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    39 views97 pages

    Rock Slope Engineering

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    Santosh Thapaliya

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    oe Lecturer Notes . On. ROCK SLOPE ENGINEERING By: Bharat Bahadur Dhakal “Table of Contents ost Sop Sti Ans ingles Chat = i 1 tin it chilis pose {ops qin sep ate sity The minoetes of shes pe silly ac letng the 1.3.1 Reasons or Roa Sloe Fila ‘ope Maid Rak kp Si AI 221 iil Mods. Deka Nd (Lit quo analy). 25 Protbiitie Met ee 224 Nmariel Nalin a 241 Comiouem modeling 242 Disciam aprox 2421 Disineemert meh 24122 Disses dfomaton als 24.23 Pai fw ods. 245 Hybrid proc 24.4 Nemec Moda Beslapment nd Applicaton (Chop: 3 Quien of roundups: 5. Oscamencean Charest of Great 3.1 Ofgin of Gouna. 5.1.2 Grund andthe droop Cy: 313 The Oscumeneof Subse Wat. 3 2 Grounivatr ett o Slope Sail 321 Ged wate fw in cuted ck, 3122 Flow in clean, sth scott 3123 Flow i file discon 334 Ground water in tok saps. 3.3 Groundvater presiare Modes (Chapter: 4 Quatifction of Shear Seng Parameters of Discominuites: a 4.1 Shoae tenth of planar surfaces 4.2 Shear strength of rough surfaces: a mn 4.2.1 Surface FUgADES vse as 4.3 Determination of sear Strength on Rock Mas. 47 4.3.1 Barton's estimate of shear sregth. = sent 43.141 Feld estimates of RC... 8 43.1.2 led estimaes of 8... a pene $0 4.3.2 Poi load Tesora 3 444 Shear tenth of dscotnsits.. 32 444.1 Definition of cohesion and ition, 2 4.42 Frition sige of rock sures... aan 3 44.3 Shearing on an ncn plane... = vee SB 4.5 Feld shear stength TES suunasnonnmnnn = 5 46 Influente of water on Shee Suen wenn ininnnerennnennnnnne 36 ‘Chapter: 5 Quatieation of Seismic Frc: 5.1 Basie Aspets of Earthquake: $6 Seismic hazard analysis 45.2 Determination of Eanhquake Magnitude... 5.21 Prewdostai ability F385 on (Chapter: 6 Graphical Presewation of Geological Dats 61 Definitions of Geological Fem enon {62 Graphical Techniques for Data Problem non {62.1 Stereoyraphic projection ofa plane and is poe. 6.22 Sterconts for hand ploting of snetural geology data... 2 6.2.21 Ploting poles nnnnnnnnnnns B 62.2.2 Comouring pole concentrations. a a 6.2.23 Plowing great cites oeneno 1 62.2.4 Lines of nteeecton : 1% sn 16 63 Evaluation of Potetal Slope Problems cation 7 sat ” caer 72 G88 11 Gavi iesizte TaaGeveey a Ground wat anes pogo 7.8 Ae 17151 Lined window mag creme pits of cai non a 183 Typeset 12 Mapingofeapsed Smactaes: Disc! ring egspment 742 Diced ering operations = 73 Caper Anis $1 Pac Fle - 811 General enter plane ai ce B12 Fe ft : . a) 8121 Asumpins cf Hane alte sais w 151.3 elec of guard water an iy, $51.4 Cieat tein ck depth and actin, 82 Wedge Fite "$4.43 Block alignmenttest 521 Definition of wedge eeomety a) 8.2.2 Analysis of wedge file e nee HO {8.23 Wedge alysis including cohesion ction and wate pres ane e enn BEY 8.24 Wedge stability chants or ition oly. ' us 8.3 Circular Faia 83.1 Conditions for cect ilare and methods of analysis 332 Shape of slide surfice nt 18.33 Stability analysis procede., 834 Derivation of circular fire chars. 34.1 Ground water Aow essunptons. 134.2 Proton of circular ir charts 8343 Use ofthe circular flare cha. : 83.5 Location of cities side surface and tension crack. 83.6 Dette stably analysis of cca alas. 83.6.1 Bishop's and Jan's nsthodofsics. $83.62 Use ofomtinea failure ertrion in Bishop Stability analysis. 4 Topping Fallot 7 : 44.1 General Conditions for Topling 84.2 Types of topping lire... £8421 block Topping 864.22 Flexural topping 84423 Block-flexur opin. 5143 Secondary toppling modes. 84.4 Kinematis of boc topping fie nono 84.4.1 Block shape tet 85442 Interayer slip te 5.45 Limi equilibio alysis of tpping ona steppe base: 8.4.5.1 Block geomet nnn 84.5.2 lock sally oo ntnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn nr 5.45.3 Catelation prods for oping stability of 2 33tem OF Mosk oo ve ashe: coed yon ting sans of ein asstacorot at : rt i soos 107 S408 — ste eval rp re fing i Soi of SH apo Mod nd is 9211 Hinds scala. 9222Mes in Blaine 9221 Ros Asien 94.22 Tenene-tachos Rock Bolt: sersored Anco s Desige ad Inti: of Roch Fal. : by tock ema Preteen mass aginst ok fl. 9321 Rock ll mein an Retest ibus aassis of toring kes, ha Poem cps Saint + Chapter: I: Principles for Rock Stope Stability Analysis 1.1 faction 1.2 Definitions and Ain of Slope Stability Analysis, 1.3 Factors affecting the Slope Stability 1 Introd In civil enginering a high degree of elability i equted because slope flue o even rock fall, can rarely be tolerated. In contast, some movement of open pit slope is accepted if prodtion snot nterupted, and rock fills are of ltl consequence. Fer rock slope desig the results of surveys ofthe slope height and angle and stability conditions for natura. engiecred fn open pt mine slopes are analyze. sof interest o note that tere is some cortspondsnes bween the stecpest and highest stable slopes for both natural and manmade slope, The saps also show thal there are many unstable slopes t Mater angles and lower heights thane ‘maximum vals because weak rock or adverse structure can result in instability of cver low slopes. ewe 1.2 Relig eens geht an ip atk loop pa aaa a expen ope 1x raat as an a aatural and cegncered shops in Cha edna Sean 1 Chi engineering The design of rock cuts for eit projects such as highways And railways is usally consemed ith desl ofthe structural geology. That is the oieation and characteristic (euch a8 length, ghness and fling materials) ofthe joins, being and tuts that occur Behind the ewek face, For example, Figure 1.3 shows act slope in shale coming smooth bedng plans that tre cotimous over the full Height of the cut and pat an angle of about $0> towards the highway. Since the fiction ale ofthese dsconnutice i about 2 any tempt 10 ‘ate Slepe Caine, poraeat sesptatck west otea sata a on es he Sete ee that the strike Of the beds is at ¢ nent ‘e noc fs than he oe A OT pd th she tai of HOCKS OF OC foe Sour Te spe design ia 2 senymetdocnaes an ses snell as vessation methods and costs, frm cet wo to, incorprctes all ramps and ences, This may be # poste slope witha ater slope in weaker, suc materi, and steeper slope in more compete oc a epth In atin, he slepe are may vary around the pit fo acsomnmodsle ‘ot difleingssloty and the lajet of te fap. Second the ntrramnp angle i he slope. oF sepes. «2h rap