Vo,

(RGPV, June cO09, 2007,

07, 2010
1 INTRODUCTION
sliding or rolling parts r h

In all types of machines, the

surfaces of moving,
frictional force againstareach
other. This mutual rubbing
of one
a n o t h e r generates
part against
results when this
ce
resistanca.
IS
which offler,
surfaces. Wear
resistance to the
relative motion ofthese vercome by
applied forces.
and tear of surtaces of moving/slidinot
Hence, friction
causes a lot of wear
Friction also generates heat oling parts
which consequently require
repeated replacement.
loss in the efficiency
of the machine. gets
dissipated thereby causing
These drawbacks of
frictional resistance can be
minimised by applying a thin
hin la.
layer of
surfaces. certain
lubricant in between the moving/sliding/rolling
substances, known as

A lubricant may be defined substance which reduces the friction when

as a introdo
known as lubrication.
between two surfaces and the phenomenon is

2 LUBRICANNT (RGPV, June 2005

A lubricant may be defined as

"A substance, such as oil or grease, that reduces friction when applied as a surface coating
to moving parts".

Or

A substance used to prevent contact of parts in relative motion, and thereby reduce
friction and wear, and prevent rusting".

Or

"A substance introduced between two moving surfaces to reduce the friction between
them, improving efficiency and reducing wear".

3 FUNCTIONS OF LUBRICANTS (RGPV, June 2004, 08; Nov./Dec. 2007 ; April 2009, Feb., 2010)
two
() The first and foremost function of a lubricant is to reduce friction. Let us consider
,(
steel blocks one on
top of the other. Both the steel blocks have smooth ground surtaeeatless les
can be made to slide over
the bottom block by applving force. is experimentally four
force is
It by some Some

required for this sliding motion when the two steel surfaces are
sepaa
lubricating oil.
.This

This can be under powerful microscope

explained by careful analysis of steel surfaces under powerul h prevent

study reveals that steel surfaces actually exhibit minute peaks and valleys
valleys that
that pre interlock to
overcome

to a
the blocks from sliding freely. These
peaks are known as asperities. The forcea srequired
t the other
isisknow other
the resistance created by the
interlocking and to slide one biock
asperities Pa
 Chapter2 UBRICANIS 107
the TrutuOnal orce. As is shown in lig. 1,

when
the two steel surfaces are
separaled by
some lubricating oil, the small peaks and valley
Non-lubricated
do not interlock, and the top block slides very
over the bottom block.
freely
() Lubricants reduce wear, tear amd
rface deformation.Direct contact between
the sliding/moving suriaces is avoided so Lubricated
wear, tear and surtace deformation are www
reduced. Without the intervening lubricant,

someDf the small peaks would be sheared off

as one block moved over the other. Eventually,
this would result in wear, tear and surface Figure 1 Lubricants reduce friction.
deformation.

In actual machinery, excessive wear on any part may result in malfunction of the entire unit.
Bearing wear can induce gear misalign- ment, and in the mill itself, may affect product shape and
quality.On an extrenme case it may result in
breakages, heavy damage and costly delays.
(ii) Lubricants act as coolant to carry
Heatgenerated
away heat. In a machine, frictional heat is
always produced at the point
of contact
between the rubbing parts.jCool oil flowing
Over the heated surface absorbs and carries the
heat away. In high speed, high-load sleeve
bearings like those used inroll serve in
backup
hot and cold strip, sheet and tin mills, the heat
generated within the oil film is very high | Cool oil Warm oil
because the oil films are very thin and shear Flow of oil
Tates are high, but as shown in Fig. 2, cool oil

OWing through the unloaded side of the Lubricants carry away heat.
Figure 2
earing meets the heated oil and returns it
to

