Assessing the Impact of Climate Change: A Comprehensive Analysis of Environmental

Trends

BY: Colleen Heffernan, Dylan Caccamesi, Raven Rooney

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES (ENVL 4300)

SPRING 2023

STOCKTON UNIVERSITY

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND GEOLOGY PROGRAM

Instructor: Dr. Tait Chirenje

Abstract:

In the present day, one could argue that the single most pressing issue of our time is that

of climate change. As the science around the topic has evolved, the consequences of human

activity continue to become more and more quantifiable, painting us a picture of a future that

will become increasingly uninhabitable for life on Earth. Scientists have pointed largely to global

fossil fuel emissions as the method by which “global warming” would occur, proceeding to raise

sea levels and produce increasingly violent weather events in the decades and centuries to come.

The displacement, casualty, and collateral damage sustained from these effects in the future will

be devastating, and we can already feel the beginnings of its effects happening around the globe.

As temperatures rise and precipitation increases globally, proactive government bodies attempt to

mitigate future losses in their communities by making them more resilient to climate disasters

and adapting to deal with them in the future. One of the largest tools for examining the scope of

climate degradation is data analysis. Telemetry systems and other data recording devices allow

for incalculable amounts of information to be recorded and stored regarding the current climate

conditions, which can be used with data from the past to describe the current level of urgency

and predict future conditions. Data collected at the regional, national, and global scales allow us

to identify the highest risk communities around the world and push for proactive measures to be

taken to adapt and diverge from the current climate path we find ourselves on. This report

compiles temperature and precipitation data at the global, U.S., and state (North Carolina,

specifically) levels, displaying an overarching trend of increasing temperatures and rising sea

levels across the board. It is important to keep record of weather patterns over time in order to

better understand the effects of climate change and how we receive them.

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 Table of Contents

Section Page

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………. 4

Part 1: NJ telemetry………………………………………………………………… 6

Part 2: Changes in temperature and precipitation…………………………………... 7

Global…………………………………………………………………………… 7

United States…………………………………………………………………….. 9

North Carolina…………………………………………………………………… 11

Raleigh, NC……………………………………………………………………… 11

Part 3: Global Changes……………………………………………………………... 16

Discussion………………………………………………………………………….. 21

References…………………………………………………………………………... 29

Appendix…………………………………………………………………………… 31

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Introduction:

In our modern day and age, the broader scope of environmental science is heavily

focused around the ever-present and ever-growing issue of global climatic change. Throughout

Earths’ 13.1 billion year history, there have been dozens of spikes, both high and low, of global

temperature extremes which have had extinction-level consequences as a result. Although human

society has flourished as evolutionary drivers forced adaptation, there are still problems, such as

climate change, that we are still unable to permanently remedy. So then begins the task of

creating band-aid solutions to the symptoms of climate change in order to mitigate its destruction

until more successful means of climate control can be achieved. In a general sense, climate

change centers around the heating and cooling of the planet's surface which has a direct

relationship with the amount of water found in our oceans and atmosphere. As a result of these

controls, it has been observed globally that the frequency and intensity of storm events has

grown rapidly as global temperatures have increased over the past few decades which has

catalyzed an era of climate refugees across the globe.

As we begin to navigate the tumultuous and unsure future on our planet with regards to

climate change, it's hard to ignore the public discourse surrounding the topic, specifically how

difficult it is to make meaningful changes at the legislative level due to corporate misinformation

and lobbying campaigns. It is then that we begin to focus on practical solutions that can aid

at-risk and suffering communities in the meantime. From wave surge structures and protection of

wetland barriers in coastal areas to intelligent urban design, preventing climate disasters can be

partially achieved if precautions are put into place to lessen their impacts. However, being able to

create these features is only relevant if we know where they need to be. To that end, one of the

most important aspects of climate change work is data collection and analysis. If at-risk areas can

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be identified due to their temperature and sea level patterns over time, precautions can be put

into place to prevent the populations in that area from fatal natural disaster events. The

importance of collection and analyzing climate data at regional, national, and global scales

allows these patterns to be revealed and can help in presenting government bodies with

comprehensive data displaying the risks associated with ignoring the problem at hand. With a

solid analytical foundation for proposing mitigation efforts in at-risk areas, environmental

scientists can bridge the gap between the scientific jargon and the comprehension of these issues

by the general public. Properly communicating the incomprehensibly large amounts of data

available and the complex patterns they display is crucial in informing the general public of the

risks they face in the areas they live and allow them to take an active role in pressuring their

local governments to allocate resources to address them.