tht wll pend on the numberof ramps and their wid tid, the of invdtal tances éspens on vertical spacing between benches, oF ‘comin ll beeches and he wd of th benches Sime oh ur ts my in pi th Steg glo, ok seh rd wt sam yg PS a trbckof ase: the det of pt will incase and tee may mead to bea earesponlitt eres inthe veal spe angle As, fer sbeson which thera located the sone aod eer supe Cogineting Lethe Nee os Chapter ‘hort bdr Baha lars that te out the ramp, compared 9 slopes with no iy nay be oleate, ook lope Engine samara eect ‘a ihe rokawce: of lined” ssinel 9 . nay aati efor 10 ses the sae agg at cane, fonds pend The tem aye thy ing. See te ig Say ecm ties: ail 6) ase ores i prs > rng fees” Say Dae Fe sty Rossin foes DONE Ton slope stably a SIope grant ayy iota me Be gee The 0 Gite. 1.2 The main objectives foe stay analysis aet De chee ey laity and eeoramies Dee ec eco 1 SSSR Scop nr stor oe daring constcton an og 2 Ee oy of spe alles inoling natu orexising engined Teese see and ekstn re mechanisms andthe inuence he 7 Ses de dace te Glo saps and te placing and design poveine 2 "Tos thei lings cn sos anemones sum of atl and manmade slopes ant the 1 Glopel setts icons of rock macs) Getcha propenis of slop ‘Grouidater and Chui Cnditons 4 Geomanyof sope £ Stteufrockirses 6 yam feces deo Sasting and 17. Seismic effet Fores do teat) 3 Steps modieaion | Gadget Stree The main Gesrgal Sc haf hesiy of he slope a . eit and ier dscns, Foliation) ™ em sep Crsinanins Bart Ben braeat Joins and discontinuities: Pauls: 5, Ground Water an climatic condi "> Reuuees shee strength Change permeability > Acias asabwurface din Plain oteiore ‘Weathering and sheraton slong the faults sets as round water condi Provides a probable place of fae Geotectinical Properties of eek Bounuaies and Meehan ‘Shear Stent of rock mass Density Permit Coeson Angle of Incmal Friction Patt size disvibtion ‘Molatre Content Alters the colieson and fretioal parameters "Rediceth norma effstve rs hence eases sear seni alog the pase > Increases thrust and driving forces a 4. Slope Geometry Heh ‘Overall Slope Angle Area of aire Surface With increase in height of stpe slope stabi dscreaics Generally overall angle of 43" s considered wo be safe by Ditestorate General of Mines Safety (DOMS) Steer and higher the eight ofsloe este stability eck Slope Engineer cer ae ce Bhwrat ete Bho, oe pee a Fig: Typical Pit slope Geometry ‘Sate of Rock Stresses, igh bovicetal rests ating 1.31 Reasons for Rock Slope Failure: ova sie Ceaineeing and Vibrations) 7 Over breaks exesin of esan crac, sad os exsion teen weak planes 7 Steatsieses ar moment increased and as result dynamic acceleration of materi ‘owed dus uggs the sbi pcbem inthe loge ace = Causes rod mata and facing of ach “ aa Ua cone To read Gr Fain Wat ORGS Tow wr SES seen - stareng ttrs [eager fics SaRgie removal af esin by scans orem anges ie [soften af alc Inert" J wave acon on ks shen sang |iynins of desir a pot | gc ae Fe | Coy minal wethring Bion of Wig O ai sow oranges a | aad by apd awa fuctage 10] war intspanaa [ofa ale of raenees apd espe feces da 1 [tage ae ean of tr coat |e wt ashton | Wonton of ealquie,|etangss in eoucd ty wang aps other | aft fenctze "| pon. diate, ty be ing of sls. Sod rae Cr Tenoving_of| vad connaion, aig [mallow | Seeee ope Urdeiying | ootofundrvingmateal [aes |asste nese cep or samo deste tomsofiscs | Tateal | ater a pe ace presure__[ercaviie fuego water acl Slope Engineer ashuve Meteo: Chapt TBhaVBL ta Baar uy Anas -statilty of slope can be expresed ia one or sii. inseble iTS gut of stains grect enough to prevent safe operation, Simo Set emt et et OF ope Pe of faiire-Stability quantified by probability distribution of difference aon of easonabl consis designs. The ranges of minimum total factors ty Tesi and Pack (1967) and the Canadian Geotechnical Society (ag92) ae piven Table Fare Cuesory “Sley pe. aaer Sheonng Fanworks Tens Ear rcsiing ts20 eundaons 2 Tole: Vales of minimus itl ally stor the upper sau ft a ators of safety apply to usual loads and service ends, se te lover aus apply 0 mania lead the wos expected Seo esndios. For open it-snsh tr ofaty general sed isin he ange of 121. ier linat ssi anit cele ele far of safety or mumerieal ana slag efecin tan ese = Altnough bse dsor mss fr ok saps wre fist developed inthe 1970s (sh tor se DER 17 ay a ay af DON le en Tak of sass th ts such 255% babii of aire” and “consequence of Pea sage Crainttring Lesnar Nes oe Cron ce Bivat bar Dae file expressed as lives lost” are not well understood, and there is limited experience on acceptable probabilies to tein design, Tie ealeulation of stain in slopes isthe most recent advance in slope design. The echigue as rested from the development of nunercal analysis methods, and particularly thse that can incorporate discontinatics (Starfield and Cundll, 1983) Itc mast widely wed inthe mining Feld where movement is tolerate andthe slope contains a variety of geological conditions 2.1 Empirical Methods {np mina melds piel matic = —_ hee Fw. i ; be Suateqaenesn ge 12 Ra cup aad sya open ps nice id ord Si paantanzans Sate Dorms anette racer 22 Deterministic Method (Linit equilibrium analysis) ‘The stability of rock slopes for te geoloseal endiions shown in Figure 1.(a) and (depends ‘the shea strength generted along the siding surface, For all shear type flere: the rock ea be assumed to le a Mohr-Coulonb material a which the shear strength is expressed in ems of the cohesion e and fiction angle ©. Fora sliding surface on which there ian effective normal ret ortan mein esture Netto: Chagten sco ai asa sgh Tine 08 see ure etn mele eg oi hgh Face eae At ecg pod ponder sia pase Ep gph hot speci 3 oii ipo ot ote ice ad ing 2 COLLIS ac etsy fr te et sown in lg 0 noe ee lg eceancmpenens el pepe td ice That tf the ip fe sting sarc ase sed ces Wen henna Share ob Woy sag Noemal sues, = shear srs: x, = MP (2p sed equation (I can beexpressed as pen HeOApLING a aay BA Wain ey and FAS CAS Wenndptand aay negations 1 th term [sn dish reson fre ating down th siding PE ands teed the “dining ace" ( the ace of the shaded zone. The method of calculating the area ofthe shaded 2000 ist alla the probability density faction ofthe margin of safety the atea ofthe negatnc poston of his Sanction isthe probability of fare (Figure 1.130). I the resisting and displacing forces are ‘Servcebilty limits state- Ons of