ne reservoir
at a much lower temperature.
can prevent foreign matter or dirt
use of a lubricant
keep out dirt. he proper
0) Lubricants
smooth surtace of the journal and bearing.
entering a bearing and damaging the lubricant used
in an internal combustion engine, the
0) Lubricants act as a seal. Eor example,
This seal prevents the leakage of gases
betw the and the cylinder wall acts as a seal.
een piston
der high pressure from the cylinder.
of
reduce the maintenance and running cost
0) Lubricants prevents corrosion. Labricants rust
the rust and corrosion/
Generally, lubricant formulations containing
dchine as it prevents external corrosive
the attacCk of an
n to ward o t
ors provide a protective residual film
substance.
 LINONCLNTNO
raises in a serui automobiles
hydraulic lift that rvice
(1n) Lubricants transmit fluid power. The neans of
or force by means of petroleum
petrolen
for transmitting power
station uses a plunger or piston inside a cylinder contacting
surtaces. Ihe viScOSity
of petroleum oil.
oils
011. Ihe petroleum oil also protects the sliding, rust and oxidation inhibited,
to be anti wear,
erthis
function is low. Moreover they require As the use of lubricant
minimicos
the machine efficiency.
the
(011) Lubricants improve suriaces a n d expansion of meta)
t
iberation of frictional heat hence it
avoids seizure of moving
the efficiency of the mach
Hence, it improves nine.
also reduces loss of in the form of heat.
energy
(RGPV, June 2008, April 2009)
4 LUBRICATION
to reduce friction and wear between
"Lubrication is the process, or technique employed
between the surfaces to
surfaces by interposing a lubricant
two relatively sliding or moving "
between the opposing surfaces.
carry or help carry the load
to
lubrication and wear is called Tribology.
The science of friction,
smooth continuous operation of mechanical systems (such
Adequate lubrication allows tools etc.) with only small wear and without
turbines, cutting
pistons, pumps, cams, bearings, at bearings. Without lubrication metal or other
excessive stresses or seizures (welding of surfaces)
components can rub destructively causing destructive damage, heat and failure
over each other,
5 MECHANISM OF LUBRICATION (RGPV, Dec. 2004, 05, 06, 08; Feb. 2005, 06, 07, 08, 10;
April 2009; Sept. 2009; June 2008,09
Lubrication mechanism can be classified into following types
5.1 Hydrodynamic Lubrication or Fluid Film Lubrication
In this, the moving/siding surfaces are separated from each other by a bulk lubricant flm
(at least 1000 Á thick). This bulk lubricant film prevents direct surface-to-surface contact
so thatthe small peaks and valeys do not interlock. This consequently reduces friction and
prevents wear.
Mechanism of Hydrodynamic Lubrication (RGPV, Jan/Feb. 2006, June 2006. 07; Jan/Feb. 2008)
Fluid film lubrication is shown in Fig. 3(a). The small friction (if anv) is only due to the
internal resistance between the
particles of the lubricant moving over each other. In such d syste
friction depends on the thickness &
viscosity of the lubricant and the relative velocity & area or ne
moving/sliding surlaces. The coefficient of friction is as low as u = 0.001 to U0.03 for fluid fit
lubricated system in comparison to 0.5 to 1.5 for unlubricated surtaces.
Load Thick layer of Boundary ilm
Bulk lubric ant
lubricant
Velocity
Mww
a)
Figure 3 Fluid hlm Lubrication surfaces separated by Bulk Lubricant him.
5.2Boundary Lubrication or Thin-film Lubrication filn of fficient
When the lubricant is not scous enough to generate
a

the
thicknes
l
be reduced with proper

Sparate the surfaces under heavy

loads, friction may yet l u b r i c a n t s , greases and oils with lubricant
lubrication Solid vith prope
u c n an application is known as Boundary

additives function in this manner.

(RGPV, April 2009, Feb. 2006
Mechanism of Boundary Lubrication
surfaces which avoids dirers
A thin layer of lubricant is adsorbed
on the metallic
the metal suurd
adsorbed l u b r i c a n t o n both
etal-t
the layer of the
metal contact. The load is carried by / sliding surface is verv s
the distance
between moving small
(see Fig. 6.) In boundary lubrication, The
surface asperities.
the order of the height of the
the Boundar
surface is possible by
contact between the metal film
oil film. When this
occurs
squeezing out of lubricating
the high spots of the
the load would be taken on Bulk
the two surfaces tend to lubncant
journal and the bearing, and
become welded together by the appreciable
heat that is
the two surfaces
generated. This prevents motion as Load
This is known as seizure. If motion
adhere together. Velocity
removal of metal from one of
proceeds with the some

the surfaces the result is known as scuffing. FEbBBb06U888tddo Absorbed thin

ApAAADAAAAA9A9DDL layer of lubrncant
In practice, seizure or scuffing are delayed by
the fact that metals tend to form films on their surfaces
by chemical action leading to adsorption which tempo- Figure 6 Boundary lubrication performance
rarily prevents metal to metal contact. essentially dependent on boundary film.
For boundary lubrication the lubricant molecules should have
(i Long hydrocarbon chains,
(ii) Lateral attraction between the chains,
i Polar groups to promote wetting or spreading over the surface,
(io) Active functional groups which can form chemical bonds with the metals or other
surtaces
U High viscosity-index;
(wi Resistance to heat and oxidation
1)ood oiliness (Oiliness is the property by virtue of which oil
machine parts even at sticks to the
surtaee
high
(ie Low pour and oxidation. temperature
and heavy loads).