Climate change is a critical issue on a global, national, and local scale, with significant

impacts on coastal areas. The New Jersey Tide Telemetry System provides essential data for

understanding sea level rise and climate change impacts. This system offers real-time tide-level

and meteorological data, which can be used to determine conditions that may necessitate

evacuations during coastal storms and hurricanes, prepare emergency routes and responses, and

provide immediate use for road and causeway closures and evacuation routes. Additionally,

commercial businesses and industries can use this data to reduce inventory and structural losses

during storms. Historical data of tide-level and rainfall data can also be used by future planners

to determine peak water elevations, mean high water (MHW), and 100-year flood elevations. By

monitoring tide levels and meteorological data through this system, we can also better

understand long-term climate changes, such as global warming, and take proactive measures to

mitigate its effects.

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Part 1: NJ telemetry

The NJ telemetry system is a network of tide gages, weather stations, and stream gages

that collect data in real time and transmit that data to computer base stations where national and

state agencies receive and process this data. This system is important because although the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’ National Ocean Service (NOAA’s NOS)

collects tidal data for the ocean and large bays, there was little data for the back bays in New

Jersey. This system allows NJ state agencies to look at more precise tidal and weather data for

our area as well as how storms and sea level rise could affect NJs coast and barrier islands

(USGS NJ Tide Telemetry System fact sheet).

The NJTTS presently consists of 20 tide gauges, 5 tide/weather stations, in 13 New

Jersey counties, along the New Jersey shore (Figure 1.). The tide level at each of the tide gauges

is automatically measured at 6-minute intervals. The weather stations transmit tide levels and

meteorological data—rainfall, wind speed and direction, air and water temperature, relative

humidity, and barometric pressure.(USGS NJ Tide Telemetry System fact sheet)

The collection of tide level and meteorology data is essential in enhancing our knowledge

of sea level rise and climate change. The USGS NJ Tide Telemetry System fact sheet highlights

the significance of this system in several ways. For instance, tide-level data from the back bays

can aid in identifying conditions that require evacuations during coastal storms and hurricanes,

enabling emergency management personnel to prepare emergency routes and responses well in

advance. Additionally, real-time tide-level data from the back bays can determine road and

causeway closures and emergency evacuation routes during coastal storms or hurricanes. The

real-time knowledge of back bay tide levels can also help commercial businesses and industries

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to reduce inventory and structural losses during storms. The tide-level and rainfall data can be

used as historical data by future planners to determine peak water elevations, mean high water

(MHW), and 100-year flood elevations. Lastly, tide level and meteorological data are valuable

for long-term studies such as global warming.

Figure 1. A map showing the locations of the 20 Telemetry stations and the 5 weather stations in

New Jersey responsible for collecting tide level and Meterology data.

Part 2: Changes in temperature and precipitation in the US

In order to determine how the climate is changing in different regions we used several

databases to look at the trends in global, national , state and city wide climate trends over the past

few decades. Looking at global temperature anomalies over land and ocean you can see the

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anomalies went from usually being below average temperatures in the 1800s through mid 1900s

then a shift to the temperature anomalies being above the average temperature.

Figure 2. Graph depicting annual temperature anomalies globally land and ocean 1850-2023

Annual temperature anomalies are increasing globally due to the increase in greenhouse

gasses, mainly carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere. These greenhouse gasses trap heat from the

sun that would otherwise escape into space, causing the Earth's temperature to rise. This increase

in temperature has numerous impacts on the environment, including melting glaciers, rising sea

levels, more frequent and severe heat waves, and changes in weather patterns. The

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that the warming of the

climate system is unequivocal and that it is extremely likely (95-100% probability) that human

activities, particularly the emission of greenhouse gasses, have been the dominant cause of the

observed warming since the mid-20th century.

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 Figure 3. Graph depicting temperature anomalies for the winter month Dec-Feb in North

America 1911-2023

Winter temperature anomalies are increasing in North America due to a combination of

natural variability and human-caused climate change. The Arctic is warming at a faster rate than

the rest of the world, which is leading to changes in the jet stream and causing cold air masses to

move southward more often. This phenomenon, known as the polar vortex, can result in extreme

cold temperatures and winter storms. However, at the same time, overall temperatures are rising

due to the increased concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere from human activities

such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation. This causes more heat to be trapped in the

atmosphere, leading to warmer temperatures during the winter months.