excsivedeomaton a unacceptable The bass of LRFD desig is the mile of ons and resistances by fctors that eet he degre of eran and varity in th parameters. The erent of the desi tht te etre eines lor rer hh are as Tis i ted nate ou 22 Danes an Where 0k i the resistance factor and Ra isthe nominal strength forthe hth flare mode of serviceability limit tate, ns the factor to acount forthe ductility, edundaney ad operational inportance ofthe clement er system, ys the load factor andQ, the member lad effec fo he infod ype in he th load combination under cnsieration n of equation (1.21), the load factors are greater than nity unless the load is beneficial to stability, and the resistance factors are less than enity. On this basis, the Mr: Coulomb equation forthe shear resistance ofa sliding surface is expeesed as follows t= fer(o- fulfuand (1.22) ‘The cobesion c, friction coeficient tan 4 and water presse U ae ll moliplied by pail factors with values fess than wy, while the aormal sess © onthe siding surface i ealculted 2 partial load ctor greate than yaity aplid tothe slope weight and any applied loads. ‘Actual values forthe resistance factors wil vary depending on sich factors as tie extent of testing ring construction and ai of the live load tothe dead lod. 24 Numerical Model Conventional fons of analysis ae limited to simplistic problems inter scope of ayplisation, ncompassing simple slope geometries and basic loading conditions. and as such. povite Lins insight ios ope failure mechanisms. Many rock slope stability problems involve completiss Felting to geometry, mata anistopy, nonlinear Behaviour, i ity srsses and the presence of several coupled processes (cg pore pressures, seismic lading. et.) ‘To aides these limitations, numerical modelling techniques have Bee forwarded to provide approximate solutions to problems, which otherwise, would aot have been pessble to solve using conventional technigues. Advaness in computing power andthe avalailiy of eltely inexpensive commercial numcrsal modelling codes means tha the simulation of patil rock stope failure mechanisms could, and in many cases shoul, form a standanl component ofa rch slope investizaion, Namerical mites of analysis used for rock slope stability investigations may be divide into three approaches : 1. Contin modeting 2 iseontinnum modeling 3. Nybeid modeling ec Sloe Cala Leste Notts on Cho Bharat tar roe? amin sys tat oe copied of wl doch mass: sont od ihe nou, Figure 13 demonstats the mi spe sabity problem that of poh yb code involve te coupling RY coal mining Ip ling ae ky mane Se ims mre We le ge) ine lig ‘ee Too gps a aed SS the asagss Poet lope Coaionring etart ns ns Camper 2 Brat dr brvent Toatnely measared:abity {0 model effect of highly dock canbe diffist ‘ese ale; aes eects of param ‘arations; computer Tandvareadvanes allow | ji a (Seas [orien a Sa. a Sa ao LSS | poco Saao| Se SS ee Comases TOP eo ducam @OTTOM) etl sprecins appli to te ‘Shes tteiny hp fom ware ome eps ahr Sad Eb 197) al bods ofc pe nis fer Copan ta. 1998) Gaal pani [Abe ‘aos Ceairacs— Aepensine [Alon fara) Usman be wal a Modsise segs geamety: | demande | egeensad and oere (cs fits |cnsutane "" |acortsataycoceps | grad madling re i utente | wc) canmodst | fed tobe avant of del fate [ester |cimplebeavourand | aed somteas sons te [ffm cechminc boundary effets, meshing EAST [Splatt cen model | ees balvare emory al | Rect | lcs pore resus, | ine estes), aval | shcarstenstbor | creep dete shot | cspdctomatenandor | c surfaces: in sity i Peete aes testa | dynamic adi egjuired input paraneters a » 224.1 Continues modeling CContnsum approaches used in slope stability analysis ince the Finitesiferense and fitee ‘emeat methods, In both these methods the problem domain is sid (diacrctize) ino 2st of Subdomains or elements (Fig. 1}. A soliton procedure may then be based oa numescal approximations of the governing equation, ie. the diferemal equations of eg. te Saindsplacement relations and the sess stain equations, atin the case of the fae Aifference method (FDMD). Aleratively the procedure may exploit approvimations 19 the connectivity of elements, and coninty of displacements and stresses betwcenelemests, 38 i the finite-element method (FEM), The slit advantages and lniations ofthese two motes arp dacueed by Hock etal (1993). and both have found widespread we ia sope satay analysis ‘Continuum methods ate best suite forthe analysis of rock slopes ha are sommes of massive inact roc, weak rocks, o heavily acre rock masses. or the most pat. erie tes were ten tits to laste aayses sn a such were Tinted i thee aplisation. Most sonia ve, however, now incorporate a fly for including discrete estas such at Pals ant beading planes, Numerous commercial codes are avaible. which wisn ote a varie of onstinaive amodle including elasticity, elastorplastsiy, stai-sofening and cast visso ‘ook ope Leche netes ons ote ‘iat snes thio) Fae 1 a along se ming ronan slide movements sect Fer 15 Fi isnt vg ee i ck eeu ode oh “yf caren nai ec peices be i cate mae snobs bch a tee Cet of ob eee: tt suns wth varying stucier, lithology and topography. The reel Sistecar eB ASD hs 197) ad VISAGE (VTS 28 sls ie cic acre Sais af rad slges on ea compte dire cbs tle pie wep tee deen tks or dep a ides Snes nad com ely, pore wae ness ats (3 chia cy spe, uch anit da euaks: An example of FLACSD aa Md cnprted dsc es aan as, som 2 Pes Slog Srainaning esture Nines Cotte 2 Figure 16 ow as een tama in a : Sn Se Satara toe eee 242 biter ph dog 0 ino ted acc sp se cttiaet tras nos octr ometip epee oats ‘Sega eat ta ne lnae Waes ok ie eas acest or eae es ce ay pe Sila ae epomiae Showin orb vai patie a cia re ats Sh at Sh Cee ‘pct nr teasing ee ns SSR Meee The evelopment of disretelement procedures represents an important stp in the modeling and understanding ofthe mechanieal belavour of jointed rock matecs, ARboush sosnssra ‘es can be modified to occommodatediscodtimuts, this procsdure son Sick and time consuming. In addition, any mole inci displacement are fret Lint to class ores of magnitde by the avalytieal principles exploited in developing the solution procsdurs. ta ontrst,discontinaum analysis pemits sling along and opening closure between Docks of Particles, The underlying basis ofthe viscrete-elemeat meth isha the dynamic egution of ‘auido for each block the system is formula and repeatedly sod ul the Boundary ‘ontons