TRIBES: Introduction & Major shifts in Sociological Study of tribes

Indian society is marked by considerable heterogeneity and hence perceived more in terms of
differences rather than similarities. The major social categories in terms of which difference
has been perceived are religion, caste, territory and language. This was reinforced during
British rule by decennial enumeration and classification of the population into groups and
categories. To these categories another category was added namely “Tribes.”

The study of groups that later came to be called as tribes began with the establishment of
Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1874. Three distinct phases have been identified for the study of
tribes:

 Formative period- 1874 – 1919

 Constructive phase where anthro was getting introduced in Universities of India –
1920- 49
 Analytical phases action oriented approach- 1950 onwards

Post-independence period sources for supply of tribal literature- Anthropological survey of

India, University dept of soc and anth and tribal research institutes.

Conceptualizing Tribes
The ‘tribal’ question in India has traditionally posed in two different ways:

1. The question of identity

2. The question of improvement

Construction of Tribes

Early colonial definitions- At the time when British began to write on the Indian society, the
term tribe was used to refer to a group of people descended from a common ancestor. In
another sense, it was used to refer to a group of people living in primitive or barbarous
conditions.

Early Anthropological definitions- In some cases the tribes are viewed as a whole society
with a govt, language, culture and customs. For others, tribes are marked by absence of state
like features. Yet for some it is a stage of evolution.

Many scholars like Appadurai, Dirks and Xaxa have argued that formation of the term tribe
was done for the Categorization process. Beteille and Singh argue that the concept tribe did
not exist in India before the British. Xaxa opines that tribe as social category was added in the
process of decennial enumeration for administration. Therefore, he concluded that 'tribe' is
part of the modem consciousness brought inio being by the colonial state (colonial construct)
and confirmed by the state after Independence'.

Administrative definitions- In 1901 Census tribes were described as groups who practiced
animism. Further characteristics were added with subsequent enumerations. In 1921 Census
they were called “Hill & Forest” tribes while in 1931 they were called primitive tribes. This
definition was changed after independence; the main characteristics of the tribes were
described as communities with 1. Primitive way of living, 2. Habitation in remote and less
accessible areas, 3. Nomadic habits

Alternative terms from tribes- Aborigines, backward caste by Ghurye, ethnic minorities,
fourth world, tribes in transition by Desai, Adivasis etc

Classification of tribes

Permanent Traits: Region, language, physical traits and ecological habitat

Acquired traits:

 Mode of livelihood
 Degree of incorporation into Hindu society

On the basis of livelihood, tribal communities are divided between fishermen, food gatherers
and hunters, shifting cultivators, peasants, and plantation and industrial workers. The more
commonly accepted classification in sociological and anthropological literature is the degree
of incorporation into Hindu society. Roy Burman (1970), for example, divided tribal
communities into four categories on this basis-those fully incorporated into Hindu society,
those positively oriented towards it, those negatively oriented, and those indifferent to it.
Ghurye (1963) similarly proposed a continuum ranging from tribes accorded a high status
within Hindu society, to partially Hinduized tribes, to tribes inhabiting remote hill areas
which have exhibited great resistance to Hinduism as an alien culture.

Elwin (1944) combined the criteria of level of incorporation and development to arrive at a
fourfold classification.

 Class 1- Purest tribes, living in remote areas and least contaminated by Hindu
influence
 Class 2- those who, despite retaining the tribal mode of living, showed characteristics
of village life such as individualism, decline of shared sense, disappearance of axe
cultivation, and contamination by the life of outsiders
 Class 3- the largest section of tribal population, that is, four-fifths of total tribal
population. The tribes of this class were said to be in a peculiar state of transition.
They were tribal by name but had effectively become backward Hindus. A section of
them had embraced Christianity. They were exposed to economic, social, and cultural
forces of Hindu society. They were affected by the economic and political policies of
the British and dragged into the orbit of the colonial capitalist system. They were
affected by it in the same way as millions of Hindu cultivators and artisans of village
India, being reduced to the status of agricultural labourers, serfs, bondsmen, etc. They
were exploited and suffered the same disabilities as non- tribals.
 Class 4- which consisted of the old aristocracy such as the great Bhil and Naga
chieftains, wealthy Santhals, Oraon leaders, and some highly enlightened Mundas.
 They retained the old tribal names and clan and totemic rituals and observed elements
of tribal religion though they generally adopted the full Hindu faith and lived in
modern and even European style.