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 Figure 4 Graph depicting temperature anomalies for the summer months june-aug in North

America 1911-2023

Temperature anomalies in summer months are increasing in North America due to the

combined effects of natural variability and human-induced climate change. The increase in

greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide, has led to a warming of the planet, which

is most pronounced in summer months. Additionally, natural weather patterns such as persistent

high-pressure systems, which can cause prolonged heat waves, are becoming more frequent due

to climate change. These factors, along with other complex interactions between the atmosphere

and the ocean, are contributing to the observed increase in temperature anomalies in summer

months across North America.

Figure 5 Graph depicting average minimum temperature (Blue) and maximum (Red) in North

America 1895-2022

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 Figure 6. Graph depicting average precipitation in North Carolina 1895-2022

Although the trend line looks to be decreasing this is not accurate because there has been an

increase in precipitation from 2015 to present but it doesn’t include those values seen in the time

series graph see Appendix 1 Fig 20.

Figure 7. Graph depicting average Summer temperatures in Raleigh, North Carolina 1945-2015

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 Summer temperatures in Raleigh are increasing due to the overall global trend of climate

change, which is causing an increase in greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. The

burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and other human activities are contributing to the increase

in greenhouse gas concentrations, which in turn trap more heat in the atmosphere and cause

temperatures to rise. This increase in temperature is especially noticeable during the summer

months, as the warmer air temperatures lead to an increase in surface temperatures, which can

lead to heatwaves and other heat-related events.

Figure 8. Graph depicting average Winter temperatures in Raleigh, North Carolina 1945-2015

There are several factors that contribute to the increase in winter temperatures in Raleigh,

North Carolina. One of the primary factors is climate change, which is causing global

temperatures to rise. As the planet warms, the atmosphere can hold more moisture, leading to

more precipitation and warmer temperatures. Additionally, Raleigh is located in the southeastern

region of the United States, which is experiencing more extreme weather patterns as a result of

climate change, including warmer winters. Urbanization and the urban heat island effect may

also contribute to higher temperatures in Raleigh during the winter months.

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 Figure 10 Graph depicting average minimum temperature (Blue) and maximum (Red) in

Raleigh, NC 1895-2022

Figure 9. Graph depicting average annual Precipitation in Raleigh, North Carolina 1945-2015

The increase in precipitation in Raleigh could be attributed to a number of factors,

including changes in atmospheric circulation patterns, increased moisture in the atmosphere due

to higher temperatures, and changes in land use patterns. Climate models suggest that the

southeastern United States, including North Carolina, is expected to experience increased

precipitation in the future as a result of climate change (IPCC, 2014). However, it is important to

note that while an increase in precipitation may be beneficial for some aspects of the

environment and agriculture, it can also lead to flooding and other negative impacts if it occurs

too rapidly or too frequently.

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 Figure 11 Graph showing the number of hurricanes for each category in North Carolina from

1900 to 2020. Data obtained from North Carolina State University Hurricane Database

Tidal data for the state of North Carolina was obtained using NOAA tides and currents.

There are four tidal stations located in North Carolina each have a different data from when they

started recording data. The Wilmington tidal station (Fig.12) shows the longest history for tidal

data in North Carolina. The plot shows monthly mean sea levels without the regular seasonal

fluctuations from coastal ocean temperatures, salinity, wind, atmospheric pressure, and ocean

currents.(NOAA).

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Figure 12. Shows the relative sea level trend for the tidal gage station Wilmington, North

Carolina. The relative sea level trend is 2.66 millimeters/year based on monthly mean sea level

data from 1935 to 2022 which is equivalent to a change of 0.87 feet in 100 years. Data from

NOAA 2023.

This tidal data from the Wilmington tide station shows an increase in sea level. This trend

is represented by all of the tide stations (see appendix 2). Wilmington had the longest time range

of recording data. Climate change can have a significant impact on Wilmington, NC, as it is a

coastal city that is vulnerable to sea level rise and more frequent and severe storms. Rising sea

levels can lead to increased flooding and erosion along the coast, which can damage

infrastructure and harm local ecosystems. In addition to these physical impacts, climate change

can also have economic and social effects on Wilmington. For example, damage from extreme

weather events can lead to lost revenue for businesses and increased insurance costs. Climate

change can also exacerbate existing social inequalities, as low-income and minority communities

may be disproportionately impacted by environmental hazards and have less access to resources

to cope with climate-related challenges.