Lubricants used for

boundary lubrication are:
utaphite and
MoS, either as solid or as stable emulsion, in oil. These maten redur

Con between metallic surfaces by acan

bear formine films on the surfaces ana

ue
compression as well as
high temperature.
ETal oils. These are thermally stable property (
and their adhesion
mproved by adding small amount of
) fatty acids
tatty Olls or
Vegetable and animal oils and their soaps mpared
t

mineral oils. They

either phvsically adsorbed topossess Ba a l l ra

They metal surfaces or rea

h e metal
surfaces, forming a thin film of hricant bricant

metallic soap,
wnict
d
 Chapter 2 LUBRICA)T
53 Extreme-pressure Lubrications
ficient thickness to (RGPV, June 2004; Dec. 2006, 02,
ne proper lubricant. is done by incorporating extreme pressure additives in mineral oils for
is attained due to the applications in whuch
and oils with h temperature very high speed of moving/sliding surfaces under high
proper press
In such applications, liquid lubricants fail to stick and
may decompose and evern vaporize
Mechanism of Extreme-pressure Lubrication
April 2009, Feb. (RGPV, Feb. 2010; Jan./Feb. 200)
2005) Chlorinated esters, sulphurized oils and tricresyl phosphate are examples of such additives
oids direct metal-to These additives react with metallic surfaces, at prevailing high temperatures, to forrm metallic
hthe metal
face is
surfaces
very small of
chlorides, sulphide or phospnides, in the torm of durable films These films can withstand very
high loads and hign temperarures Decause of their high melting points.

Hence, they serve as good lubricant under extreme-pressure and extreme-temperature

Boundary
film conditions. These lubricants have an additional advantage that if the low shear strength ilms
formed on the moving parts are broken by the rubbing action, they are immediately replenished
Bulk
lubricant Applications which demand lubrication by Extreme pressure additives
) Wire drawing of titanium (requires chlorine containing additive which reacts with
the stable oxide film on the metal surface).
(i) In cutting fluids in machining of tough metals. A typical lubricant consists of hydro-
carbon oil, a small amount of fatty acid as a boundary lubricant and an organic
Absorbed thin chloride or sulfide additive.
layer of lubricant
(ii) For hypoid gears used in rear axle drive of cars which has both longitudinal sliding
motion and normal rolling movement.
orication - performance

boundary film. 6.4 Comparison among Hydrodynamic, Boundary and Extreme-pressure Lubrication
The main differences between hydrodynamic, boundary and extreme-pressure lubrication
are summarised below

Hydrodynamic Lubrication Boundary Lubrication Extreme-pressure

S.No. Particulars Or Fluid Film Lubrication Or Thin Film Lubrication Lubrication
als or other surfaces Lubricant Hydrocarbon oil with Solid lubricants, greases and Mineral ols with extrem
USe d properadditives. oils with proper additives pressure additives

2.
Applications Light machines of Rollers, gears, railway Hypoid gears used in
delicate and scientific track joints. rear axle dnve of cars
of
ks to the surface wire drawing of
instruments.
eg, sewing machines, titanium
watches, clocks.
3. Light load and high Applicable for machines Applicable for mac
se materials reduce
Operating working under heavy
conditions hines working under
can speed.
taces and they load and low speed. heavy load very high
speed and extreme pre-
Operty (Oiliness S
Ssure and temperature.
Thickness of Maximum Minimum Durable lubicant film
iness compared o
Iubricant sepa- (at least 1000 A) (always less than 100A) with thickness
react chemicallya rating moving/ (100-1000A)
acts as lubricant. sliding surfaces
 6 CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANTS (RGPV, April 2009; June
2008
be classified as
On the basis of their physical state, lubricants can

(or Semi-solid
() Lubricating oils (or liquid lubricants) (i) Greases

(iv) Emulsion lubricants

lubricants)
(ii) Solid lubricants
() Synthetic lubricants
(oi) Biodegradable lubricants.

