~

LUBRICANls

7.1 Introduction
A lubricant is J. suhsrance introduced between two moving surfaces to reduce friction. This prope
of reducing friction is termed as lubricity or slipperiness and the process of reducing friction betwe:
rwo moving surfaces by the introduction of lubricants is known as lubrication. Before going into
what
• . lubrication is, what a lubricant is and how it functions, we need to know what friction is.
I•ricrion
· · t fH.; ,orcc
is r that resists the relative motion between two bO d'ies .m contact. The surfaces
of all material, no matter how smooth they appear, are not truly smooth on an atomic scale. They
arc rough, with sharp and rugged projections called asperities (Figure 7.l(a)). When two surfaces
come in contact with each other, initially, they only couch at a few of these asperity points (Figure
7.1 (b)). When a small load b applied on a metal surface, local high pressure develops at these points
(asperities) of contact whkh thi:n ci:nd to interlock, thus, developing a resistance to motion. When
a metal slides, the peaks get broken resulting 111 wear and tear of the surfaces. Further, if the pressure
is high, the asperities deform plastically increasing the contact area between the two surfaces. A
sumcienrly high pressure leads to the formation of a welded junction between asperities. Additional
force is then required ro break chcsc junctions. This further adds to the frictional resistance.

Asperities in
Force (F) contact
Magnifled v1t·w
Rc:il ~urf.11.x-s .ire rough
i
Book

'fable

( I) (b)

figure 7.1
. (a} Magnified view of a real surface (b) Contact between two surfaces on application of toad
--
 Lubricants • 401

fhus, fricrional resistance harms the system in three ways.

• le causes energy loss. Extra work has to be done to overcome che force of friction.
• Friction cause~ genera~ion of heat in areas in contact. These heated parts may melt, get
deformed leadmg to seizure (welding of two·surfaces due to heat) of the system.
• Breaking of asperities brings about abrasion or surface wear and tear.

J.2 functions of Lubricants

1. A lubricant reduces frictional resistance by keeping the moving surfaces of a system apart and
prevents their direct contact so that the asperities do not interlock.
2. Ir reduces surface deformation, and wear and rear by keeping the moving surfaces apart.
The lubricating oil absorbs the generated heat and acts as a coolant.
3.
4. Lubricants increase the efficiency of the machine.

5. They reduce maintenance cost of machines and increase their life.

6. Lubricants also act as sealants for gases.

Lubricant circulation systems carry away debris and contaminants that get introduced into
the system.
8. They reduce noise of the machine.
9. They avoid seizure of the moving parts since the use of lubricants minimize the liberation of
frictional heat.
Io. Lubricants prevent corrosion and rust.

7.3 Mechanism of Lubrication in Different Types of Lubrication

Depending upon the operating conditions and the lubricant characteristics, lubrication is of the
following types:
J. Fluid film or thick film or hydrodynamic lubrication
2. Thin film or boundary lubrication
3. Extreme pressure lubrication
 3 MECHANISM OF LUBRICATION
There are mainly three types of mechanism by which lubrication is done :
(1) Fluid-film or thick-film or hydrodynamic lubrication : In thi~, tl:e moving/ sliding
surfaces are separated from each other by a thick-filnt offluid (at least 1,000 A tluck ), so that direct
surface-to surface contact and welding of junctions rarely occurs. The lubricant filnz covers/fills the
irregularities of the sliding/11zoving surfaces and forms a thick layer in-betzveen then1, so that there no direct
contact betzveen the nzaterial surfaces [see Fig. 3 (a)]. This consequently reduces wear. 1ne resistance to
nzovenzent of sliding/nwving parts is only due to the intenzal resistance betiveen the particles of tlte
lubricant 1noving over each other. Therefore, the lubricant chosen should have the n1ininut1n viscosity
 as. The C
occurs ~ the case of a shaft
not too high load. In a journal burin .,
of shaft as well as the bearin 'I ~
each other. Thus, the resistang surfatoces; and •
.
t. DeI,cate . ce movement 11
instruments, lioht -"ch. 1:1.-
o ....,, mtS uw watches docb
truments, etc. are provided with thi5 type of' bri , ~
.u cation.