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Part 3: Global changes

Although it is important to understand the effects of climate change at a local level,

shifting weather patterns are occurring on a global scale. We looked at climate data from Japan,

an island country off the coast of Asia. Japan is particularly at risk of climate change due to sea

level rise and ocean acidification. Rising sea levels and increased ocean acidity levels in Japan

can cause a significant impact on marine ecosystems and threaten the country's coastal

communities. A study conducted by the National Institute for Environmental Studies in Japan

found that the sea level around Japan has risen at a rate of about 3 millimeters per year, which is

higher than the global average (Aoki et al., 2020). This rise in sea level can lead to coastal

erosion and flooding, which can damage coastal infrastructure and threaten people's homes and

livelihoods.

Moreover, the increased acidity levels in the ocean can affect the survival and growth of

marine organisms, including corals, plankton, and fish, which can have cascading effects on the

entire food chain (Inoue et al., 2020). This can lead to a decline in fish populations, which can

significantly impact the fishing industry in Japan. The fishing industry is a vital part of Japan's

economy, and any disruptions to the sector can have wide-ranging impacts.

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Figure 13. A graph showing the average precipitation in Japan from 1920-2020.

Data shows that average yearly precipitation in Japan has not significantly changed in the

past 100 years. Japan experiences a monsoon season between May and July, contributing to a

moderate rainfall annually. Additionally, Japans’ mountainous terrain causes the formation of

orographic precipitation, which occurs when moist air is forced upward by the mountains. This

results in increased precipitation on the windward side of the mountains. Japan also experiences

typhoons, which can bring heavy rainfall and strong winds to the region. Despite the relatively

stable average yearly precipitation, climate change is still a concern in Japan as it can exacerbate

extreme weather events.

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 Figure 14. A graph showing the average temperatures in Japan during the winter season

(Dec-Feb).

Rising winter temperatures in Japan can also lead to an increase in pests and diseases,

posing a significant threat to forestry and agriculture. The warmer winters create a more

favorable environment for the proliferation of insects, which can damage crops and harm forests

(Ministry of Agriculture, 2015). Additionally, Japan's mountainous topography and unique

weather patterns make it especially vulnerable to landslides and other natural disasters, which

can be exacerbated by the changing climate. The combination of warmer winters and increased

precipitation can also contribute to the destabilization of slopes and soil erosion, leading to an

increased risk of landslides.

Furthermore, warmer winter temperatures can impact Japan's traditional snow culture,

which has deep cultural significance and is an important economic driver (Tsuchiya, 2018). The

snow and cold temperatures support winter sports and tourism, as well as the production of

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snow-dependent foods such as nabe hot pot. However, the warming climate threatens to disrupt

this industry, as it reduces the amount and quality of snowfall.

Figure 15. Shows the average temperatures in Japan during summer months (June-Aug)

The increase in temperature during the summer months in Japan has significant

implications for the country's food security. With already scarce farmable land and a diminishing

agricultural workforce, any further reductions in crop production could have disastrous

consequences. Higher temperatures and increased evaporation rates can lead to a reduction in

available water for irrigation, making it difficult for crops to grow. This coupled with reduced

rainfall can exacerbate the situation, creating a high risk of drought and food shortage. The

impacts of such a scenario would not only be felt by Japan but could also have global

implications. Japan has already started taking steps to mitigate the effects of climate change on

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agriculture. These include introducing new technologies such as smart irrigation systems and

vertical farming techniques to increase food production in urban areas. The government has also

established policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote the use of renewable

energy sources (Hasegawa, 2021).

Figure 16. Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel and industrial purposes in Japan from

1970 to 2021 (in million metric tons). Data obtained from Statistica Energy and Environment,

Emissions.

Carbon dioxide emissions in Japan have increased dramatically over the past 50 years.

Carbon dioxide escalates the Greenhouse Effect significantly, leading to a steadily warming

climate. This increase in carbon dioxide emissions in Japan has had a significant impact on the

country's contribution to global climate change. As one of the largest economies and emitters in

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the world, Japan's actions have global implications. The country has pledged to reduce its

greenhouse gas emissions by 46% by 2030, however, this goal is still criticized by many as not

ambitious enough to prevent catastrophic climate change.