Classification oflubricants

Lubricating
oils
Greases
Solid
lubricants
Emulsion
lubricants
Synthetic
lubricants Biodegradable
lubricants

6.1 Lubricating Oils

Lubricating oils are also known as liquid lubricants and are further classified into three
categories viz.

Animal and Vegetable oils,

Mineral or Petroleum oils and
Blended oils.
Characteristics of good lubricating oils: High boiling point, low
freezing point, adequate
viscosity for proper functioning in service, high resistance to oxidation and heat, non-corrosive
properties, and stability to decomposition at the operating temperatures.
Functions of lubricating oils:
Lubricating oils provide a continuous fluid film in-between
moving/sliding/rolling surfaces and reduce friction, wear and heat generation. They also act as
cooling and sealing agent. They also prevent corrosion.
The types of lubricating oils are briefly described below:
6.1.1 Animal and
Vegetable Oils
Animal ols are extracted from the crude fat by
tissue is broken 'rendering process in which the encio Sing
by treatment with steam or the combined action of steam and water. ils
Such as cotton seed oil
and castor oil are obtained veg a
nimal
and by crushing the seeds. Betore use
vegetable oils require further treatment. This ri
treatment involves cooling (SO
Separates out) ; filtration
through animal carbon (for removal of colour and oil
Neutralization of free
fatty acids by requisite amount of alkali ; brignte tnt h with

sulphuric acid which removes coagulation trea am t

suspended impurities by carbonizing ana ca
er

coagulate and settle out) and filtration.

Animal and ot
vegetable oils possess good 'oiliness' and hence
they stes
e

machine parts, even under high

temperatures and heavy loads.
 Lubricating oils
Uses
I Animal oils

Lard onl For lubricating ordinary machine parts

Neats f0ot ol For lubriating clocks and sewing machines particularly suitable for light
machinery.
Sperm oil Particularly suitable for light machinery.
II Vegetable oils

Castor oil Very good lubricant for bearing and machinery operating at high speeds
and low pressures like racing cars.

Palm oil For lubricating delicate instruments such as scientihc equipment.

Animal and vegetable oils have very limited uses at present because they are costly, have less
reistance to oxidation and after oxidation form gummy and acidic products. They get thickened
on coming in contat with air. When allowed to remain in contact with humidity or moisture
they show some tendency to hydrolyze.
Actually these oils are used as blending agent for minerals oils so as to produce, desire
effects in the latter.

6.1.2 Mineral or Petroleum 0ils

These are basically lower molecular weight hydrocarbons with about 12 to 50 carbon atoms.
Theur viscosity increases with the length of the hydrocarbon chain. They are obtained by distilla
tion of petroleum. As they are cheap, available in abundance and stable under service conditions,
hence they are widely used. In comparison to animal and vegetable oils, oiliness of mineral oils is

less.The addition of molecular weight compounds like oleic acid and stearic acid, increases
higher
the oliness of mineral oil.
Purnfication. Impurities like wax, asphalt1, etc. must be removed from crude liquid petroleum

A number of processes are used tor remoVing these unwanted

belore they are used.
impurities
wxig means removal of wax from the oil otherwise the wax raises the pour-point and

briCating oil unfit for use at low temperatures. For dewaxing, oil is mixed with propane,
any other suitable solvent
and then refrigerated tor the precipitation of war
thylene or
Wax then removed from oil by passing the oil wax suspension through a centrituge working at
1700 pm Finallv, distillation is done for solvent recovery.
A d refuung means treatment with conc. H,SO, so that asphaltic and naphthenic impurities
nd Tundesirable constituents can be eliminated from dewaxed-oils. Unwanted impurities
get dissolve in acid or are converted into tarry sludges. Sludge is removed by filtration,
hile calculated amount of caustic soda tor the removal of excess
rate is neutralized with a