State & Tribes

Policy

India has a large tribal population marked with backwardness and poverty. It became
imperative for the state to evolve a social policy of upliftment for the tribals. How should this
policy be designed was deliberated at length as an important controversy between two
scholars, Ghurye & Elwin.

While Elwin advocated the policy of isolation, Ghurye was for the policy of assimilation.
Elwin suggested the policy of isolation to protect the tribals from the influence of outsiders.
This could have prevented tribal groups from enjoying the prosperity that other groups
enjoyed. On the other hand Ghurye viewed tribes as backward Hindus because they were cut
off from the large mass of Indian population. He considered it best that they be assimilated
with society at large in order to be lifted out of their abject poverty and base lifestyle.

Neither of the two policies were thought adequate in independent India by the Nationalist
leadership. According to Xaxa the provisions envisioned by the Constitution of India reflects
the articulation of tribal problems in the direction of integration rather than isolation or
assimilation.

To give a brief outlook of a number of provisions that have been implemented by the State
would first start with the Indian constitution which has a provision in article 342 which
empowers the president of India to make a list of ST in consultation with the Governor of
each state. This is the subject for parliament revisions. The Constitution contained a number
of provisions meant for the benefit and welfare of the tribal people. They included the
provision of statutory recognition, proportionate representation in the legislatures, right of
using their own languages for education and other purposes, professing their own faith, and
development according to their own genius. The Constitution also had a clause which enabled
the state to make reservation in jobs and appointments in favour of tribal communities.
Besides these, there were provisions in the Constitution which empowered the state to bring
areas inhabited by tribes under the 5th or 6th schedule, for the purpose of special treatment in
respect of the administration of tribal people.

The different measures taken for the upliftment of the tribal groups are usually divided into
three categories-(i) protective, (ii) mobilizational, and (iii) developmental. The protective
measures include constitutional and legislative rights that safeguard the interests of the tribal
population. Mobilization refers to the reservation extended to tribals in different fields.
Developmental goals mean programmes and activities that are initiated for promoting the
welfare of the tribal people. At the same time these aims were to be pursued under a kind of
administration that was infused with the principles of panch shila. These principles as
enunciated by Nehru in his foreword in Elwin (1960a) were: (1) People should develop along
the lines of their own genius and we should avoid imposing anything on them. We should try
to encourage, in every way, their own traditional arts and culture; (2) Tribal rights in land and
forest should be respected; (3) We should try to train and build up a team of their own people
to do the work of administration and development. We should avoid introducing too many
outsiders into tribal territory; (4) We should not overadminister these areas or overwhelm
them with a multiplicity of schemes.; (5) We should judge results not by statistics of the
amount of money spent but by the quality of human character evolved.

Various committees were set up in order to steadfast the process of tribal development. The
first such committee to be set up was the Elwin committee in 1956. Following the
committee’s recommendations projects were concentrated to fulfil four main activities:
economic development, health, education and communication. Alongside these emphasis was
laid on programmes for the prevention of land alienation, restoration of alienated land,
abolition of bonded labour, review of excise and forest policies etc. The tribal sub plan thus
focussed on area development with emphasis on improving the quality of life of tribal
communities through ITDP (Integrated Tribal Dev. Project), MADA (Modified Area
Development Approach) etc.

Tribal vs National Development

The national objective to build productive structures for future growth and resource
mobilization for development was given far more importance than the issue concerning the
welfare and interests of tribes. More often the goals of national development were at
loggerheads with the interest and welfare of tribals.

