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INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
IN CONTEXTS

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INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
IN CONTEXTS
FIFTH EDITION

Judith N. Martin
Arizona State University
Thomas K. Nakayama
Northeastern University

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS

Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue
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ISBN: 978-0-07-338512-9
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Martin, Judith N.
Intercultural communication in contexts / Judith Martin, Thomas Nakayama. — 5th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN-13: 978-0-07-338512-9 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-07-338512-3 (alk. paper)
1. Intercultural communication. I. Nakayama, Thomas K. II. Title.

HM1211.M373 2010
303.48’2—dc22 2008051898

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VVVVVV About the Authors

The two authors of this book come to intercultural communication from very
different backgrounds and very different research traditions. Yet we believe that
these differences offer a unique approach to thinking about intercultural com-
munication. We briefly introduce ourselves here, but we hope that by the end of
the book you will have a much more complete understanding of who we are.
Judith Martin grew up in Mennonite communities, primarily in Delaware
and Pennsylvania. She has studied at the Université de Grenoble in France
and has taught in Algeria. She received her doctorate
at the Pennsylvania State University. By background
and training, she is a social scientist who has focused
on intercultural communication on an interpersonal
level and has studied how people’s communication
is affected as they move or sojourn between interna-
tional locations. She has taught at the State University
of New York at Oswego, the University of Minnesota,
the University of New Mexico, and Arizona State Uni-
versity. She enjoys gardening, going to Mexico, and
hosting annual Academy Awards parties, and she does
not miss the harsh Midwestern winters.
Tom Nakayama grew up mainly in Georgia, at
a time when the Asian American presence was much
less than it is now. He has studied at the Université
de Paris and various universities in the United States.
He received his doctorate from the University of Iowa.
By background and training, he is a critical rhetorician
who views intercultural communication in a social con-
text. He has taught at the California State University
at San Bernardino and Arizona State University. He is
now professor and chair of communication studies at
Northeastern University in Boston. He lives near the
Back Bay station and loves walking to work. He loves
the change of seasons, especially autumn.
The authors’ very different life stories and research programs came together
at Arizona State University. We have each learned much about intercultural
communication through our own experiences, as well as through our intellec-
tual pursuits. Judith has a well-established record of social science approaches
to intercultural communication. Tom, in contrast, has taken a nontraditional
v

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vi About the Authors

approach to understanding intercultural communication by emphasizing critical

perspectives. We believe that these differences in our lives and in our research
offer complementary ways of understanding intercultural communication.
Since the early 1990s, we have engaged in many different dialogues about
intercultural communication—focusing on our experiences, thoughts, ideas, and
analyses—which led us to think about writing this textbook. But our interest
was not primarily sparked by these dialogues; rather, it was our overall interest
in improving intercultural relations that motivated us. We believe that commu-
nication is an important arena for improving those relations. By helping people
become more aware as intercultural communicators, we hope to make this a
better world for all of us.

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VVVVVV Brief Contents

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION 1
Chapter 1 Why Study Intercultural Communication? 3
Chapter 2 The History of the Study of Intercultural
Communication 44
Chapter 3 Culture, Communication, Context, and Power 83
Chapter 4 History and Intercultural Communication 120

PART II INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

PROCESSES 159
Chapter 5 Identity and Intercultural Communication 161
Chapter 6 Language and Intercultural Communication 218
Chapter 7 Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space 265

PART III INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

APPLICATIONS 303
Chapter 8 Understanding Intercultural Transitions 305
Chapter 9 Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication 347
Chapter 10 Culture, Communication, and Intercultural
Relationships 380
Chapter 11 Culture, Communication, and Conflict 425
Chapter 12 Striving for Engaged and Effective Intercultural
Communication 464

vii

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VVVVVV Contents

Preface xix
To the Student xxvii

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION 1

Chapter 1 Why Study Intercultural Communication? 3

The Self-Awareness Imperative 4

The Demographic Imperative 6

Changing U.S. Demographics 6
Changing Immigration Patterns 8

The Economic Imperative 17

The Technological Imperative 21

Technology and Human Communication 21
Access to Communication Technology 26

The Peace Imperative 28

The Ethical Imperative 32

Relativity Versus Universality 34
Being Ethical Students of Culture 35

Internet Resources 38
Summary 39
Discussion Questions 40
Activities 40
Key Words 41
References 41

ix

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x Contents

Chapter 2 The History of the Study of Intercultural

Communication 44
The Early Development of the Discipline 45
Nonverbal Communication 46
Application of Theory 46
An Emphasis on International Settings 46
An Interdisciplinary Focus 47