ap as of entact and motion se saisfad (Fig 17). The metho thus ascounts fe emplexdolincar tration phenomena between Block. Discontinnum modeling consies the most comntoaly applied mimecical appa 10 rok slope alysis, Several variations ofthe dsret-slment methodology exist 3) Distinctcement method: 1) iscontinvons deformation analysis ©) Pantie Mw codes, Rick SUE Engine, ese ns oh hora bag tr 4 i sereangs “| r Figure 17 Ecaplecleaton cee wt ia dsrete-element methodologies (om Har 1955 2.421 Distncteanent method Ths dtselenent mad, developed by Canal (1971) and described in detail by te Noe ft ena dsconowus rock massa an assembly of qusi-ig, ad a ‘oss intcoctng through defornable joins of definable stifnes. As such, te ‘of mechanial behaviour: that of the dsconinies ode mas reprint 0 solder since apes th algo is based ona ores-tplacement Law specifying season between the deformable intact eck unis and fw of motion, which deters scenes induced in the blocks by ex-oFbalace fret, Joints ane viewed interfcet sec the Becks and ae tested a a boundary coniton rather than a special element in te ous (Fig 18), Block drm is iteduced though the discretization of the blocks i> constrain lames in ore inerease the umber of degres-af-feedam (Pi. 1. I dl ae of ic le reap UDEC acs 20), me fay shed plas tied ck saps Ow one hod ey a ‘gly spsle te meing af dicntniy comet istic allowing We rina analysis cf wasaiona meshanis of slope failure (Fig. 20) ard ave easble of Siolaing inte doplacemeas duet lip ot opening, along discontineitics. On tne otter Mets thy a spl of malig the deo ea mal pk ‘ofthe joit-ounded chs This becomes highly reevant er highshpes i weak rock, flexural op (ig 20 ade compie wader ope fue tig ay eo Sem ec Slips Ceginaring eran nents os Sse 2 Figure 18. Repesetation of oaac domains between two deformable blocks as foralatt ia he isiget element method (Goes Hart 1993). SS RS SAS Ss Ss SS SS Far. Rok dope diac! ene ad hig sink of gts fie lifeece casa SS SOS 2 Fock ope {aeture Note on Ch hava wa py? . to pita not atnssvoa biti sab lite (er Stead & Pew Be 1) Figure 21 espe dlp fated lis lace (LEFT) ad ee hinge bck (RIGHT) as mld rng edison ement sehod (eller Sted & beach 199) 2.422 Discontinuous deformation aval {Te icontinuoes deformation aah (DDA) methed developed by Ski (1989; 1993) has a bes used with sms steces ia the modeling of discontinuous rock masses, both it terms 6 ‘ecletides (Siar & MacLaghln 197) and rctals (Chen & Ohwiahe 1% As such, the DDA mod ples he five " ope rte-ckment method (wheceas the dstnet-en Sova pe me cn enti mee oan sae fa Sent epee on soated black bounded by discon » ‘Brame bar Draw These clemns or blocks, canbe of any convex or concave shape. or can be ined to form more complex mult-conneted polygons. Displacement functions (atalosous o shape faint i the Finie-lement meted) provide the ‘complete frst order approximations of the, tock isplacments, the advantage being that the energy Famulas become very simple and lead to ‘er smplestiffes,contat and fading submatrices, ‘With respect to slope stability anal, the methad has the advantage of being able to model large deformations and rigid body movements, and can simulste coupling or failure staes between contacted blocks. For example, if the separating forces between fo blocks exceed the tensile strength prestbed along the discontinuity, then the siliess between the Blocks removed andthe separating motion iallowed (Fig. 28). These principal ppl to sling and Shear motions bebween neighbouring blocks. As such, these algrthns canbe further extended to include the simulation of block facturing based on shar (Mk -Coulomb) or tens facture ‘propagation criterion (Amadei etal. 199%) Figure 29 demonsrates a DDA analysis that Smolates the breakdown of fling rock Block int smaller pices during ground impact Es te Oe Figure 28 Detonation anf fire fo Mocks i coat eer tie nd shes any (LEFT) dan example of» duconsnaour dtormanon analy apy aveck lope 2 span RIGHT ~ en Chen & hei 199) o Bo Pody Ply a ‘igure 29, Discontinuous defomutin assis shownagtternl acting and beabdown of tec os ding proced impact (oa Aaah 1994) 2 fe ine me ling ciques the aplication og wharat 2s artce ow ees ntti mah om fa seo berets ha ner ows tech mas of th ration o each paticle anda forces oi m6 ellen howmact fi 3D Iineachs ates pth Figere 3. Cons and bons lie of wtercting pressed in the discrete element ropes ECE (bor Ines 1960) ea Fizaee 1 Cesition ce dia PECZD (oes taca 199), css posible mel onal ‘el rd fan eta tasty tension movement of bleks fhe eau prices soe ise obligor sami The baling of tons eee ropa), Detonation betwen a Poon Sap aieating sen Chapin 2 were slip beeen adjacent pals i preserbed in ems of ftonl eof hat init Toot sear fee Pants low codes are this able 10 simulate material fom the macro level of fault oF joat- bounded blocks tothe microscale of graino-grain contac, the main limiting factors being computing time and memory requirments. ta ths tenet becomes posible to model a number ft rock slope failure processes, and subsequent, the ran out ofthe failed material down the Slope and inlo an underlying valley. Figue 32 demomsttes a -D example of a rock fll simulation whereby several pate are bonded together to model the breaking pat ofa alin back upon impact with he slope fce. At present, these codes ar predeinanly a research tol, batts potential is being widely recogized in mining. petroleum ard civil engnecrng igure 32, Discrete element model ofa tackling beaded elemento preset se, desrenbe blocks (eer Iasea 199%) 2.43 Hybrid approach Hybeid approaches are increasingly being opted in rock slope anisis. This may inlude combined analyses using limit equllbeiam stability analysis and fitecemest groundwater flow stress analysis such as adopted inthe GEO-SLOPE suit of sofware (Ga-Sope 2000) iybrid numerical models have brea used for a considenble time i underground sch ‘npncering including coupled boundan~finite element aod coupled bousday~ stint slemeet solutions. Recent advances include coupled paricle Now and faiteitfreace anaysos wing PFC3D and FLAC3D (asca 19998). These hybeidechaigucs already show sigidesst potential in the investigation f such phenomena as piping slope flues andthe infcnse of igh router pressures onthe failure of weak ck slopes Coupled fnteiistinctclement codes are nov availabe which incorporte adapts re meshing. Although