Measures like building of infrastructure, roads, industries, dams for irrigation and power
projects as well as extraction and exploitation of minerals and forest resources were more
often initiated in areas inhabited by the tribal population as these areas were rich reservoirs of
mineral and forest resources. The relationship of tribes with the natural environment marked
by community ownership was drastically altered. With development of rail and road large
scale industrialisation and mining which led to transfer of lands from tribals to non-tribals.
Large scale displacement of tribal population of happened. Land acquisition for
developmental projects led to land alienation of the actual owners. Tribes underwent change
not only in their relationship to land but also in their relationship to forests. Tribes were
greatly dependent on forests for their day-to-day needs, including food, shelter, instruments,
medicine etc. In order to meet these basic requirements they preserved the forests. But with
the advent of the British forests came under state control as the British saw these as a source
of revenue and profit. State control continued post-independence with stricter rules
disenfranchising tribals from their rights and resources for sustaining a self-sufficient
livelihood. Another problem has been of huge influx of non-tribals into tribal areas in search
of employment. These have not only led to increasing urbanization of tribal areas but also
deprived tribals from the fruits of development carried out in their areas.

Eg. Talk about the NE problem.

Voluntary Organizations
Since the 1980s the role of the voluntary agencies or non- government organizations (NGOs)
has come into prominence as part of a larger effort by the state to make the administration
more responsive to people's aspirations, needs, and problems. It is felt that NGOs improve the
effectiveness of developmental operations for poverty alleviation and sustainable
development. The initiatives of voluntary organizations towards the development of tribes
can be traced back to the role of Christian missionaries. Later Gandhi encouraged dedicated
workers like Thakkar Bapa and Raghavaiah to work among tribal groups. It was under his
inspiration that the Adim Jati Sevak Sangh was formed. Such organizations primarily
undertook social-service-oriented activities in tribal areas. Today there are a large number of
such organizations working in different parts of the country. These organizations mostly
work towards agricultural development, water conservation, education, health training,
eradication of social evils, conservation of ecology, and struggle against all forms of
exploitation including political action for alternative development. The Council for
Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) has come to occupy the
position of the principal promotional agency for voluntary action for rural or tribal
development at the central level.

Social Transformation
Social Differentiation

Tribal societies have been egalitarian societies in relation to the hierarchical character of
caste society. However recent studies have pointed out that forms of inequality based on age
and sex do exist in tribal communities. Further there exists in many a hierarchy of clans or
lineages.

Economy

Tribes in India have been situated at different levels of development. There is not one
economy of tribes but many economies resulting from the level of integration of local-level
tribal economy with the larger economy and society. Historically, it was the formation of the
state which led to changes in the economic structure. Because of the inability of tribes to
produce surplus due to primitive technology, the peasant caste population was encouraged by
rulers to migrate into tribal territory. The peasant castes brought with them the superior
technology of agricultural production that was accepted by many tribal communities, setting
into motion a process of peasantization of tribal societies. The advent of colonial
administration accentuated this process and paved the way for a new class of intermediaries
such as zamindars, jagirdars, muttadars, and ghatwals between the state and the local
economy. After Independence, the economy of the tribes was brought within the framework
of the national economy. The major thrust of change in this period has been from food
gathering to food production or from tribe to peasant. It has also entailed a shift from the
communal and collective ownership of land and use of labour to the private ownership of
land and labour. Further, since hunting, food gathering, and shifting cultivation are associated
with the system of communal ownership of land and use of labour, the shift to terrace and wet
cultivation has generally been associated with the private ownership of land.
During the British rule, the disenfranchisement of tribals from their respective lands led to the
formation of a three tier agrarian class system. The top was taken by the feudatory landlords
or zamindars, middle was occupied by the well-to-do peasants which consisted a section of
tribal headmen, while the bottom consisted of large section of tribals left to be poor
cultivators and landless labourers. The dispossession of tribals from their land compelled
them to find employment as labourers in quarries, coalfields and emerging towns during
British rule. One of the important sectors that tribals moved was the plantation sector that
opened up in Bengal and Assam. As they did not possess modern skills and knowledge they
secured only low-paying labour jobs.