The effects of a steadily warming climate due to increased greenhouse gas emissions are

wide-ranging and can have severe consequences. These include more frequent and intense heat

waves, more severe and frequent natural disasters such as floods and typhoons, and rising sea

levels that can lead to increased coastal flooding and erosion.

Discussion:

Part 1:

In order to address the problem of climate change at the local level, New Jersey has

committed to “support the resilience of the state’s communities, economy, and infrastructure”

Through a legislative initiative known as the NJ Climate Resilience Strategy (NJ CRS) . The

goal of the NJ CRS is to “...promote the long-term resilience of New Jersey to climate change”

by way of 6 outlined Priorities (NJ.gov, 2023):

1) Building resilient and healthy communities

2) Strengthen the resilience of NJ’s ecosystems

3) Promote coordinated governance

4) Invest in information and increase public understanding

5) Promote climate-informed investments and innovative financing

6) Coastal resilience plan

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 This strategy aims to address the three categories of climate change response; mitigation

(Priority 5), resiliency (Priorities 1, 2, 3, and 6), and adaptation (Priority 4). As a coastal state

with the highest population density in the nation, high susceptibility to climate change related

disasters puts New Jerseyans at risk of financial loss or fatal injury. The 120-page executive

summary of this plan outlines each priority in order to optimize the state's response to a changing

climate and prepare for a future in which higher sea levels, stronger storms, and more volatile

temperatures are the norm. This system was signed into law via executive order in October of

2021 and is the most comprehensive strategy addressing climate change in the history of New

Jersey. In terms of improvement, the first few years of implementation will indicate to the state

which aspects need improvement and which work well already in a way that we are unable to do

now, so soon into its enactment.

Texas, Oklahoma, and Alaska, like many regions around the world, have been impacted

by climate change in various ways. One example is the increase in the frequency and severity of

extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and floods. In particular, Hurricane Harvey, which

made landfall in Texas in August 2017, was one of the most devastating storms to hit the state in

recent history (Kossin, et al.,2014). It caused widespread flooding, damaged homes and

businesses, and resulted in dozens of deaths. The intensity of the storm was attributed in part to

climate change, which has increased sea surface temperatures and led to a rise in sea level,

resulting in more powerful storms and increased flooding. Additionally, warmer air can hold

more moisture, leading to heavier rainfall and further exacerbating the flooding.

In recent years, Oklahoma has experienced a higher number of days with temperatures

exceeding 100 degrees Fahrenheit, leading to health concerns, increased energy consumption,

and potential damage to crops and livestock (Kunkel, et al., 2013). For instance, in 2011,

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Oklahoma experienced a prolonged heatwave that lasted for several weeks and was linked to

numerous heat-related deaths and significant economic losses. Scientists have attributed the

increased frequency and severity of heatwaves in Oklahoma to climate change, which is causing

a rise in global temperatures (Kunkel, et al., 2013). This rise in temperature is due to the buildup

of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere, primarily from human activities such as burning fossil

fuels. In addition to heatwaves, Oklahoma has also experienced other climate-related impacts,

such as increased drought and wildfire risk. These impacts have significant implications for the

state's economy and the well-being of its residents.

Alaska is one of the most rapidly warming regions in the world, and its impacts are

visible in many ways. One specific example is the rapid melting of glaciers and sea ice in the

state. Glaciers in Alaska are losing mass at an accelerating rate, contributing to global sea level

rise. For example, the Mendenhall Glacier, located near Juneau, has retreated more than 3,000

feet since the 1950s, and is currently losing an average of 40 feet per year (Beedle, et al., 2016).

The shrinking glaciers also have a significant impact on Alaska's tourism industry, which relies

on visitors who come to see the state's natural beauty. Similarly, sea ice in the Arctic is also

rapidly declining due to global warming, which is impacting both the environment and human

communities in Alaska. The loss of sea ice is affecting the hunting and fishing practices of

indigenous communities, who rely on sea ice as a platform for subsistence hunting, and are

experiencing changes in animal migration patterns and habitat. Additionally, the loss of sea ice is

making it easier for commercial shipping vessels to navigate the Arctic, increasing the risk of oil

spills and other environmental hazards (Hock, 2015). This has prompted concerns from local

communities about the potential impacts of increased shipping and development in the region.