separately continuum and discomtnuum analyses pevide a ial cane to analyze 'wek slope stability problems, complen failures ofenimlve mechatioms related fo both p= existing isconities and he brit fastring of intact ck. The coupling of Bite distinct element ees, for example in ELFEN (Roche 2001, allow fr the movling ofboth intact ‘ck behavioue an the evelopment ad behavicur of fastures. These methods we 9 finite semen! mesh to represent either the rock slope jolt Rounded Bloks coupled together with 2» Rule Slee Engin Lecture Notts on: eis hat eae bye ints. Ifthe stesses within the og 2 nan arco fate eniigeg sas ivi Jc in Swieet lan tress-induced br icy 198t Randa wets, Such ints ad tein rile noding ih 8 ie ave being forwarded (Ebethondt et a opt { ogeier to prone ok sop im “eatended towards modelling the iwook together 1p ig wl be extends 8 the conser Figure 33. Hy ted fince-ducete lemon soci aass owing several progressive sage of ‘ee lize (hm Ee te. 2002) 2.44 Numerical Model Deveapmnat and Application Sunerical modeling shuld mot bed ata subi for thinking but asa alto tog ‘Neri modeling is powefl ol, an 3s with ay ol, it must be applied in the mare it 1 vas dssigod for. This invchesfllowing groper modelling practices, for example = “ib at 1998 As sch, aerial definition ofthe problem is esental © deri destin aso thera died ants ince or the evel of eal egret fy pices Tee mtt ofte pb ae wk, mode of ils, 2 or 3. et) the pe Sires ete cei or poh, Css A or Cass prediction, craton “vier follows Daeys Law: Pen slge Ganioneian Lacan Nets or Cooper 3 rors Rae Beal (Chapter S:= Quantifcation of groundmater pressure 1.1 Occurrence and characteristics of Groundwater 132 Groundwater effects on Slope Stability 533 Groundvater pressure Models 13.1 Occurrence and Characteristics of Ground Growvater is 66 times the sount of wate in streams ad freshwater lakes. Precipitation that Inflate into the round is ealled groundwater. The zone of actation isthe repon of sail closest othe surface It contains some moisture bu is rot 100% saturated with war. As one digs deeper. the zone of saturation is encountered. This one 100% saturate. The boundary between these zones i called the water ble {he water table does refet variations inthe ground surface (such tht has a topology). the inepularitis in the water table are less proacunced The ability of water to flow (ce be transmit) underground steed permeabliy. For something to be permeable it neds to have ‘maria thats porous and has some interconnections between the openings. ‘permeable materi that actully eames underground water is called an aquifer. Low permeable material (ie, solid rock) is elled squicades. When the water able itersects the rfc, 9 spring. swamp, sve, andor lake may appear. How fst water travels trough a2 t] ‘The velocity ofthe water is proportional to k (which is related to the permeability) and is proportional othe hydrauli radi, (which is he slope ofthe water be). The volume oF trae Mw pr unit of ime follows the equation QrA *v; where A isan area and is related tothe _peomety ofa wel, ‘Water Table efore pumping) Sometimes the use of underground water needs 1 be regulat. Suppose a fsmer is iigting their erops by pumping watcr fom well A I another farmee comes along with a bigger inigation system requiring a deeper well and highst pump rat at B you can see what happens to ‘wall A Underground pumping ean als cause land subsidence. u Ihe Sie Cain, ature Neeson cele Bharata iste irks and sediment hen moves tough the a is way back 10 the sees teat hase inthe ve EE ah a sin 1 new cally mA Fhe he grwndeatr 9 sie tron the Eth (03 Ltn cay si outa water in kes nd sae Sat cD ly ig, ee mac ne volume of groundwater is 69! ‘eet Pjater scientists typically restrict the Use of the SEPREREG NOMS dein! water th anata zo, The us nto ees we de po te gout ye ms tea ee nh ea a op ace a conta tera ne mae eat ote wih ater cana esc a 4 me eee open Mae betwee rl Send eh mel dw wre nr as 2 pre ne ‘hon amosperc pressure. ale 1 SS ck Ye SEO oto | 4.11 Origin of Groundwater: ‘The origin of groundwater pinay on ofthe following: + Groundwater denned from rfl sa infin win the normal hydrological eye shnd of water called meteorle water. The sme implies rocgnt contact with sree > Groundwater encoutereda eat depts in sedimentary rocks a result of wate aig teen topped in manne sediments at te tine of their deposition. This pe of nde nl Ween wats, Ths waters a normally sli, ‘seeped that connate wate is darted mail or enively ftom entrapped Sex watc vial sca water bas moved fom its erginal place. Some trapped water ma} al place. Some tapped yb 7 Fos water es maybe riginsted fom the fac of eimate change phenomenon i sone ct wid o bane wut weathcr andthe aguifers of that area were recharged at shen weer ofthat ea besmesdy nn tet aoe 31.2 Groundwater andthe Hydrolgi Ce 7 Thetndeledcl eyes t fad principe of groundwater hydolog: © Te esi rc of the cialation rived from the radiant energy received from HE Wate evaporates nd aves nse, sir 0d be reat ein he Ne part ofa cloud. Ht falls down to eath sores asin. This bppens repeatedly in neverending eee. TS 2 Pes slips Caginaning Lesnar vee oes Chapter hydrologic eyele never stops, Water keeps moving and changing from a slid 03 liquid to 9g. repeatedly, , Precipitation crates of iht travels over the around surface and helps to il lakes and rivers. also percoltes or moves downward rough openings nthe sol and rock to replenish agus tinder the ground. Some places receive more precipitation than thers do ‘nth an overview brlance. These areas ae usually close to oceans lrg bodies of water that allow more water © traporte and frm clouds Other areas receive less. Olen thts area ae fa fom seawater oF ear mountains. As clouds move up and over mountains, the water vapor condenses to form Preciiation and fezzs. Snow falls on the peaks. Figure 1 shows a schematic representation ofthe hydrological eye Finwel.1 Siaplielepcsenation of doles oe stowing some pl wars of ween ee 3.1.3 The Occurrence of Subsurface Water ‘The subsurface occurrence of groundwater may be divided ito zones of aeration and stuaion, ‘The zone of aration consists of interstices occupied partially by water and partly by ait la the zone of stration all itratices ae filled with water, under hydrostatic pressure, Oze emost of the land masses of the earth, single zone of aeration overs a single Zope of