Middle Class

The entry of tribals into white-collar occupations has been possible because of their exposure
to modern education. It were Christian missionaries who introduced modern education among
tribes, especially in the hills of the north-east. The post-Independence period saw a rise in
education among tribes. This was partly due to government initiatives and partly to growing
consciousness among tribals of the value of education. At the same time the provision of
reservations extended by the state to tribal groups facilitated their entry into modern
occupations, especially in the government departments and state-run enterprises. As a result,
a new middle class has grown among tribal communities. The growth of this middle class has
however been far from even. It is generally more pronounced among the larger tribal
communities than the smaller ones. Also, it is more pronounced among communities and
regions exposed to Christianity than others. In the sphere of business and enterprise, the
presence of the tribes is far lower.

Tribe Caste Continuum- Relationship between Caste & Tribe

Caste/Tribe conceptualizations:

Caste: Regulated by hereditary division of labour, hierarchy, purity/pollution, civic and

religious disabilities. Inequality, dependency and subordination key features. Maintain a
division between utilitarian and other functions of religion. Regard forms of pleasure
ambivalently. Form a heterogenous society.

Tribe: Absence of division-centred features of caste system. Governed by kinship bonds,

assumptions of equality. Lineage and clan units of ownership, production and consumption.
Maintain similar behaviour patterns for both functions of religion. Take satisfaction in
pleasure of senses. Form a homogenous society.

Continuum

The concept of continuum was originally used by Robert Redfield in his concept of folk-
urban continuum. According to this there are no urban or rural societies in the strict sense but
only a continuation along the same lines. The societies vary in their proximity to any of these
poles. Bailey incorporated this concept in India and called it the tribe-caste continuum.
According to this concept, there are no tribes or castes in the strict sense, but various
communities varying in their proximity to either of these. In such a scenario it is hard to
differentiate between the two. . F.G.Bailey, while studying ‘Kondh’ and ‘Oriya’ political
system, used this concept. Bailey labeled ‘Oriya’caste society as organic and tribal ‘Kondh’
society as segmentary and argued that their kinship values and religious beliefs are not far
detached from one another. This argument was also reiterated by Surjit Sinha on his work on
Bhumij tribe. According to them ther tribes were not completely isolated from the mainland
population but have been in constant interaction. This interaction has affected both sides and
thus given rise to some unique characteristics to Indian society. In some places tribal have
assimilated to a great extent in the caste society thus forming their part. In some the otherwise
happened.

In the context of continuum approach, Bailey for example, has attempted to distinguish a
‘tribe’ from ‘caste’, using ‘direct access to land’ as the major parameter. According to him, if
the larger proportion of a given society has direct access to land, then closer that society is at
the tribal-end of the continuum. Collective ownership of resources entitles all the members of
a ‘tribe’ to have access to land and other resources. Conversely, if the greater access to land is
through a dependent relationship as, for instance, big landowners leasing land to tenants, then
nearer that society is to the caste pole. Surjit Sinha, however, does not agree with Bailey and
emphasises that the major feature of an ‘Ideal tribe’ is its independent socioeconomic
existence, resulting naturally into its lack of interaction with other social systems.

Scholars of tribe-caste continuum have often used social manifestations of religion, broadly
referred to as ritual and belief while describing the transition from one polar category to
another. It is felt that through culture contact and diffusion of cultural traits, the guiding
principles of socio-religious change are determined. As Sachidananda argues, “In India,
however, most of the groups, which are how regarded as tribal have been in contact with
Hindu society for many centuries past. Directly or indirectly, they have imbibed influences
from Hinduism.

