrients for

aquatic life and offers fish protection from predators. Mowing or applying herbicides to

vegetation on the Short Term Impacts from Drainage Maintenance Drainage Management Guide

Page 7 of 92 channel banks and dredging the channel will improve drainage, but also removes

important habitat features. The remaining fish may no longer have shade, food, or protection

from predators.

Altering the Channel - Straightening, widening, or smoothing out the bottom of a channel

reduces the quantity, quality, and diversity of available habitat. Widening the channel can

change water depth and allow higher flows to pass downstream. Higher flows can wash fish out

of the system, disrupt pool formations, and increase bank erosion. Channel features such as

riffles provide habitat for aquatic insects, which are an important source of food for fish.

Although some aquatic insects and fish species will remain following channel alteration, the

populations will not be as diverse or healthy as before and natural recovery can take decades.

Fish Kills - Dredging, more so than other drainage maintenance activity, can kill fish directly.

Fish can be removed from the channel in an excavator bucket and buried in spoils, crushed in

the water by dredging equipment, or suffocated due to sediment release, low dissolved oxygen

levels, or reduced flow during dredging.

 Removing Vegetation - Bank vegetation helps keep the water cool in summer by blocking

sunlight. Higher water temperatures are stressful to most fish species, particularly salmon and

trout, which require cold water. Bank side vegetation can also help improve water quality by

filtering potential pollutants, including sediment, and by providing food for fish. Removing this

vegetation can reduce or eliminate an important source of food for fish and result in high water

temperatures that are harmful to fish

Reduced Water Quality - Drainage maintenance work, including dredging, also has significant

impacts to water quality. Suspended sediment changes fish behaviour, inhibits their ability to

find food, clogs their gills, affects their ability to resist parasites and disease, or may directly kill

fish.

Agriculture versus urban impacts.

Urban agriculture can be defined shortly as the growing of plants and the raising of animals within

and around cities.

The most striking feature of urban agriculture, which distinguishes it from rural agriculture, is

that it is integrated into the urban economic and ecological system: urban agriculture is

embedded in -and interacting with- the urban ecosystem. Such linkages include the use of urban

residents as labourers, use of typical urban resources (like organic waste as compost and urban

wastewater for irrigation), direct links with urban consumers, direct impacts on urban ecology

(positive and negative), being part of the urban food system, competing for land with other urban

functions, being influenced by urban policies and plans, etc.

Environmental Sustainability

• Increases green space, which reduces the urban heat island, storm water runoff, and improves

air quality.

• Locally produced food reduces energy consumption and pollution associated with transportation

(reduced food miles).

• Improved hydrology, soil quality, biodiversity.

• Specific initiatives focus on organic gardening and urban yard and food waste recycling

streams.
 Unit III Climate change

GLOBAL WARMING 

The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused (directly or

indirectly) by human emissions of greenhouse gases. There is a broad scientific consensus that

climate change is occurring, and that human activities are the primary driver. Many impacts of

climate change have already been observed, including extreme weather events, glacier retreat,

changes in the timing of seasonal events (e.g., earlier flowering of plants), changes in agricultural

productivity, sea level rise, and declines in Arctic sea ice extent.

The physical effects of future climate change depend on the extent of prevention efforts (i.e.,

reducing greenhouse gas emissions). The social impact of climate changes will be further affected

by our efforts to prepare for changes that do occur. Climate engineering is another policy option,

although there are uncertainties regarding its effectiveness and little is known about potential

side effects.

Climate change destabilises the Earth’s temperature equilibrium and has far-reaching effects on

human beings and the environment. During the course of global warming, the energy balance and

thus the temperature of the earth change, due to the increased concentration of greenhouse

gases, which has a significant impact on humans and the environment.

Effects of climate change?

It is not scientifically possible to assign individual weather events to the current climate change,

however, it can be statistically proven that global warming will increase the probability of

extreme weather events. 

The direct consequences of man-made climate change include:

 rising maximum temperatures

 rising minimum temperatures 

 rising sea levels 

 higher ocean temperatures 

 an increase in heavy precipitation (heavy rain and hail)

 shrinking glaciers

 thawing permafrost

The indirect consequences of climate change, which directly affect us humans and our

environment, include: 

 an increase in hunger and water crises, especially in developing countries

 health risks through rising air temperatures and heat waves 

 economic implications of dealing with secondary damage related to climate change 

 increasing spread of pests and pathogens

 loss of biodiversity due to limited adaptability and adaptability speed of flora and fauna  

 ocean acidification due to increased HCO3 concentrations in the water as a consequence

of increased CO₂ concentrations

 The need for adaptation in all areas (e.g. agriculture, forestry, energy, infrastructure,

tourism, etc.)

How does it impact on India’s Agriculture?

Indian agriculture is directly dependent on climate change and weather. The climate changes
in temperature, rainfall and carbon dioxide concentration are expected to significantly impact
the crop growth and production in the country. With climate change will prove to a stumbling
block, the cycle of monsoons which originate from the Indian and Arabian Seas. For example,
a warmer atmosphere will aggressively push the hydro-logic cycle, which alters rainfall since
it holds more moisture and it will push for more evaporation leading to dry lakes and other
water bodies.

Besides, climate change results in longer growing season and warmer temperatures could lead
to longer periods of crop growth and yield. But there could be adverse impacts like reduced
water availability and more frequent extreme heat. These conditions could put agricultural
activities at a greater risk, as most of the agriculturalists are dependent on rain water. Experts
have already predicted drop in wheat yields, which is around 5-10 per cent with every increase
of 1°C and overall crop yields could decrease up to 30 per cent in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh
other countries. It is also predicted that India could experience a 40 per cent decline in
agricultural productivity around 2060s.

When it comes to water resources, climate change greatly alters future water resources. In
India, where the rising population continues to be a major concern, and there is always a need
for water for drinking and other important purposes. But there is a decline in per capita annual
freshwater availability along with the growth of population from 1951 to 2050. With the rising
population there will be an increase in demand for water which can reduce the recharging time
of the water-tables. Besides, Indian agriculture also consumes about 80-85% of the nation’s
water resources. As the amount of water required for agriculture has increased proportionally
over several decades since thousands of hectares were brought under cultivation.

Case study 1 erosion problems and remedies of deposition in irrigation systems with the
help of case studies in Cauvery delta

Case study 2 Global warming on agriculture using case studies of climate change on
agriculture over Tamil Nadu