saturation and extends eporard to the ground surface, as shown ia Figure 12. Tn the 2one of stration (unsaturated zone) Vadose water occurs. This general zone may be father subdivided into the soil water zone, the intemeiate Vadose zone (subsoil zoe) ad capillary zone Figure 12) ‘The salrated-zope extends fom the upper surface of satuntion down to underying limpermeable rock. Inthe absence of overlying impermeable stat, the water abe, oF pats surface, forms the upper surface ofthe zone of Saturation. This is defined as the surface of ‘mosphere pressure and ppeats a6 the fvel at which water stands ia a well penetrating the ‘que. Acualy satretin extends slghly above the wate ble due fo capillary atraction; however, water shel here at les than atmospheric pressure. Water oscuming inthe zone of 3 Reh St bo eat eat enh fat th tr pret ea in po w singly 385 ‘Pisses of yoaed wsterin aoc slope cankaves deinen effet upon sabi fre pc te ec Wa gee 2 dining ew sgh Share al ade iol 20 Hoc, particularly shales, can cause accleated tirade scone asin a MEO in ted fissures de tenes on seaeke he ie, Also, freezing of surface water on slopes can blec fas wlio in balay of kr pecs oie ne wake one Pen sie seinen Brora bar beaea 1 Erosion of weathered tock by surface water, and of low stensth filings by azound ‘water contest i Toes! instability whee the te of a slepe 1s undermined 3 block of tock i loosened ‘5 Excavation costs cn be increased when working Below the water able. For example. met ‘ast oles eequte the ws of water eistant explosive tht ae more expensive than none trateresstant ANFO. Alo, fw of ground water iat the excavation opt il rate punping and posibly wetment ofthe discharge water and equipment ais ay te por on wet hal ais by for the most important fet of ground water ina rock mass i he reduction ia stably esting foe Water pressores ihn the discontinuities, Methods for inloding these ster pressures in stability calculations and designing drainage systems are dealt in snalysis. This oper describes the hydrlogie cele, methods that are used to analyze the Tow of water through factred rock, and he pressures developed by tis Now. Ineamining rock or ol slopes, i may bea mistake to asume that ground water is at preset io seepage appears onthe slope fae. The seepage rate maybe lower tam the vaporaion Sn hence the slope surface may appear dry and jot there may be wster tsgnifeane presse Ahithin the rock mass. It water pressure, and not rate of flow, which i responsible for Inability in slopes aad itis eesental tht measurement or calculation ofthis water pressure forms pat of site investigation for stability sta. Dainage, which is discussed ia Chapter “sone ofthe most effective and economical means available for improving the stability of eck Slopes. Rational design of drainage systems is only possible ifthe water fow poner within the Tock mass i understood, and measurement of hydraulic conductivity and wast pressure provides ‘the ky to this understanding. ‘Asef eas of assessing ground water conditions ina slope i to make observacons during peiods of below fering temperatures. At these tines even nr caps ox the face may form feiles that can show both the Tocain ofthe water BBles, and theses) of disoatinates in ‘which Now is occuring 13.24 Ground water ow in fractured rock Hydraulic conductivity, ground water win fractured rock masses occurs predominiely alco ‘he dsconinities because ofthe very low primary bydralis conducts ef most inset Tk ‘Therefore, the condactivity of rock masses willbe inuenced by the characteristics of the scons, witha necessary condion required for low being that he persistence ofthe ‘scons is rete than the spacing. Figure 31 shows 2 ock ass containing to veal joint sets and horizontal set in whch the persistence of the veal ois is euch seater than the epacing, but the persistence of the Horizontal st is less an the spacing. Foe hese Conditions, tne hydraulic soitvty would be sigan seater ia the veal ection tan that in the horizontal distin ‘The analysis of low in frastured rock can be carat out either assuming thay the rock 6 a ‘continuum a hasbeen assume in he derivation of Dey” + equation and drawing Bow ets, frtha th rock is. non-continau in which Laminar fv occurs nv ial dncontinuies Rock canbe assumed a contin ifthe dicoaintis spacing is stent close thatthe Fastved rock ats yall asa granlae porous mes 50 tha the Aw occurs Wwough a ‘umber of dscontinitis. 3s gabe £853 Row incl, south cents The dow af wae ooh ses ack bs ben suid in detail by Hl (1956, Soo {iss Lass 9 Shap (1970), Mai (197) and tes. Subsequent 1 th exes “vhs ten cai co htop lan othe eign of urdegrond nl wa Suge ace i wok a poe mos atonal formation on TdT Infact a However fr he pupone of his scan the oben is simplified to that of ‘crisatin of he egualet dali conti ofan aay of pall, smoot ha cesses Dans 109) They a cody paral oth ay is given by ate eo ihe ‘Wher gist gavin acelin 9.81 m2), ca werespecively the dicntinay spear an spacing, 20d isthe cic of ica veo (1% 10 RO pet ‘ert 20 0) eo Sige Bxainaning Lestare sean on Chapter = 3 ‘Bharat Ba, Daal yaar coxdanin. ent as TS Sel ae Figure 32 Influence of joint aperture © and spacing b on hydraulic conductivity K inthe irceton of ast of soci pall joints in a rock mass. ‘32.3 Flow in filled discontinuities [Above equation applies only to laminar ow ia planar, sith, parallel discontinuities and fepresents the highest equivalent hydraulic conductivity for fraare systems. The lowest quivalent hydraulic conductivity ocurs for infil dscotinuties,and is ven bs K rattler \Where Kris the hyérulicconductiviy ofthe iling and Kris hat ofthe ntact rock. The te Ke is inlode in thie equation to account fr the condition where thee is How in Bach the iesact rock an long the discontinuities. ‘While ots equations illustrate the principles of water ow aloes disonsinuity planes, this simple mode eat be used to calle hyaulic conductivity of actual fastred rock masses Methods of modeling ground vsater ow in rok have been developed wsing probabilistic technique io simulate, in thee dimensions, the Iie ranges of Wsconiuity characteris that tay seve, One such modeling techniques termed FRACMAN Derbi ct al, 1995; Wei et fal, 1995), Conductivity andi terme an ager. Because of the sigsfcant erence erween ‘the hyantie properties ofthe hale and sandstone, this isa heterogeneous rsh mass. FW ets in