Some scholars also feel that the movement from the tribal pole to the caste pole involves
progress in ethnic heterogeneity, roles specialization, social stratification, emergence of the
elite and increased interaction with network of civilization centers. These features or specific
characteristics are said to be completely missing in tribal societies. Working on the data from
Botia in Utter Pradesh, Srivastva finds the concept of ‘cultural approximation’ quite helpful
in dealing with the problem of tribe-caste mobility. The form of it is a “form of adaptation’’
through which an interactive and mutually beneficial cultural co-existence is rendered
possible. The mechanism is adoptive in nature which is emerged from the within the cultures
often without organized efforts. The transformation of a tribe into a caste is subsumed in the
wider phenomenon of the absorption of the community into Hinduism.

Various processes of Assimilation

Hinduization
This is used to describe the process of the ever increasing integration of tribals in the caste-
based Hindu social organisations. Proponents of this process contend that acculturation
defines the tribe-caste mobility in India.

Another feature of this argument is that the tribes are interacting with a caste category and not
with individuals in a society. As the importance is attached to rank, hierarchy, ritual,
pollution and purity, they dominate all other modalities and rules of caste. People are adapted
to the dominant trends visible in the society in which they participate. Thus commentators on
social exchange on the tribe caste continuum find the presence of the process of Hinduization
and Sanskritization.

The absorption of tribal communities into caste society takes place generally at lower level.
There are many examples of tribal communities who become caste. This is done by accepting
the ritual and social superiority of Brahmin and other twice-born castes. They accept a lowly
occupation and the imposition of taboos in respect of food material comforts and social
customs. They consequently accept the notion of rituals of purity and pollution. This is a
complex institutional process involved in the transition from a largely uncertified primeval
society to a stratified peasant society.

The tribe caste model is mainly of two types:

1) The Hindu method of absorption assuming that caste system protects tribal people- N K
Bose

2) The Sanskritization model emulating Brahminical or upper caste reference.

Evidence of Hinduisation model

Colonial reports show different levels of Hinduisation on different regions :

 The process seems have been nearly complete in the case of some segments of Bhumj
tribe and Gond tribes
 In the Munda world the process was primarily restricted to the royal family
 The process seems to be marginal in the Santhal tribes

Gonds in Bihar & Jharkhand

There are many tribes in Bihar and Jharkhand such as the Bhumij, Kherwar, Chero, Gond etc.
They belong to that category whose members have adopted the Hindu faith.

Imitating the process of Sanskritization, some Gonds groups are claiming Kshatriya status in
the caste hierarchy. They employ Brahmins in most of their rituals. They keep a number of
fasts and observe festivals. They have started wearing the sacred thread. The names they give
to their children are almost indistinguishable from that of the higher Hindu castes.

They also fully subscribe to the Hindu idea of ritual purity and pollution. Occasions such as
women during menstruation and in child birth and the family on the death of a member are
considered polluted. Each time purification ceremony is held to restore the family to its
normal ritual status. By putting on sacred thread and also by expressing their superiority over
the Harijan or untouchable caste, they demonstrate their consciousness to secure high caste
status. They also maintain due social distance with the untouchable castes so that they may
not be polluted. Some affluent families have given up free mixing between the sexes. The
acts of moral and sexual lapses are severely condemned than in the past.

The case of Gonds in Bihar and Jharkhand illustrates the process of acculturation leading to
assimilation in Hinduism. Their status accorded them in Hindu society is not necessarily the
lowest. Recognition of their claim to clean Hindu caste is accorded. Their life in Saran and
Champaran is marked by heterogeneity and multiethnic residence .And they participate with
other communities in an economy involving specialization. They interact with other ethnic
groups with greater intensity and with the ‘great tradition.’ Some areas also show the
emergence of elite and also notions of social stratification.

According to the above stated discussion the Gonds of Bihar and Jharkhand can be put at the
caste pole of the tribe-caste continuum. In place of living as an isolated tribal group, they
have become part-society as a caste.

Critique of the Hinduisation process

Xaxa argues that the categorisation of tribes as Hindus leads to difficulties both conceptual
and empirical. There are both similarities and differences in the religious practices of the
Hindus and tribes.

