CHAPTER 6

Lubrication

1
 Contents
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Properties of lubricants

6.3 Types of lubrication

6.3.1 Boundary lubrication

6.3.2 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication

6.3.3 Hydrodynamic lubrication

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6.1 Introduction
• The lubricating system delivers oil to the moving
parts to reduce friction (e.g. IC engine)
It holds an adequate supply of oil to cool, clean and seal
the engine.
• To accomplish the above, they should have the
following properties:
good lubricity
 ideal viscosity
chemical stability
fire resistance
good heat transfer capability and the like
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• Additives improve the quality of lubricants;
a) Viscosity index improver: A single viscosity oil
could be too thick at low temperatures and very thin at
high temperatures. Viscosity-index improvers are added
to lubricants so that viscosity stays nearly the same.
b) Resistance to carbon formation: When oil is
refined, chemicals are added to fight carbon formation
and oxidation. These can occur at the high
temperatures.
c) Corrosion and rust inhibitors: Additives are put in
the oil to help fight corrosion and rust in the engine.
These additives displace water from metal surfaces so
oil coats them. The additives also neutralize acids.
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d) Detergent-dispersant: These additives are similar
in action to soap. They loosen and detach particles
of carbon and grit from moving parts.
e) Extreme pressure resistance: Additives put into
the oil to improve the resistance of the oil film to
penetration (engine oil subjected to very high
pressure in the bearings and valve train).
The extreme-pressure (EP) additives react
chemically with the metal surfaces. The result is a
strong, slippery film that resists penetration and
being squeezed out.

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 6.2 Properties of lubricants
Properties: viscosity, and viscosity index.
1) Viscosity: a measure of fluids resistance to flow.
Two types: a) Dynamic (Absolute) viscosity
b) Kinematic viscosity
a) Dynamic (Absolute) viscosity
τ
µ= ( N s / m 2 = Pa s ) in SI
du / dy
 Often expressed in CGS system as dyn s/cm2 .
Where, 1N = 105 dyn
1 dyn s/cm2 = 1 poise
A more convenient unit is the centipoise (cP)
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 b) Kinematic viscosity
ν = μ/ρ (m2/s in SI units)
 In CGS units 1cm2/s is called a stoke. A smaller value
is the centistoke (cS).

2) Viscosity Index (VI) : a relative measure of an oil’s

viscosity change with change in temperature.
 A good property of oil is that which brings little change of
viscosity with temperature. These are said to have high VI.

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Influence of temperature on viscosity
The property of lubricants (viscosity) is greatly
affected by temperature.
fig-chp6\chp6-table1.pptx
Walther-ASTM equation (relationship between viscosity
and temperature)

log log (ν + 0.7 ) = A − B log T

Where: ν = viscosity (cSt)

A & B = constant
T = temperature (K)
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Assignment I-
For ISO VG 100 oil, calculate the constants A&B
using Walther-ASTM equation to determine the
effect of temperature on viscosity of the oil as per the
parameters given below.
Given parameters:-
a. Temperature range (273 – 523 K)
b. Kinematic viscosity: 99.4 cSt at 40 C and 11.12 cSt at 100 C.

Show the relationship between viscosity (vertical)

and temperature (horizontal) of ISO VG 100 oil
using a graph and discuss the results as the
temperature varies. 9
6.3 Types of lubrication
Lubrication is commonly classified according to the
degree with which the lubricant separates the sliding
surfaces. fig-chp6\chp6-fig1.pptx and fig-chp6\chp6-
fig2.pptx
 Boundary (boundary and extreme pressure) lubrication
 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
 Hydrodynamic lubrication
6.3.1 Boundary lubrication
• In boundary lubrication;
Surface contact is continuous and extensive
but the lubricant is continuously “smeared” over the surfaces and
provides a continuously renewed adsorbed surface film that
reduces friction and wear.
Typical values of f are 0.05 to 0.20. 10
• Boundary lubrication usually occurs under high
load and low speed conditions (bearings, gears, cam
and tappet interfaces, piston rings and liner interfaces
etc)
• In many cases, it is the critical lubrication regime
that governs the life of the components subject to
wear (the contacts occurs at the peaks and hills of the
surfaces).
• These contacts produce elastic deformation to
plastic deformation to fracture: friction, heat and
wear
• Chemical reactions between lubricant molecules
and surfaces usually accompany such collisions
producing organic and inorganic surface films. 11
• Boundary and E.P. lubrication is a complex
phenomenon (classified in terms of relative load
capacity and limiting frictional temperature) fig-
chp6\chp6-table2.pptx
• In general, boundary and E.P. lubrication involves
the formation of low friction, protective layers on the
wearing surfaces.
• The operating principle of the boundary lubrication
regime can perhaps be best illustrated by considering
the coefficient of friction (µ).