heterogenous vosk are modified fom the simple net shown in Figure 5.8 because owlines preferentially use the high conductivity frations as soeuts and traverse the fow conduit Formations by te hotest posible route. The euiptctias tnd wo lose a seater proportion of 37 Pee Se ove Sl nay ‘Lecture Notes on: eae ‘eh wae sa hn ns ier convey Toma tig maton ation boundary, depending on yee teal ind Bow sony SIS 2 bead i testo of He HE 1 a Tees adie aon ; esos» mt Kase stpes 1 shows that etal ofthe geo ow noch mss BY 0 hn ete quai ock slopes. Conditions lan ‘Nanay oF oer possible ground water contin 5.84 Ground waterin tok Tre dacsin on round wae 106i co et on ater pes cd aniacpc 8h a flows ‘ted mentees ee ga aed a ft lpm yen net tn cc i ean tn angle Se a een Sle Grgivenrng Lecture ones 0s Copter 3 ‘Beara Bar Drona ‘The presence of groundwater in a rock slope ia eric factor in any assessment ofthe stability tar slope. Water pessrs, ating within discontinuities in the rock mars, reduces effective Stresses wih a consequent reluetion of shear strength. Depresurzaion using horiaontal oF ‘erica wells drainage galleries i 3 powerful ot in conuoling slope behavior ‘The technology and tools for groundwater pressure and ow evaluation and contol are ell developed and tis considered that no farther research ito this area i required. While itis hie to maintain piezriters ond drains during the excavation ofa slope hiss oflen used as fa exes for not maintaining adequate cool ce monitoring of groundwater conditions. Wi Sho important that water from horizontal dais shouldbe collected and piped or pumped toa fisposl area aay fom active slope stability problem aca ‘hs for the geologiel and geotechnical models discussed eave, the development of 3 good ‘Goumawater model is an important component in the rational design of lrze slopes. It is portant that resources be provided to ensure that sulcient information is collected fo permit ns eonstuction of such a model. On the question of drainage versus depressrization. its water pressure that creates slope stability problems and, provided that these water pressures are Fdced, itis not mesertry for “ranage’ hal orwell produce large water lows. This i a Common misconception and it lads operators to abandon “drains that do not appear to be Working because tey do not produce mich water, The judgment should be Based upon the {esponte of iczomeers, which reflect water pressure change. rather than on volume low. Sue ‘owtaontal drainage holes can be very effective in hardrock slopes, provided that they ae loag hough fo depresutize the rock mase in the vicinity of potential faluresurtaces. In large rock Slop, boles of 200 to 300 m in ength may be required to ahieve this goal. Drainage galleries ean have an important function. not only because ofthe depressorization tat | Cam result from ther constiution, but alo Because ofthe valuable geological information that an be collected fom losaons that are nat normally accesible. Typical drainage gallery ‘onstuction cost rein he range of USS 1500 per meter and thi can sometimes sean overall ‘epressuiztion scheme thats comparable in cost to one based upon horizontal oles aod or vetcal puinped wells. More serious consideration has tbe ghen"to galeries for slope {epcssurization than is currently the ese in practic. An example ofthe use of depressurzation to contol slope instability i llstrted in Figure 6. This shows a seton though a potetial Tandsie in hillside known ae Dutchman's Rida, immediately ypsusam ofthe Mica Dash oa the Columbia River in British Columbia, Canada. This 700 m high 158 millon toa potential slide ‘wae recognized doring site investigation work forthe Mica Dam, constractal in the 19605. However, it was desided that no remedial action would be taken a that die but thatthe slope ‘would be monitored by mean of electro-optical distance measurement fom stable obsenation oss across the valley. Movements averasing approximately I ca pet year were measured ver 120 year eco and, dating a re-evaluation of dar safety in the etl 1980s, was decided that ‘some for of stabilication as eequited in onde to reduce the downvard mov ems of the slope 1X till geological and geotechnical investigation establish thatthe slide mass was moN ing ‘na basal fall surface, dipping paral othe slope and twas conclage that dpeesurizaion ‘vas the ony feasible staiiztion option, The ait of the depresswiation programme Was (0 reduce the water lvls inthe slope to approximately the equvalest ofthe levels that existed before the slope woe was submerged by impoundment ofthe reservoir was anzued thatthe ‘original spe ha been sable for apposimtely 10.000 years since the Last ise age and ati hal withstood several large catthquabes known to hive escumed in this aca of British 3” iia Three bse Prine: 1 panes rock Stn secure sae a ean Po, ns ae conn Buna ga ats yn Fg 7- Ao tai OF the she nowt ean a sc BDH rae Ps nw th oak ‘rsonal iit eus sara ty the dees oo obo 0 vm raged ave Bea sees ingtbe slope though open tension Cracks 2nd sans reve sufie sf et ms ty ofthe ptt failure surface by selective sur, Revove water suri the vi saab sti diage ; a ete hart rcacs the water presse in the imei vii of | eae ppm in ining he couaty~ side Fr miles around the pit Reem olpe Cagioniring asroreins o0s Cran & ‘Brorot bar brat scr: 4: Quantification of Shear Strength Parameters f Disco “11 Sheae Stent of Planar Surface 1.2 Sheae Stength of Rough Seace 44.3 Determination of shear Strength on Rock Mass 41 Influence of water on Shea Strength Alek masses contin discontinuities suchas bedding planes, joins, shea zones and fs. At ‘hallow depth, where stestes are low, failure of the intact rock material is minimal and the Ietavior ofthe rock mats is controlled by sliding oa the discontinuities. In onder to analyze the ability of this system of individual rock blocks, tis necestary to understand the factors that ‘onal the shear stength ofthe discontinuities which separate the blocks. These questions are ‘stesed inthe discussion that follows. ‘Suppose that a numberof samples ofa rock ae obtained for shear testing Each sample contains 2 through-going boing plane that is cemented: in ther words a tensile ferce would Bane fo Be Srrlied 10 the two halves ofthe specimen in order to separate them. The bedding plane is Solute planar, having no surface regulates o undulations. As ilustrated in Figure $1.2 ‘tahear