Xaxa says that while there is no doubt that there has been much give and take between the
two religions. The influence of Hinduism on tribes, though present, is not an adequate ground
for describing tribes as Hindus. The other aspect that is alluded to is the dimension of natural
religion. As a natural religion, tribal religion shares many attributes in common with
Hinduism as with the religious practices of tribes in Americas or Africa as well.

In examining the question of the transformation of tribe into caste, Xaxa also asks it is not
enough to look only at the relationship between tribes and caste society. There is also a need
to consider how tribes themselves perceive their equation with caste society. After adopting
certain Hindu beliefs and practices, do tribes identify themselves as tribes or as castes? The
important route along which tribes under- went Hinduisation or Sanskritisation is what
anthropologists have described as the 'religious/cultural movement'. Among the tribes, the
movement is better known as the Bhagat movement. It is interesting to note that tribes even
when they have been hinduised describe themselves not as Hindus but as Bhagats. It is
outsiders, census officials and anthropologists, who tend to describe them as 'Hindus'.
Anthropologists have even been prone to describe them as castes. Tribes, however, do not
identify and designate themselves as belonging to different castes in the sense used and
understood by the outsiders and the social scientists.

Surajit Sinha in his paper "State formation and Rajput myth in tribal central” argues that the
process of Hinduisation was limited to only elites of the tribe. He says that the tribals at the
lower rungs of the social hierarchy were only feebly touched by the aspirations for
identification as Kshatriyas, as there poor economic condition ruled out the possibility to ever
realizing the status of rajputs for which it was essential to ‘Purchase” the ritual services of the
Brahmins.

Critique of the Sanskritisation Model:

Sanskritisation is seen as a process whereby communities lower down the social ladder
emulate the lifestyle of the dominant caste of a region. By this process of emulation the lower
castes would move up in the caste hierarchy.

 Sociologists and social anthropologists have broadened the scope of this concept to
describe a certain process of change that has been going on in tribal society
 The extension, however, according to some is inappropriate because it assumes that
tribes are part of Hindu society and caste society. But tribes have been conceived of as
tribes precisely because they are outside Hindu as well as caste society.
Sanskritisation demands that tribes must first enter Hindu society.
 The question that arises is whether Hinduisation is the same as Sanskritisation. The
two are interrelated, but it may be more appropriate to describe the processes involved
in the context of tribes as Hinduisation. This is so because climbing up the caste
ladder is not the overriding concern among the tribes.

Tribalisation

Some of the scholars feel that the movement from tribe to caste is not unidirectional.. It can
be seen natural that the two communities borrow from each other. This is called tribalisation

The traditional aspect of tribalization is defined by K.S. Singh as ‘acceptance of tribal mores,
rituals and beliefs by incoming communities.’ Nihar Ranjan Ray suggests a broad-based
assimilation process affecting vital aspects of religious beliefs and rituals and social practices
of the immigrating communities of the Aryans. It is assumed that the various totemistic and
animistic beliefs of the Aryans are the results of their emulation of the culture of the
autochthons, i.e. the Adivasis.

K.S. Singh suggests that acceptance of tribal mores is easier for the middle and lower
segments of the caste hierarchical order. They move in search of land or to offer their
services to their tribal masters. This process does not affect the Brahmin and other high-caste
people. Other aspects of the tribalization process are: 1. Respect for the tribal priest and
medicine-man and for tribal deities which are retained even though the tribal groups are
driven out of the village; and 2. the participation of tribes in the formation of state and their
continued support for it.

K.S Singh in his essay, Tribe into caste: a colonial paradigm, argues that tribes have not
become castes. There have been extensive interactions and borrowing among communities
but most tribes have neither merged with merged with castes nor has tribal region become a
part of Hinduism. He further argues that instead of tribes becoming caste, there is a
movement in the opposite direction, with a large number of castes now seeking tribal status in
order to improve their material prospects.