Finally. the Is decolorised by passing through

fuller's earth
oil
rethning nvolves
mixing oil with nitrobenzene or some other suitable solvent (like
mixture of propane and cresol or sulphur dioxide and benzene,
etc)
S hylether, furtural,
uch in which oil 1s immiscible but the undesirable impurities are highly soluble. After
 for some time so that liquid separs
proper mixing with such solvent, the oil is left undisturbed arates
into two layers. 'Solvent layer containing impurities and 'oil layer iree trom impurites, bt
solvent which be recovered by distillation. Distillation also produ.
CEs
might contain sonme can

refined oil. Solvent is also recovered by similarly distilling

solvent layer, when theresid
is lett behind and is used sa sourc
as as
cOntaining asphaltic, naphthenic and resinuous substances
undergo decomposition at hiehe
of these or as a fuel oil. 1t is to be noted that asphalt he
f o r m a t t o n . N e can reduce any chan
and sludge ance
temperatures, causing carbon decomposition
materials through solvent refining. Th
of formation of carbon deposits by removing asphaltic
also and the retined 1l thus obtained shows less chan.
process of solvent refining is economical
inhibitors present in oil also get remowe
in viscosity with temperature. Natural oxidation vec
refined oil shows less resistant to oxidation. Moreove
during solvent refining. Hence, solvent
drawbacks can be removed by incorporating some additives
possesses lower oiliness. These
solvent refined oils.
: Blended Oils (RGPV, March/Aprl 2010
6.1.3 Additives and their Roles in Lubricants
Desirable characteristics of lubricating oils can be improved by adding small quantites or
various additives. The oils thus obtained are known as blended oils or compounded oils.

An additive is a material that imparts a new or desired property to the lubricating oil. It
may also enhance a desirable property that the lubricating oil already possesses to some
degree.

Broadly speaking, there are tuwo types of lubricant additives:

Chemically active additives are those which chemically interact with metals (to torm protective
fims) and with polar oxidation and degradation products (to make them harmless). Dispersants
Detergents Anti-Wear (Aw) agents, Extreme Pressure (EP) agents, Ovidation inhibitors.Rust ani
corrosion inhibitor are few of the examples of chemically active additives.
Chemically inert additives are those additives which improve the physical properties that art
critical to the effective performance of the lubricant. These additives include: viscosith inder
improvers, foam inhibitors, Pour point depressants,
Demulsifiers, Emulsifiers etc.
These additives, their purpose, functions and typical examples are summarised below

) Lubricant Protective Additives

Additive Type Purpose Functions Typcal examples

) Antwxudant Retard oxidative decom- Terminate tree radical Aromatic amines.
position chain re actions and Hindered phenols et

Decompose peroxides
() Metal Decrease catalytic effect of By complexing with Amines, sultides or
Deactivator metals on oxidation rate phosphites etc
metal ions, thev form
inactive layer on
metal surtaces
(i) Antifoamant Prevent persistent toam
Speed collapse of Silicon polymers.
formation by lubricant foam by reducing
surtace tension
(Surface Protective Additives

Additive Type Purpose Functions Typical examples

Rust and Prevent rusting and Neutralization of corro- Metal phenolates, basic
Corrosion corrosion of metal parts sive acids and /or pre- metal sulfonates, fatty
inhibitor in contact with the ferential adsorption of acids and amines.
lubricant. polar constituent on metal
surface to provide a
protective film.
(i) Anti-wear Reduce friction and wear Prevent metal-to-metal Zinc dithiophosphates,
And and prevent scoring and contact by chemical organic phosphates and

EP agent seizure. reaction with metal acid phosphates,

surface to form a film sulfurized fats etc.
with lower shear strength
than the metal.

(in) Friction Change coefficient of Preferential adsorption of High molecular wt.

friction. surface active materials. organic phosphorus and
modifier
phosphoric acid esters,
organic fatty acids and
amines.

(iv) Detergent Keep surfaces deposits Neutralize the sludge Magnesium phenolates,
free. and varnish precursors phosphates and
and keep them soluble. sulfonates.
(o) Dispersant Keep insoluble contami Prevent agglomeration of Alkylsuccinimides, and
nants dispersed in the contamnants as they are Polymeric alkyl-
lubricant bonded by polar thiophosphonates.
attraction to dispersant
molecules. Contaminants
are kept in suspension
due to solubility of
dispersant.