F
µ= (6.1) Where F: frictional force
W
W: applied normal force 12
 F = At ×τ

Where F: frictional force

At : true contact area
τ: effective shear stress on the material
W = At × p y
py : the plastic flow stress on the material (close in
value to the indentation hardness)
Substituting for ‘F’ and ‘W’ to Eq. 5-1

µ= τ p (6.2)
y

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 This simple model (Eq. 5.2) explains the rationale
behind boundary lubrication.
in order to obtain a low coefficient of friction, material of low
shear strength and high hardness is required (incompatible).
However, if a low shear-strength layer can be formed on a hard
substrate then low coefficients of friction can be achieved.
changing the material type has little effect on friction.
Thus, in general terms, the fundamental principles
behind boundary and E.P. lubrication involve the
formation of low shear-strength lubricating layers on
hard substrates.

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 6.3.2 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
• When the load is high and/or the speed is low, the
hydrodynamic pressure may not be sufficient to fully
support the load, and the surfaces come into contact.
• The amount and the extent of the asperity contact
depend on many factors: surface roughness, fluid
film pressure, normal load, hardness, elasticity of the
asperities, etc.
• Many of the asperities undergo elastic deformation
under the contacting conditions, and the normal load
is supported by the asperities and the thin fluid film.
This condition is generally referred to as the
elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL or EHD). 15
• Where does EHL end and BL begin?
– Since the surfaces have a range of asperity height distributions,
two surfaces in contact produce a range of distribution of
stresses within the contact zone.
– Therefore, in practical systems there is often no pure EHL or BL
lubrication regime, and a mixed lubrication regime
exists.(Some asperities are in the hydrodynamic mode, some
asperities in EHL, and some asperities in BL mode). fig-
chp6\chp6-fig3.pptx
– As wear occurs, surface topography also changes. (Depending
on the nature and extent of chemical reactions, conformity of
surfaces can either develop or disappear. This changes the real
area of contact and, hence, the asperity stress distribution.)
– the surface peaks are intermittently in contact, and there is
partial hydrodynamic support . Coefficient of friction commonly
range from 0.004 to 0.10. 16
• The first realistic model of Elastohydrodynamic
lubrication was provided by Grubin (1949) .
• It was found that the EHL is combination of three
effects:
1. Elastic deformation of the metal surfaces (Contact stress)
2. The increase in the viscosity of oil under extreme pressures
3. Hydrodynamics
• Based on the three combined effect, the contacting
surfaces deform elastically under the hydrodynamic
pressure generated in the layer of lubricating film.
• The lubricating films are very thin…

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b) Elastohydrodynamic film thickness formulae
The exact analysis of elastohydrodynamic lubrication by
Hamrock and Dowson minimum film thickness
They can be used for may material combinations including
steel on steel under heavy load condition
0.54 0.7
G U
hmin = 2.65 R'

W 0.13
Where:
hmin = minimum film thickness, R ' = reduced radius of
curvature, G = material parameter, U = speed parameter,
W = load parameter and H = film parameter
 Uµ   W 
H=
h U =  , G = (αE ) and
' W =  
min
R ', ER 
' '
ER 
' '2
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 1. Elastic deformation of the metal surfaces
(Contact stress)
In this topic, elastohydrodynamic contacts stress,
the mechanisms of film generation and methods for
calculating the minimum film thickness (e.g. rolling
bearings and gears) is outlined.

1.1. Elastohydrodynamic contacts stress

• Contact between two parallel cylinders: fig-

chp6\chp6-fig4.pptx and fig-chp6\chp6-table3.pptx
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 1.2. The mechanisms of film generation and
methods for calculating the minimum film thickness
a) Elastohydrodynamic lubricating films generation
 The term elastohydrodynamic lubricating film refers to the
lubricating oil which separates the opposing surfaces of a
concentrated contact.
The oil film is subjected to extremes of pressure and shear,
determine the efficiency of the lubrication mechanism under
rolling contact. fig-chp5\chp5-fig5.pptx, fig-chp5\chp5-
fig6.pptx
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 Case-Carburized Steel
F n = 19.2 kN (σ H 2.12 GPa ) , Ts = 470 K
7
N 2 = 0.5×10