Perception and Worldview of the Researcher 49

Three Approaches to Studying Intercultural

Communication 50
The Social Science Approach 54
The Interpretive Approach 59
The Critical Approach 65

A Dialectical Approach to Understanding Culture

and Communication 71
Combining the Three Traditional Paradigms: The
Dialectical Approach 71
Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication 73
Keeping a Dialectical Perspective 76

Internet Resources 76
Summary 77
Discussion Questions 78
Activities 78
Key Words 79
References 79

Chapter 3 Culture, Communication, Context, and Power 83

What Is Culture? 84
Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned, Group-
Related Perceptions 87
Interpretive Definitions: Culture as Contextual Symbolic
Patterns of Meaning, Involving Emotions 87
Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic,
and a Contested Zone 90

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Contents xi

What Is Communication? 94

The Relationship Between Culture and

Communication 95
How Culture Influences Communication 95
How Communication Reinforces Culture 107
Communication as Resistance to the Dominant Cultural
System 109

The Relationship Between Communication and

Context 109
The Relationship Between Communication and
Power 110
Internet Resources 116
Summary 116
Discussion Questions 117
Activities 117
Key Words 118
References 118

Chapter 4 History and Intercultural Communication 120

From History to Histories 122
Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories 123
Family Histories 124
National Histories 125
Cultural-Group Histories 126

History, Power, and Intercultural

Communication 128
The Power of Texts 128
The Power of Other Histories 130
Power in Intercultural Interactions 133

History and Identity 133

Histories as Stories 133
Nonmainstream Histories 135

Intercultural Communication and History 146

Antecedents of Contact 146

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xii Contents

The Contact Hypothesis 149

Negotiating Histories Dialectically in Interaction 152

Internet Resources 153

Summary 154
Discussion Questions 155
Activities 156
Key Words 156
References 156

PART II INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

PROCESSES 159

Chapter 5 Identity and Intercultural

Communication 161
Thinking Dialectically About Identity 162
The Social Science Perspective 163
The Interpretive Perspective 166
The Critical Perspective 167

Identity and Language 171

Identity Development Issues 172

Minority Identity Development 173
Majority Identity Development 177
Social and Cultural Identities 180
Gender Identity 180
Sexual Identity 182
Age Identity 182
Racial and Ethnic Identities 184
Characteristics of Whiteness 187
Religious Identity 192
Class Identity 194
National Identity 197
Regional Identity 199
Personal Identity 199

Multicultural People 200

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Contents xiii

Identity, Stereotypes, and Prejudice 205

Identity and Communication 208

Internet Resources 211

Summary 212
Discussion Questions 212
Activities 213
Key Words 213
References 214

Chapter 6 Language and Intercultural

Communication 218
Social Science Perspective on Language 219
Language and Perception 221
Recent Research Findings 224
Language and Thought: Metaphor 225
Cultural Variations in Communication Style 227

Interpretive Perspective on Language 228

Variations in Contextual Rules 231

Critical Perspective on Language 233

Co-Cultural Communication 234
Discourse and Social Structure 237
The “Power” Effects of Labels 238

Moving Between Languages 241

Multilingualism 241
Translation and Interpretation 243

Language and Identity 246

Language and Cultural Group Identity 247
Code Switching 249

Language Politics and Policies 251

Language and Globalization 254

Internet Resources 260

Summary 260
Discussion Questions 261

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xiv Contents

Activities 262
Key Words 262
References 262

Chapter 7 Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space 265

Thinking Dialectically About Nonverbal
Communication: Defining Nonverbal
Communication 267
Comparing Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 268
What Nonverbal Behavior Communicates 270