II. Performance Additives

Additive Type Purpose Functions Typical examples

Viscosity Reduce the rate of Polymer expand with Polymers and copoly-
modifier viscosity change with increasing temperature to ners ofcopolymers of
temperature counteract oil thinning olefins, alkylated sty
renes, methacrylates and
butadiene.
i) Pour point
Enable lubricant to flow Reduce interlocking by
depressant at low temperatures modifying wax crystal
Polymethacrylates,
phenolic polymers and
formation.
(un) Seal Suwell alkylated naphthalene
Cause swelling of elasto-
Agent Aromatic hydrocarbons
mer by chemical reaction
and organic phosphates.
 Jan./feb. 2007, Dec. 2008, June/)u
6.2 Greases or Semi-Solid Lubricants (RGPV, June 2007, July 2006
A semi-solid lubricant obtained by combining lubricating oil with thickening agent is

termed as "Grease".

Lubricating oil is the principal component and it can be either petroleum oil or a synthehi.
etic
hydrocarbon of low to high viscosity. The thickeners consist primarily of special soaps of lithium,
sodium, calcium, barium, aluminium etc. Non-soap thickeners include carbon black, Silica gel, polyureas

and other synthetic polymers, bentonite claysetc. (Theyimprovethe heat resistance of a lubricani),
The fibrous structure of the thickener traps the oil and enables the lubricant to cling to moving parts
Unlike lubricating oils that flow of their own accord (Newtonian fluids), most greases flow
only under pressure (Non-Newtonian fluid).
The fiber structure of thickener is adversely affected by water contamination and the grease
undergo degradation. Hence, (unless a grease has been formulated to function), it is not usedin the
presence of water
Example 1 Under what operating condition are greases preferred to lubricating oils ?

IRGPV, June/July 2006)

Solution. (i) Shear or frictional resistance of Greases is much
support much heavier load at lower speed.
higher than oils hence they can
Coefficient of friction of greases is much
higher than that of lubricating oils. Therefore,
whenever possible, it is better to use an oil instead of
grease.
(i) Compared to lubricating oils, greases cannot
That's why the
grease lubricated bearing works at
effectively dissipate heat from the bearing
the oil-lubricated bearing relatively lower tempe- ratures
to as
compared
Preparation
Greases are made by saponification of fat with alkali (like Caustic
hot
lubricating oils with constant soda) followed by adaing
total amount of the
mineral oil.
mixing. Consistency of the finished
grease 1S goveneu
Applications and Conditions for using
Semi-Solid Lubricants
Greases have the following uses
rail
n axle boxes
(or any other such applications where
due to oil cannot
(n)
high load, low speed, intermittent operation, sudden jerks remain pa
in bearings and gears that works at etc.,
high temperatures il is
undesiral pang paper, textiles, edible articles etc. where dripping or
(0)in situations
where bearing needs grit or

to be sealed
greases are more resistant to against entryo
OIsture, as the
Classification of Greases on contamination y a0ents.
the basis of the (RGPV June 2007)
Soap used in their e
Soda based greases employ sodium soaps as thickening agent in petroleum Manud
not wateroils.
ren As the
Sanum Soap content is soluble in ater resistant

hese water so these

which
greases can be used
up to
greases a
175. They are suitable ror
i n ball bearings

generates frictional heat.

 lth4nbased greuses Cmploy lithium soaps as thickening
agent in petroleum oils.
These sreases are resistant to water and have
good high-temperature properties.
These greases are stable in storage, have high mechanical and
oxidation stability.
They have high nmelting point (about 150").
For aircralt lubrication aPplications at extreme heights, where
temperature as low as
55Cmay exists, lithium-base lubricant (properly formulated) can be used as
theyy
ermil functionng ot the controls under such conditions. These greases are used for
special applicalons only, due to their high cost.
(u) Caleium-based greases employ calcium soaps as thickening agent in petroleum oils.
These greases are also known as Cap-greases. These greases are the cheapest and
most commonly used. These are water resistant and can be used upto 80° C The
amount of lime can be varied from 10 to 30% in calcium-based greases for getting
wide range of consistency, from soft paste to hard, smooth solid
These grease are suitable for lubricating caterpillar treads, tractors; water pumps etc.
(iv) Axe greases are very cheap resin greases. They are prepared by adding lime (or any
heavy metal hydroxide) to resin and fatty oils. After thorough mixing and standing,
stiff mass grease floats out. Talc, mica or any other suitable filler is also added to
them. They are resistant to water and used for equipment working at low speeds
and high loads.

