TRIBES: Introduction & Major shifts in Sociological Study of tribes

Indian society is marked by considerable heterogeneity and hence perceived more in terms of
differences rather than similarities. The major social categories in terms of which difference has
been perceived are religion, caste, territory and language. This was reinforced during British rule by
decennial enumeration and classification of the population into groups and categories. To these
categories another category was added namely “Tribes.”

The study of groups that later came to be called as tribes began with the establishment of Asiatic
Society of Bengal in 1874. Three distinct phases have been identified for the study of tribes:

 Formative period- 1874 – 1919

 Constructive phase where anthro was getting introduced in Universities of India – 1920- 49
 Analytical phases action oriented approach- 1950 onwards

Post-independence period sources for supply of tribal literature- Anthropological survey of India,
University dept of soc and anth and tribal research institutes.

Conceptualizing Tribes

The ‘tribal’ question in India has traditionally posed in two different ways:

1. The question of identity

2. The question of improvement

Construction of Tribes

Early colonial definitions- At the time when British began to write on the Indian society, the term
tribe was used to refer to a group of people descended from a common ancestor. In another sense,
it was used to refer to a group of people living in primitive or barbarous conditions.

Early Anthropological definitions- In some cases the tribes are viewed as a whole society with a govt,
language, culture and customs. For others, tribes are marked by absence of state like features. Yet
for some it is a stage of evolution.

Many scholars like Appadurai, Dirks and Xaxa have argued that formation of the term tribe was done
for the Categorization process. Beteille and Singh argue that the concept tribe did not exist in India
before the British. Xaxa opines that tribe as social category was added in the process of decennial
enumeration for administration. Therefore, he concluded that 'tribe' is part of the modem
consciousness brought inio being by the colonial state (colonial construct) and confirmed by the
state after Independence'.

Administrative definitions- In 1901 Census tribes were described as groups who practiced animism.
Further characteristics were added with subsequent enumerations. In 1921 Census they were called
“Hill & Forest” tribes while in 1931 they were called primitive tribes. This definition was changed
after independence; the main characteristics of the tribes were described as communities with 1.
Primitive way of living, 2. Habitation in remote and less accessible areas, 3. Nomadic habits
Alternative terms from tribes- Aborigines, backward caste by Ghurye, ethnic minorities, fourth
world, tribes in transition by Desai, Adivasis etc

Classification of tribes

Permanent Traits: Region, language, physical traits and ecological habitat

Acquired traits:

 Mode of livelihood
 Degree of incorporation into Hindu society

On the basis of livelihood, tribal communities are divided between fishermen, food gatherers and
hunters, shifting cultivators, peasants, and plantation and industrial workers. The more commonly
accepted classification in sociological and anthropological literature is the degree of incorporation
into Hindu society. Roy Burman (1970), for example, divided tribal communities into four categories
on this basis-those fully incorporated into Hindu society, those positively oriented towards it, those
negatively oriented, and those indifferent to it. Ghurye (1963) similarly proposed a continuum
ranging from tribes accorded a high status within Hindu society, to partially Hinduized tribes, to
tribes inhabiting remote hill areas which have exhibited great resistance to Hinduism as an alien
culture.

Elwin (1944) combined the criteria of level of incorporation and development to arrive at a fourfold
classification.

 Class 1- Purest tribes, living in remote areas and least contaminated by Hindu influence
 Class 2- those who, despite retaining the tribal mode of living, showed characteristics of
village life such as individualism, decline of shared sense, disappearance of axe cultivation,
and contamination by the life of outsiders
 Class 3- the largest section of tribal population, that is, four-fifths of total tribal population.
The tribes of this class were said to be in a peculiar state of transition. They were tribal by
name but had effectively become backward Hindus. A section of them had embraced
Christianity. They were exposed to economic, social, and cultural forces of Hindu society.
They were affected by the economic and political policies of the British and dragged into the
orbit of the colonial capitalist system. They were affected by it in the same way as millions of
Hindu cultivators and artisans of village India, being reduced to the status of agricultural
labourers, serfs, bondsmen, etc. They were exploited and suffered the same disabilities as
non- tribals.
 Class 4- which consisted of the old aristocracy such as the great Bhil and Naga chieftains,
wealthy Santhals, Oraon leaders, and some highly enlightened Mundas. They retained the
old tribal names and clan and totemic rituals and observed elements of tribal religion though
they generally adopted the full Hindu faith and lived in modern and even European style.

State & Tribes

Policy
India has a large tribal population marked with backwardness and poverty. It became imperative for
the state to evolve a social policy of upliftment for the tribals. How should this policy be designed
was deliberated at length as an important controversy between two scholars, Ghurye & Elwin.

While Elwin advocated the policy of isolation, Ghurye was for the policy of assimilation. Elwin
suggested the policy of isolation to protect the tribals from the influence of outsiders. This could
have prevented tribal groups from enjoying the prosperity that other groups enjoyed. On the other
hand Ghurye viewed tribes as backward Hindus because they were cut off from the large mass of
Indian population. He considered it best that they be assimilated with society at large in order to be
lifted out of their abject poverty and base lifestyle.