Beoring1tvng

Rola ling shaft in

floating lubricant Fig. 4. Hydrodynamic lubrfcatlona.
Thiele lilm of lubricant

Hyd~ca~bon oils a~e ~onsidered to be satisfactory lubricants for fluid-film lubrication. In order to
maintain VJSCOSlty of the 011 m all seasons of year, ordinary hydrocarbon lubricants are blntdtd witb
selected long chain polymers. Moreover, hydrocarbon petroleum fractions, generally, contain small
quantities of unsaturated .hy_drocar~ons, wMch get oxidised under operating conditions, forming
gummy prod~ts. So antzoxzdant (like ammo-phenols) are used in journal bearing.
(~BcSundary lubrication or thin-film lubrication 1s done, when a continuous film of lubriamt
cannot persist and direct metal-to-metal is possible due to certain reasons. This happens when: {t) a shaft
starts moving from rest, or (i1) the speed is very low, or (iii) the load is very high, and (iv) viscosity of the
oil is too low. Under such conditions, the clearance space behueen the moving/sliding surfaces is lubricated
with an oil lubricant, a thin lnyer of which is adsorbed, (i.e., surface attached) by physical or chtmical
forces or both on both the metallic surfaces. These adsorbed layers avoids direct metal-to metal contact.
The load is carried by the layers of tlte adsorbed lubricant on the both metal surfaces [see Fig. 3 (b)]. The
coefficient of friction in such is, usually, 0.05 to 0.15. The oil-film keeps the distance apart between
of the meeting surfaces of the order of the height of the asperities.
Vegetable and animal oils (glycerides of higher fatty ncz.ts) and thezr soaps possess property of
adorption (or surface attachment), either physically adsorbed to metal surfaces or react chemically at
430 ENGINEERING Cffe~

the metal surfaces, forn1ing a thin film of metallic soap, which acts as lubricant. The load is catrie
by th e two layers of adsorbed lubricant. Although the fatty oils posses~ a greater adhesion p ~
~called oiliness) than mineral oil, yet they tend to break down at high temperatures. In_ Order to
improve the oiliness of mineral oils (which are thermally stable), small amounts of fatty oils orfa
acids are added. Graphite and molybdenum disulphide eithe: alone or as stable suspen~ion in Oil~
~lso used for boundary lubrication. These 1naterials fomi fllnis on the metal surfaces, tvh'ch possess '°1o
internal friction and can bear conipression as well as high ten1peratures.
For boundary lubrication, the lubricant molecules should have : (z) lo~g hydrocarbon chains.
(ii) polar groups to pro,note spreading and orientation over the metallic surfaces ~t hz~Jz pressur~; (iii) lateral
attraction between the chains; (iv) active groups or aton1s, which can fon: 1ch~nzzcal lznkag~~ iulth the metals
or other su1faces. High viscosity-index, resistance to heat and ox1dahon, good oiliness, and low
pour-point are some of the good qualities of bo1.mdary lubricants.
(3) Extreme-pressure lubrications : When the moving/sliding si~rfaces ~re _under ~ery high
press~tre and speed, a high local ten1perature is attai(J't!,_~r!_'t;~nder such conditzons, ltqiud l~t~ncants fail
to stick and ,nay decompose and even vaporize. I0___.meet these extreme-pressure conditions, special
additives are added to mineral oils. These are called "extreme-pressure additives". These additives
form on metal surfaces niore durable filnzs, capable of withstanding very high loads and high
temperatures. Important additives are organic compounds having active radicals or groups such
as chlorine (as in chlorinated esters), sulphur (as in sulphurized oils) or phosphorus (as in tricresyl
phosphate). These con1pounds react with 111etallic surfaces, at prevailing high temperatures, to fornz metallic
chlorides, sulphide or phosphider These metallic compormds possess high nzelting points (e.g., iron
chloride and iron sulphide melts respectively at 650°C and 1,100°C) and serve as good lubricant
-u nder extreme-pressure and extreme-temperature condition~ f by chance, the low shear strength
films are broken by the rubbing action of moving parts, they are imntediately replenished.