6.2.1 Properties of Greases

6.2.1A Consistency (RGPV, Dec. 2005; Jan./Feb. 2006)

The consistency or yield value is defined as

"The distance in tenths of a milimeter that a standard cone penetrates vertically into the
sample of grease under the standard conditions of load (150 gm), temperature (25°C) and
time (5 seconds)".

Factors on which it depends: The consistency of a grease depends on:

The structure and interactions of the gelling elements in it, and

)
() The viscosity of oil used in the preparation of the grease.
argace t ic determined bv using an apparattus called
 Ter
Clawly heat the beaker at a rate of
the grease sample l°Cper minute. As the
passes tTom a sermi-solid lo a temperature is increased,
molten state
a t e the
temperature at which the first of drop
of the metal cup. grease sample falls from the
opening
Report the ab
(vin) Report above temperature as the
drop-point of the grease
sample
Thermometers
Cork Electronically
operated stirrer
Glass
case Glass
beaker
Grease i dLid (Air tight)
sample
Metal
cup
Water Opening
Emerging
drop
-Burner
igure 8 The drop point test apparatus.
Solid Lubricants (RGPV, Dec. 2003, 06; June 2005; Jan./Feb. 2008; March/April 2010)
5.3
Solid lubricants reduce friction by separating two moving surfaces under boundary
conditions. They are used either in the dry powder form or mixed with oil or water. Low spots on
the surface of moving parts are filled by these lubricants which then form solid films having low
frictional resistance. The usual coefficient of friction of solid lubricants is between 0.005 and 0.01.
Applications and conditions for using solid lubricants:
) Commutator bushes of motors and electronic generators where contamination of
grease or lubricating oil (by the entry of dust or grit particles) is unacceptable;
(i) Internal combustion engines where a tight film is desired between the piston rings
and the cylinder for increasing compression. In this application, combustible
lubricants must be avoided. Lubricating film cannot be secured by using lubricating
oils or greases because of the high operating temperatures.
lubricants
The trwo most commonly used solid are :
Graphite
Molybdenum disulphide
 6.3.1 Graphite (RGPV, June 2004, 0
made up ol network ot
hexagons in which.
Graphite consists of number of tlat plates each
arbon is in sy hylbridis.ation state (sece Fig, 9(0)| The plates are separated from each other hut.
and are held together by weak Van der Walls' torces so that even a Small force is sufficient to sda
the lavers parallel to each other. Hence, it has low coetticient ot triction. It is very soapy to tous
shd
touch
nn intlammable and not ovidized in ar below 375"Ct can be used upto very much hieh
temperatures in the absenoe of air. lt is used in the powdered form or as suspension in oil or walte
along with tannin as emulsitying agent. Graphite dispersed in oil (termed as oildag) is usedm
internal combustion engines as it gives a light-fit contact by forming a film between the piston
rings and the vlinder thereby increasing compression. Graplhite dispersed in water (termed
aquadag) is usetul where a lubricant free trom oil is needed. Graphite greases (i.e., graphite mixed
with grease) is usetul for higher temperature applications. Graphile is used as lubricant m
8r ompressors fndstuf? industry, railuay track joints, open gears, cast iron bearings, gene
mahnesoy uvrks cte.
Graphite act as evcellent lubricant on the surface ofmoon |RGPV, MarchlApril 2010, Thisw
because tenperature on moon is 110°Cduring day time and -150°C during nights. Moreover, irs
absent on moon. So oil
grease cannot act as lubricant under these conditions. However, graphite
or

(being a solid lubricant) is very little ettected by tenperature changes. Thus, graphite acts as a god
lubricant on the surtace ot nmoon.