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 Part 2:

Over the last 100 years, climate trends in North Carolina have shown increases in sea

level as well as temperature and precipitation. Temperature trends in North Carolina have been

increasing consistently in both the summer and winter seasons. It is important to understand the

impacts of warming temperatures in regional, national and global scales, because it can have

significant effects on the local environment and economy. For example, warmer temperatures

can lead to more intense and frequent heat waves, which can increase the risk of heat-related

illnesses and put a strain on energy resources as people turn to air conditioning to cool off. In

addition, rising temperatures can have detrimental effects on agriculture and wildlife, which can

in turn impact local food supplies and tourism. Understanding these impacts can help inform

local policies and actions to mitigate the effects of climate change and adapt to a changing

climate.

Precipitation shows an increase by +1.12 inches over the last century (Fig. 20).The

increase in precipitation in Raleigh, NC, can have both positive and negative impacts. On the

positive side, it can help alleviate drought conditions and benefit crops and other vegetation. It

can also help to replenish local water supplies, such as reservoirs and groundwater aquifers,

which are essential for drinking water and other uses. However, too much precipitation in a short

period of time can lead to flooding, which can damage property and infrastructure and even

endanger lives. Additionally, if the precipitation is not distributed evenly throughout the year, it

can lead to a water surplus during some months and a water deficit during others, creating

challenges for water management and conservation efforts. Therefore, it's important to

understand the patterns and impacts of precipitation changes in Raleigh to prepare for and adapt

to potential risks and benefits.

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 Sea level data along the coasts of NC has been measured to rise on average 4.53mm/year

over the last 44-69 years alone, estimating an overall 1.49 foot rise in tides over a 100 year

period (average of 3 gauge stations in Beaufort, Oregon Inlet Marina, and Duck) (Figs. 21, 22,

and 23)There are four tide gauge stations in North Carolina monitored by NOAA. All four of

these stations show increasing sea level trends.

In addition to the increase in sea level, the state of North Carolina is also experiencing an

increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, storms, and

floods. The temperature trends for the US and North Carolina are comparable to that of the

whole planet however it seems the increase in temperature on the national and state level are

more drastic compared to globally, which is expected. The data for North Carolina was obtained

from NOAA which is a reliable source of information there was at least 120 years of data for the

state. However, the data for Raleigh specifically only went back as far as 1945.

North Carolina is located on the Atlantic coast, which makes it vulnerable to tropical

storms and hurricanes. About once every 3 years, North Carolina experiences a storm surge with

intensities reaching hurricane level (North Carolina, 2022). During the last 40 years (1980 -

2020), hurricanes were notably frequent (Figure 11). Concerns of frequent hurricanes include

powerful, damaging winds, coastal flooding, and high precipitation rates (Figure 7). Intense

hurricanes North Carolina have experienced over the past 40 years, such as Hurricane Floyd in

1999 and Hurricane Frances in 2994, can increase rainfall by as much as 20 inches over a short

time frame (North Carolina, 2022). This heavy precipitation can increase infrastructure damage,

flooding, and landslides. In September 2018, the most intense rainfall event on record occurred

in North Carolina as Hurricane Florence dropped 20 to 36 inches in the eastern region, causing

reparation costs to exceed $20 billion (North Carolina, 2022).

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 According to the North Carolina Climate Risk Assessment and Resilience Plan, the state's

coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of sea level rise and flooding, with

estimates suggesting that up to 11% of the state's population may be affected by chronic flooding

by the year 2100 (North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, n.d.). To address these

risks, the state of North Carolina has developed a comprehensive resilience strategy that focuses

on adaptation and mitigation measures to protect communities and infrastructure from the

impacts of climate change. This includes initiatives such as improving building codes,

developing better land use planning, promoting green infrastructure, and enhancing natural and

engineered systems to protect against flooding and sea level rise (NJ.gov, 2023).

The Mitigation and Adaptation measures recommended in this report aim to address the

impacts of climate change in North Carolina. The National and Working Lands (NWL)

stakeholders emphasize the need for the state to act swiftly to protect, restore, and manage

sufficient land area as "green infrastructure" to provide community and ecosystem resilience.

State agencies can also use the nature-based solutions (NBS) outlined in the North Carolina

NWL Action Plan to build resilience. Additionally, voluntary landowner participation in carbon

offset markets could be utilized to finance specific NBS that sequester atmospheric carbon and

enhance community and ecosystem resilience.

The report outlines several important actions the state can take to achieve these goals.