Neither of the two policies were thought adequate in independent India by the Nationalist
leadership. According to Xaxa the provisions envisioned by the Constitution of India reflects the
articulation of tribal problems in the direction of integration rather than isolation or assimilation.

To give a brief outlook of a number of provisions that have been implemented by the State would
first start with the Indian constitution which has a provision in article 342 which empowers the
president of India to make a list of ST in consultation with the Governor of each state. This is the
subject for parliament revisions. The Constitution contained a number of provisions meant for the
benefit and welfare of the tribal people. They included the provision of statutory recognition,
proportionate representation in the legislatures, right of using their own languages for education
and other purposes, professing their own faith, and development according to their own genius. The
Constitution also had a clause which enabled the state to make reservation in jobs and
appointments in favour of tribal communities. Besides these, there were provisions in the
Constitution which empowered the state to bring areas inhabited by tribes under the 5th or 6th
schedule, for the purpose of special treatment in respect of the administration of tribal people.

The different measures taken for the upliftment of the tribal groups are usually divided into three
categories-(i) protective, (ii) mobilizational, and (iii) developmental. The protective measures include
constitutional and legislative rights that safeguard the interests of the tribal population. Mobilization
refers to the reservation extended to tribals in different fields. Developmental goals mean
programmes and activities that are initiated for promoting the welfare of the tribal people. At the
same time these aims were to be pursued under a kind of administration that was infused with the
principles of panch shila. These principles as enunciated by Nehru in his foreword in Elwin (1960a)
were: (1) People should develop along the lines of their own genius and we should avoid imposing
anything on them. We should try to encourage, in every way, their own traditional arts and culture;
(2) Tribal rights in land and forest should be respected; (3) We should try to train and build up a
team of their own people to do the work of administration and development. We should avoid
introducing too many outsiders into tribal territory; (4) We should not overadminister these areas or
overwhelm them with a multiplicity of schemes.; (5) We should judge results not by statistics of the
amount of money spent but by the quality of human character evolved.

Various committees were set up in order to steadfast the process of tribal development. The first
such committee to be set up was the Elwin committee in 1956. Following the committee’s
recommendations projects were concentrated to fulfil four main activities: economic development,
health, education and communication. Alongside these emphasis was laid on programmes for the
prevention of land alienation, restoration of alienated land, abolition of bonded labour, review of
excise and forest policies etc. The tribal sub plan thus focussed on area development with emphasis
on improving the quality of life of tribal communities through ITDP (Integrated Tribal Dev. Project),
MADA (Modified Area Development Approach) etc.

Tribal vs National Development

The national objective to build productive structures for future growth and resource mobilization for
development was given far more importance than the issue concerning the welfare and interests of
tribes. More often the goals of national development were at loggerheads with the interest and
welfare of tribals.

Measures like building of infrastructure, roads, industries, dams for irrigation and power projects as
well as extraction and exploitation of minerals and forest resources were more often initiated in
areas inhabited by the tribal population as these areas were rich reservoirs of mineral and forest
resources. The relationship of tribes with the natural environment marked by community ownership
was drastically altered. With development of rail and road large scale industrialisation and mining
which led to transfer of lands from tribals to non-tribals. Large scale displacement of tribal
population of happened. Land acquisition for developmental projects led to land alienation of the
actual owners. Tribes underwent change not only in their relationship to land but also in their
relationship to forests. Tribes were greatly dependent on forests for their day-to-day needs,
including food, shelter, instruments, medicine etc. In order to meet these basic requirements they
preserved the forests. But with the advent of the British forests came under state control as the
British saw these as a source of revenue and profit. State control continued post-independence with
stricter rules disenfranchising tribals from their rights and resources for sustaining a self-sufficient
livelihood. Another problem has been of huge influx of non-tribals into tribal areas in search of
employment. These have not only led to increasing urbanization of tribal areas but also deprived
tribals from the fruits of development carried out in their areas.

Eg. Talk about the NE problem.

Voluntary Organizations

Since the 1980s the role of the voluntary agencies or non- government organizations (NGOs) has
come into prominence as part of a larger effort by the state to make the administration more
responsive to people's aspirations, needs, and problems. It is felt that NGOs improve the
effectiveness of developmental operations for poverty alleviation and sustainable development. The
initiatives of voluntary organizations towards the development of tribes can be traced back to the
role of Christian missionaries. Later Gandhi encouraged dedicated workers like Thakkar Bapa and
Raghavaiah to work among tribal groups. It was under his inspiration that the Adim Jati Sevak Sangh
was formed. Such organizations primarily undertook social-service-oriented activities in tribal areas.
Today there are a large number of such organizations working in different parts of the country.
These organizations mostly work towards agricultural development, water conservation, education,
health training, eradication of social evils, conservation of ecology, and struggle against all forms of
exploitation including political action for alternative development. The Council for Advancement of
People’s Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) has come to occupy the position of the principal
promotional agency for voluntary action for rural or tribal development at the central level.
Social Transformation

Social Differentiation

Tribal societies have been egalitarian societies in relation to the hierarchical character of caste
society. However recent studies have pointed out that forms of inequality based on age and sex do
exist in tribal communities. Further there exists in many a hierarchy of clans or lineages.