The Universality of Nonverbal Behavior 271

Recent Research Findings 271
Nonverbal Codes 273
Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination 281
Semiotics and Nonverbal Communication 285

Defining Cultural Space 287

Cultural Identity and Cultural Space 287
Changing Cultural Space 293
Postmodern Cultural Spaces 295

Internet Resources 297

Summary 298
Discussion Questions 299
Activities 299
Key Words 300
References 300

PART III INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

APPLICATIONS 303

Chapter 8 Understanding Intercultural Transitions 305

Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural
Transitions 307
Types of Migrant Groups 309
Voluntary Migrants 310
Involuntary Migrants 311

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Contents xv

Migrant-Host Relationships 314

Assimilation 314
Separation 315
Integration 316
Marginalization 318
Cultural Hybridity 318
Cultural Adaptation 320
Social Science Approach 320
Interpretive Approach 327
Critical Approach: Contextual Influences 336
Internet Resources 342
Summary 343
Discussion Questions 343
Activities 343
Key Words 344
References 344

Chapter 9 Popular Culture and Intercultural

Communication 347
Learning About Cultures Without Personal
Experience 348
The Power of Popular Culture 349
What Is Popular Culture? 350

Consuming and Resisting Popular Culture 354

Consuming Popular Culture 354
Resisting Popular Culture 356

Representing Cultural Groups 360

Migrants’ Perceptions of Mainstream Culture 362
Popular Culture and Stereotyping 363

U.S. Popular Culture and Power 367

Global Circulation of Images and Commodities 367
Cultural Imperialism 370

Internet Resources 375

Summary 376
Discussion Questions 376

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xvi Contents

Activities 376
Key Words 377
References 377

Chapter 10 Culture, Communication, and Intercultural

Relationships 380
Benefits and Challenges of Intercultural
Relationships 382
Benefits 382
Challenges 384

Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural

Relationships 388
Personal-Contextual Dialectic 389
Differences-Similarities Dialectic 390
Cultural-Individual Dialectic 391
Privilege-Disadvantage Dialectic 391
Static-Dynamic Dialectic 391
History/Past–Present /Future Dialectic 392

Intercultural Relationships 392

Social Science Approach: Cross-Cultural Differences 392
Interpretive Approach: Communicating in Intercultural
Relationships 398
Critical Approach: Contextual Influences 413

Internet Resources 418

Summary 418
Discussion Questions 419
Activities 420
Key Words 420
References 420

Chapter 11 Culture, Communication, and Conflict 425

Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict 427

Two Orientations to Conflict 431

Conflict as Opportunity 431

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Contents xvii

Conflict as Destructive 433

Cultural Differences in Conflict Views: A Dialectical
Perspective 435
The Social Science Approach to Conflict 436
Strategies and Tactics for Dealing with Conflict 436
Gender, Ethnicity, and Conflict 440
Value Differences and Conflict Styles 441

Interpretive and Critical Approaches to Social

Conflict 443
Social Contexts 443
Economic Contexts 445
Historical and Political Contexts 446

Managing Intercultural Conflict 447

Productive Versus Destructive Conflict 447
Competition Versus Cooperation 448
Dealing with Conflict 450
Mediation 457

Internet Resources 460

Summary 460
Discussion Questions 461
Activities 461
Key Words 462
References 462

Chapter 12 Striving for Engaged and Effective Intercultural

Communication 464
The Components of Competence 465
Social Science Perspective: Individual Components 465
Interpretive Perspective: Competence in Contexts 475
Critical Perspective: Competence for Whom? 477
Applying Knowledge About Intercultural
Communication 478
Entering Into Dialogue 478
Becoming Interpersonal Allies 480

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xviii Contents

Building Coalitions 482

Social Justice and Transformation 483
Forgiveness 488
What the Future Holds 491

Internet Resources for Intercultural Interaction 495

Summary 496
Discussion Questions 497
Activities 497
Key Words 497
References 498

Credits C-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-7

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