Large-pit

1.0 mm

Fig. Appearance of surface due to high surface temperature and

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heavy load.
 2. The increase in the viscosity of oil under extreme
pressures (Viscosity-pressure relationship)
• Assuming that the fluid is incompressible:-

• The validity of an exponential law indicates an

enormous increase of viscosity with pressure.
• For instance, at a Hertizian pressure of 1GN/m2, the
viscosity of a mineral oil may increase by a factor of
106 compared with its value under atmospheric
pressure.
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6.3.3 Hydrodynamic
Lubrication

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 Contents
6.3.1 Introduction (Revision on Types of Lubrication)

6.3.2 Definition and Types of Bearing

6.3.3 Hydrodynamic Lubrication

6.3.4 Reynolds Equation

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6.3.1 Introduction (Revision on Fluid Film
Lubrication)
• Classification of lubrication
Boundary lubrication

Elastohydrodynamic lubrication

Hydrodynamic lubrication

• Fluid film lubrication

Hydrodynamic

 Squeeze film

Hydrostatic
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Fig. Types of lubrication (Schematic representation) 26
1. Hydrodynamic
– Converging wedge shape geometry
– Viscosity

2. Squeeze film
– Load and/ or Speed variation
– Viscosity

2. Hydrostatic
– Load and/ or Speed variation
– Viscosity

Fig. Types of fluid film lubrication 27

6.3.2 Definition and Types of Bearing
5.2.1. Hydrodynamic bearings
a) Thin film h << L
b) One or both surfaces may move (relative velocity)
c) There is pressure gradient (p1 and p2)

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6.3.3 Hydrodynamic Lubrication
A) Example of hydrodynamic lubrication

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b) Hydrodynamic bearings
a) Thin film h << L
b) One or both surfaces may move (relative velocity)
c) There is pressure gradient (p1 and p2)

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C) Why is a pressure formed in a bearing’s fluid film

D) Which bearing carries the highest load? Why?

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6.3.4 Reynolds Equation
• Two-dimensional fluid-film geometry of a simple tilting pad
bearing (refer the figure)
• Assumptions:-
a) The fluid is Newtonian
b) The fluid flow is laminar
c) The fluid adheres to the bearing surfaces
d) The fluid inertia can be neglected
e) The fluid weight can be neglected
f) The fluid pressure is constant across the thickness of the fluid
film
g) The fluid is incompressible

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1. Two laws must be obeyed
a) Force equilibrium
b) Flow balance (continuity)

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2. Two types of flow
a) Couette flow –surface driven shear flow
b) Poiseuille flow- pressure driven flow

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Continuity

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• Reynolds Equation

• The Reynolds equation can be written as :

1  ∂  h 3 ∂p  ∂  h 3 ∂p  ∂h ∂ (v0 + v1 ) ∂h
  .  +  .  = (v0 − v1 ) + h +2
6  ∂x  η ∂x  ∂z  η ∂z  ∂x ∂x ∂t

= (“wedge” term) + (“stretch” term) (

+ “squeeze” term )

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37
Assignment II-
Practically, journal bearing is the most important
hydrodynamically lubricated mechanical system.
Discuss the journal bearing lubrication system using
schematic representation and consider all factors
(parameters) that influence the hydrodynamic
lubrication.

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39
40
Fig. 6-1 Types of lubrication (Schematic representation) 41
Fig. 6-2 Schematic representation of Stribeck curve and
lubrication regimes 42
Fig. 6-3 Model of mixed lubrication 43
 1 −ν 12 1 −ν 22
∆= +
E1 E2

F (1 / R1 + 1 / R2 )
σ max = 0.564
L∆

F∆
b = 1.13
L(1 / R1 + 1 / R2 )

Fig. 6-4 Geometry of the contact between two parallel cylinders

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 hc = central film thickness,

ho=minimum film thickness

Fig. 6-5 Hydrodynamic pressure distribution in an elastohydrodynamic

contact
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Fig. 6-6 Schematic representation of EDL contact
46
Fig. 6-7 Viscous drag between two parallel plates
47
Fig. 6-8 A tilting pad bearing
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Table 6-1 ISO Viscosity Grade

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Table 6- 2 Categories of boundary and E.P lubrication

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Table 6-3 Formulae for contact parameters between two parallel cylinders

Where b = the half width of the contact rectangle (m)

l = the half length of the contact rectangle (m)
R’= the reduced radius of curvature for the two
parallel cylinders in contact (m)
E’ = reduced young’s modulus (Pa)
1 1 1 1 1 1 − υ A2 1 − υ B2 
'
= + '
=  + 
R RA RB E 2  EA EB  51