Carbon atom in Fachcarbon

A network ot atom bonded
by only three
hexagons 3.08 A
ovalent bonds
-O alom
P'lates ot ayers laver
capable ot sliding
parallel to each other
Mo atom

3.4A 3.1.3 A
laver
315 A
S atm
laver
142 A

()
Figure 9
(a Layered structure of graphite. (b) Sandwitch-like structure of molybdenum disulpn (Mos
6.3.2 Molybdenum disulphide
as a
Saniwitch-like structure which les
lavers of sulfur, which are o.20 A
in a layer of molybdenum atoms tx
apart, see Fig. o()
MOS, has low
shear strength in a direction poor interlamn

tracton. parallel to the layers due

t p.
That s why Mos, has very low coetticient ot triction It is
SOld-tm
lubricating surtace usetul tor space staoic
bonded with 23» vehicles is made trom ( *
radiations
silivates, which can withstand extreme temperatures.
low pressures dl
 Applications
() MoS, compounded in nylon to form a self lubricating or "internally lubricated"
thermoplastic composite with reduced
wear, friction and stick-slip.
(i) MoS, is also compounded in polymers and all kind of sintered materials for sleeve
bearings elastomers O-rings, carbon bushes eto
(ii) MoS is also used as an additive to oils and greases in shaft bearings of jaw
crushers, machine tool gearing, coal conveyer belt gear units etc.
In the fornm of dry powder, solid lubricants are effective lubricants additives because of their
lamellar structure. The lamellas orient parallel to the surface in the direction of motion, and easily
shear over each other resulting in low friction.
The lamellar structure is able to prevent contact Particle orientation
after initial sliding
even between highly loaded stationary surfaces.
Large particles of these solid lubricants best
perform on relative rough surfaces at low speed.
However, finer particles of these solid lubricants best
perform on relative smooth surface and higher Figure 10 Lamellar structure leading to
speeds. effective lubrication by solid lubricants.

6.4 Synthetic Lubricants (RGPV, Dec. 2005, Jan./Feb. 2006)

These are manufactured or synthesized in chemical plants or refineries
(by combining
reacting or polymerizing basic components some of which may be the by-products of oil refining)
to produce tailor-made
products that can lubricate like conventional lubricants but at severe or
extreme conditions, they exhibit unique combinations of
as
properties like high-temperature
Stability, extended temperature range, long service life even in reactive environments etc.
These lubricants are not produced directly during the normal
manufacturing and refining
processes of the petroleum industry.
Relative properties of synthetic lubricants after incorporating additives are summarised
below
S
Synthetic Low High
No.
lubricant Temperahure | Temperature Viscosity|
Index
Lubricity Volatility Fire Hydrolytic
properties Stability resistance stability
Poly alpha olefins G G G G G P E
(PAO)
Diesters E E V G A F F
Linear Alkyl G F P G A P E
Benzenes (LAB)
4. Polyalkylene
G G E G G P
Glycols (PAGs) G
5.
6. Phosphate esters E P G A E F
Silicones E E E P G
Fluorinated Lubes
where F Fair,
E E
A E
F
E
G Good, E =
Excellent, V =Varies
 Characteristics of Synthetic Lubricants. In general, syrnthetic lubricants possess thefoll.

properties
owing
() Thermal stability even at high operating temperatures;
(1) Chemical stability even in corrosive environments
(in) High viscosity-index;
(iv) Non-inflammability and high flash points;
(v) Low freezing point.

Important characteristics and typical applications of synthetic lubricants are givenbelow

S.No Synthetic lubricant Application Remarks

1. Di-2 ethyl sebacate (Diester) Used for lubrication in Satisfactory performance from
turbo-jets -

50° C to 230°C

2. Phosphate ester As additive in petroleum Improves boundary

lubricants
3. Poly Alkylene Glycol (PAGs) Aircraft turbine lubricants
4. Higher polyalkylene oxides, Residue free high
polyglycidyl ethers temperatures lubricants for
roller bearings of sheet glass
machinery
5. Flourinated lubes Used in Submarines
6 Silicone Moisture-repellent dielectric
lubricants for clocks, timers
and other electronic devices
Not used for aircraft turbine
lubricants
lubrication properties.
Thermally stable, free from
corrosive action, stable even at
high rates of mechanical shear
Decompose into volatile parts
at high temperatures.
Less susceptible to oxidation
and cracking, high chemica
and thermal stability
Prone to oxidize at high
temperatures forming gels

6.5 Biodegradable Lubricants

"A lubricant is classified as biodegradable if its percentage degradation in a standara test

exceeds a target level.
"

Characteristics of Ideal Biodegradable Lubricant

() Low temperature fluidity and
pumpability,
(i) Oxidation and thermal stability,
(ii) Protection from corrosion and wear,
(i0) Demulsibility and anti-foam
property
(v) Load carrying capacity,
(vi) Water toleration, and filterability,
(vii) Environmentally friendly.