Conclusion- One of the important social transformations to have taken place in Indian history
is the transition of tribes into castes and in a more restricted sense the identification of certain
castes with tribes. ‘Hinduization’ and ‘Tribalization’ can be seen as two processes that are
complementary to each other. Hinduization or the absorption of tribes into the dominant
neighbouring caste systems is a complex process. Tribalisation on the other hand refers to the
identification of certain castes of the lower order with tribes and tribal characteristics and
rituals. This can happen when the castes may serve the tribes in some way, or be in close
contact with them over a long period of time. Despite these certain apprehensions and
questions needs to be put forth:

1. Increased Hindu cultural influences on tribals did not invariably necessitate their
articulation with the caste-based and hierarchical Hindu social organization.

2. The Usual representation of the Hinduization process tends to ignore the will and
subjectivity of the adivasi groups emulating the hindu cultural and other influences.

Ghurye Elwin Debate

Theory of isolation
Verrier Elwin while did not see the tribals as savages or the uncivilized like the colonialists,
he did believe in the colonial rhetoric of how the tribes were apart from the rest and needed
special care. This view was in a way the continuation of the binary perceptions of the colonial
world, which was neatly divided into the world of barbarians and the world of the civilized.
Verrier Elwin in his book, The Baiga (1939), advocates establishment of a Sort of 'National
Park' in a wild and largely inaccessible part of country under direct control of a tribal
commissioner.
 Inside this area administration should allow tribesmen to live their live with utmost
possible happiness and freedom. Wide power would be given to old tribal council and
authority of village headman would be established. Non-tribal settlings in this area
would be required to take out license.
 No missionaries of any religion would be permitted to break up tribal life. Everything
possible would be done for the progress of tribals within this area, provided the
quality of tribal life would not be impaired.
 Tribal culture would not be destroyed and tribal freedom would be restored and
maintained. Tribe’s contact with outsiders should be minimised. Economic
development would be given high priority. Simple and need oriented education would
be given to tribal people. Fishing and hunting would be freely permitted and
dictatorship of subordinate officials within the area should be eradicated.
 The focus of the approach was basically preservation and protection of the tribal
culture. This approach due to its ethnographic romanticization of tribes and culture
has received less attention since the time of independence.
Elvin's isolationism was vehemently criticized. Thakkar Bapa (1941), a great social worker,
protested against such efforts to isolate the tribals. To keep these people confined to and
isolated in their inaccessible hills and jungles was just like keeping them in glass cases of a
museum for the curiosity of purely academic persons. Ram Manohar Lohia (1960) reiterated
that this policy of treating the tribals just like 'domestic cattle' is absolutely shameful,
disgraceful and barbaric.

Integration/Assimilation approach                  
The assimilation approach to tribal studies was an alternate approach to the isolationist
approach. The proponent of this approach, G.S. Ghurye, described Adivasis or tribes as
'Backward Hindus'. His work 'Caste and Race in India' and 'The Scheduled Tribes in India'
provide the basic epistemological premise of assimilation approach. He was of the opinion
that the tribes are part of Hindu Society.
 Ghurye believed that the Animism was a term which was applied to both religion of
Hindus and the Tribes, and it was this idea of animism which was a common link
between them.
 Ghurye also argued that tribes are loosely integrated with Hindu society- Tribals
people in areas other than Assam are more or less hinduised, more or less assimilated
with the civilization and culture of the majority of the people.
 A large number of tribes in India, according to Ghurye speak languages thatbelong to
Indo-Aryan family. Many of these tribes, though they have preserved their tribal
languages, can and do employ Indo Aryan languages of surrounding people in their
routine intercourse. Many of them thus are bi-lingual, having their own mother-
tongue and having more or less acquired languages of neighboring people.
 According to Ghurye tribal people in India are backward Hindu differing only in
degree from the other segment of Hindu society. Their backwardness is due to their
imperfect assimilation into Hindu society. Tribes of India have slowly absorbed
certain Hindu values and life style through contact with Hindus. Under Hindu
influence tribes have given up liquor drinking, they received education and have
changed their practices and habits and adopted Hinduism as their religion.