Economy

Tribes in India have been situated at different levels of development. There is not one economy of
tribes but many economies resulting from the level of integration of local-level tribal economy with
the larger economy and society. Historically, it was the formation of the state which led to changes
in the economic structure. Because of the inability of tribes to produce surplus due to primitive
technology, the peasant caste population was encouraged by rulers to migrate into tribal territory.
The peasant castes brought with them the superior technology of agricultural production that was
accepted by many tribal communities, setting into motion a process of peasantization of tribal
societies. The advent of colonial administration accentuated this process and paved the way for a
new class of intermediaries such as zamindars, jagirdars, muttadars, and ghatwals between the state
and the local economy. After Independence, the economy of the tribes was brought within the
framework of the national economy. The major thrust of change in this period has been from food
gathering to food production or from tribe to peasant. It has also entailed a shift from the communal
and collective ownership of land and use of labour to the private ownership of land and labour.
Further, since hunting, food gathering, and shifting cultivation are associated with the system of
communal ownership of land and use of labour, the shift to terrace and wet cultivation has generally
been associated with the private ownership of land.

During the British rule, the disenfranchisement of tribals from their respective lands led to the
formation of a three tier agrarian class system. The top was taken by the feudatory landlords or
zamindars, middle was occupied by the well-to-do peasants which consisted a section of tribal
headmen, while the bottom consisted of large section of tribals left to be poor cultivators and
landless labourers. The dispossession of tribals from their land compelled them to find employment
as labourers in quarries, coalfields and emerging towns during British rule. One of the important
sectors that tribals moved was the plantation sector that opened up in Bengal and Assam. As they
did not possess modern skills and knowledge they secured only low-paying labour jobs.

Middle Class

The entry of tribals into white-collar occupations has been possible because of their exposure to
modern education. It were Christian missionaries who introduced modern education among tribes,
especially in the hills of the north-east. The post-Independence period saw a rise in education among
tribes. This was partly due to government initiatives and partly to growing consciousness among
tribals of the value of education. At the same time the provision of reservations extended by the
state to tribal groups facilitated their entry into modern occupations, especially in the government
departments and state-run enterprises. As a result, a new middle class has grown among tribal
communities. The growth of this middle class has however been far from even. It is generally more
pronounced among the larger tribal communities than the smaller ones. Also, it is more pronounced
among communities and regions exposed to Christianity than others. In the sphere of business and
enterprise, the presence of the tribes is far lower.

Tribe Caste Continuum- Relationship between Caste & Tribe

The concept of continuum was originally used by Robert Redfield in his concept of folk-urban
continuum. According to this there are no urban or rural societies in the strict sense but only a
continuation along the same lines. The societies vary in their proximity to any of these poles. Bailey
incorporated this concept in India and called it the tribe-caste continuum. According to this concept,
there are no tribes or castes in the strict sense, but various communities varying in their proximity to
either of these. In such a scenario it is hard to differentiate between the two. . F.G.Bailey, while
studying ‘Kondh’ and ‘Oriya’ political system, used this concept. Bailey labeled ‘Oriya’caste society as
organic and tribal ‘Kondh’ society as segmentary and argued that their kinship values and religious
beliefs are not far detached from one another. This argument was also reiterated by Surjit Sinha on
his work on Bhumij tribe. According to them ther tribes were not completely isolated from the
mainland population but have been in constant interaction. This interaction has affected both sides
and thus given rise to some unique characteristics to Indian society. In some places tribal have
assimilated to a great extent in the caste society thus forming their part. In some the otherwise
happened.

In the context of continuum approach, Bailey for example, has attempted to distinguish a ‘tribe’
from ‘caste’, using ‘direct access to land’ as the major parameter. According to him, if the larger
proportion of a given society has direct access to land, then closer that society is at the tribal-end of
the continuum. Collective ownership of resources entitles all the members of a ‘tribe’ to have access
to land and other resources. Conversely, if the greater access to land is through a dependent
relationship as, for instance, big landowners leasing land to tenants, then nearer that society is to
the caste pole. Surjit Sinha, however, does not agree with Bailey and emphasises that the major
feature of an ‘Ideal tribe’ is its independent socioeconomic existence, resulting naturally into its lack
of interaction with other social systems.

Scholars of tribe-caste continuum have often used social manifestations of religion, broadly referred
to as ritual and belief while describing the transition from one polar category to another. It is felt
that through culture contact and diffusion of cultural traits, the guiding principles of socio-religious
change are determined. As Sachidananda argues, “In India, however, most of the groups, which are
how regarded as tribal have been in contact with Hindu society for many centuries past. Directly or
indirectly, they have imbibed influences from Hinduism.

Some scholars also feel that the movement from the tribal pole to the caste pole involves progress in
ethnic heterogeneity, roles specialization, social stratification, emergence of the elite and increased
interaction with network of civilization centers. These features or specific characteristics are said to
be completely missing in tribal societies. Working on the data from Botia in Utter Pradesh, Srivastva
finds the concept of ‘cultural approximation’ quite helpful in dealing with the problem of tribe-caste
mobility.