These include sustainable management and financial support of the 14 million acres of

privately-owned forests through new policies and economic opportunities. The protection and

restoration of critical portions of the 13 million acres of floodplains and wetlands can help

mitigate floods, as shown in the accompanying map. Finally, the protection, restoration, and

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proper management of North Carolina's pocosins and coastal estuaries can help build coastal

resilience, sequester significant amounts of carbon, and mitigate the risk of wildfires and floods.

According to this report the specific climate change projections for North Carolina

include continued rise in sea level, increased summer heat index values, increase in annual total

precipitation, increase in hurricane intensity, increase in drought severity, and increased inland

flooding from increased precipitation. This is in sync with what the EPA sees as the main

impacts of climate change and climate change data for North Carolina was relatively easily

accessible through DEQ, EPA, and NOAA.

Part 3:

Precipitation in Japan has not increased significantly in the past century, however, there is

a slight increase in annual precipitation (Figure 13). Precipitation spiked during the decades

(1950 - 1959) and (2010 - 2019). Annual temperatures in Japan also saw an increase throughout

the past 100 years. From 1920 to 2019, during its coldest month and warmest months (January

and August), Japan experienced an increase in temperature of nearly 2 degrees celsius (Figures

14 & 15). As global warming continues, rainfall will increase and monsoons will become

stronger and less predictable. The increase in precipitation over the years 2010 - 2019

corresponds to the increase in carbon dioxide emissions, which peaked in 2014 (Figure 16).

Adversely, an increase in temperature can create drought conditions if evaporation rates exceed

rainfall.

The climate patterns in Japan are similar to those in North Carolina. In both areas,

annually precipitation has seen a steady increase (Figures 6, 9, &13). There are several outliers

of a drastic increase of precipitation in both areas over two decades (1945-1965). This can be

27
explained by Japan experiencing a monsoon season, similar to North Carolina experiencing a

hurricane season. The increase in intensity of hurricanes, as well as the frequency of monsoons

have been deemed abnormal (Figure 11). Both Japan and North Carolina also have been

experiencing an increase in temperatures during the summer and winter months (Figures 7 - 8 &

14 - 15). Both areas are on the coast, which can lead to an increase in vulnerability to climate

change. In a similar way, global weather patterns have been changing rapidly. Temperatures have

been rising exceedingly at a continental scale over the past 127 years, with minimum and

maximum temperatures increasing roughly 2 degrees (Figure 5).

The predominant factors that influence temperature and precipitation are carbon dioxide

emissions and sea level rise. Air quality pollutants such as CO2 can drastically increase the

greenhouse effect, creating warmer climates and drier seasons. An increase in temperature

correlates with an increase in evaporation, which can create drought conditions. Climate change

affects sea levels as well, as melting ice sheets and the expansion of seawater increases as global

temperatures rise. This can be especially detrimental in coastal areas such as Japan. Rising sea

levels can overwhelm low-lying wetlands and dry land, erode shorelines, contribute to coastal

flooding, and increase the flow of salt water into estuaries and nearby groundwater aquifers.

(EPA, 2022). Sea level rise can also contribute heavily to the vulnerability of coastal

infrastructure.

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 References

Kunkel, K. E., Stevens, L. E., Stevens, S. E., Sun, L., Janssen, E., Wuebbles, D., & Dobson, J.
(2013). Regional Climate Trends and Scenarios for the U.S. National Climate
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Appendix 1

Figure 17. Graph depicting annual temperature anomalies globally land 1850-2023

Figure 18. Graph depicting annual temperature anomalies globally ocean 1850-2023

Figure 19. Graph depicting annual temperature anomalies in North America 1910-2023

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Figure 20. Graph depicting average annual Precipitation in Raleigh, North Carolina 1945-2022

Appendix 2

Figure 21. Shows the relative sea level trend for the tidal gage in Duck, North Carolina

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 The relative sea level trend is 4.74 millimeters/year based on monthly mean sea level data from

1978 to 2022 which is equivalent to a change of 1.56 feet in 100 years.

Figure 22. Shows the relative sea level trend for the tidal gage station Oregon Inlet Marina,

North Carolina

The relative sea level trend is 5.42 millimeters/year based on monthly mean sea level data

from 1977 to 2022 which is equivalent to a change of 1.78 feet in 100 years.

Figure 23. Shows the relative sea level trend for the tidal gage station Beaufort, North Carolina

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The relative sea level trend is 3.44 millimeters/year based on monthly mean sea level data

from 1953 to 2022 which is equivalent to a change of 1.13 feet in 100 years.

34