est each specimen is subjected toa stress 0 normal othe bedding plane. and te bear fires required to ease a displacement 5, s measured. The shear stress will nsrease rapidly “intl the peak stength ie reached. This cotesponds tothe sum ofthe strength of the cementing mater bonding the two halves ofthe bedding plane together and te ftional resistance of the Inatching surfaces. As the displacement continues, he shear stress wil fall to some residual ‘ale that will then romain constant, even for lage shear displacement. Plotng the peak snd residual shear strengths for diferent normal stresses eesuls in the rwo Hines illstted in Figure 4.1 For planar discontinuity surfices the experimental points will generally fal along straight Hines, The peak strength line ha a slope of and an intercept ofc onthe shear suength ans. The residual stength ine has a slope of. The rebtionahip between the peak shear strength =p fd the normal stress oy ca be represented by the Mohr-Coulom gusto: tpretontand ay Where isthe cobs sng ofthe comet usta ‘© s the angle of fiction. In the ease f the residual stength, the cobesion © has dropped to ze and the relationship ‘eaween grand oe be represented by: 1, =6, tang, Whore gis the residual angle of ition. a Rock Slope En : Lecture Notes on: oor ach sip Ergivanteg ha a ectare nets bas Chasen = off orn 8 seas + Tal see A 2 peak eng : (peak strength i } i a) ieat eg, : T ES meovone a nsaaiwegh i _—_————_—_ commen # vet ss 9, Fe 1: Stereo coutinies ‘This example as en discussed in oder to state the physical meaning ofthe tem ect 4 Si mechanics tem which has ben adopted bythe rock mechanies community. a ses tt is, the sess levels are gensally an order of magnitude lower than those involved in | andthe cohesive strength of soli result of he adhesion ofthe soll pts. nat mechani, i cohesion oeuts when cemented surfaces are sheared, However, it spplitton, the term cobesion is we for convenience and it refers to a materi ety slated to surface roughness, s discussed in a Intersection. Cohesion {snp cept onthe suet 20 arma es, Tis bas ction angle ois» quay thats fundamental 1 the understanding of te sh {ctath of dlscomtnty sures. This approximately equal tothe residual Mietion ang CEAp Eres measucd by tesing sawn or ground rock surfaces. These tests, which 28 Ersdg8 8 sacs salle 50m +50 am, wll rode trig ne pot defel | +,=0, ta, ich canbe used 4 determine the base fetion angle idea (bt SeciMen remains constant throughout the chin risa one iil omnia consent)! gue 4.3 shar mci fh pe wy Meal Rich 8) ' coatlled systems and this makes it difficult 10 interpret ‘measurement of the shear strength of sheet jounts un Hoag Kong pranite ea 8 ech ace ne es can hart a apoinen 53 cte Bs 10 Be ak weg Mo avoid the ned for an adders wwe 0 ition " a sing ein st ove sha empnot fe ‘ vanadate Deer sntce is a pecan ot by tring th asi 2 ns for surface ouhMeSS aS discuygy Se ote na moe emphasis 06 tein ‘Sor star seg cis ‘tosh sng et “and aves ts ions ty = hi ‘ ons ofthis carte. the field. There are a significa sale ets and they ar tenn nth rato he vets cai raise igh et of ese fea Te ne he se of TE bs ry oat a number of smal scale laboratory shea oy lpia ese cio mr fal ee hy he “Goon an i a eet an 43,0 demi tee she ger ch ht ea yal ois fae ion ale w re Reeve ftom er whch i site specific and scale dependent and is ‘cive fiction ange is 2 fe sed sal deen SES aes te. Praca for making these roughns ag ‘Seine deve nthe folowing pes 43 Shearstrngth of rough sures: {rata dcontinty sre inh rock fs never as smooth as a sawn or ground sure ESRELSS iui ae cin angle The undulations and asprin anal rns hea spin intercon is she bch. sp vr ropes nese sear sength of the surfs, ad this so ‘Snes avon ingen a fos ofthe stably of excavations in ek. Paton (i ‘Ecos tis ate by meas of ah exit a ‘Seo umes sacha he ne ded in Figure 4. Shear placenta specnes cua raf te atts moving up he active Tc, causing io ‘Seesein ole) of te peine. Tester soca fate ooh ecient canbe represented by t4;;ten(6, +) aa her isthe base tion ne of he sucess the angle ofthe sawtooth fee peirsiergn + tov reer te swe 1h Fenn spine a lhe earied out shear tesa} Pen Sine Snainnting Lectare tian ons Cooper 4124 Surface roughness ‘All natwal discontinuity surfaces exhibit some degree of roughnes. varying from polished and Schon sided sheared surfces with very low roughses, to rough and iegulr tension joints ‘vith considerable roughness. These surface inreguleie are given the ger term aspeties, fan! because they cot Have a sigiiant effect on the stably of a slope, they should be ‘Ecountel for appropriately in design as diacwsed inthis section. Tie discussion im Scetion 42.5 hat boon simplifed Because Paton found that asperi divided into two classes: iste and second order asperites as shown in Figure 411. The fit- tr aspenies are those that correspond othe major undulations om the Bedding surfaces, hile te second-order aspenites are small burs and ripples onthe surface and have higher valuss. In onder to obiin reasonable agreement between field obserations of the dip ofthe unstable ‘bedding plans shown in Figure 4.10 and the (211) valics, it was necessary to measare ony the Fastonle asperitis. Later stalies by Baton (1973) showed that Paton’ 5 fesults were rlted to the normal stress acting across the bedding planes in the slopes that he observed. At low oral stresses, the second-order projections come ito play and Barton quotes (9 ~ i) values in the range of 69-80" for tess condocted at low normal stesesranzing from 20 19670 KPa (Goodmaa, 1970; Paulding, 1970; Rengsrs, 1971). Assuming a riction anle forthe rock of 30, these results show tht the effective roughness angle i vares between 40 and $0° for thse low oral tess levels. ‘The actual ser performance of discontinuity surfaces in ock slopes depends on te combined cifects ofthe surface roughness, the rock strength a the surface, the applied oral sess and the amount of shear cislacemont. This is tasted in Figure 4.12 where the asperics 2 sheared off, with consequea reduction in the ition angle with increasing normal stress. That ‘sthre i a transtion from distiont shearing ofthe rock. The degree to which the asperiies ‘ne sheared wil depend on both the magnitude ofthe normal force ia flation othe compressive Stength ofthe rook onthe Fstue surface, apd the displacement distance. A rouzh surface that is intl undierbed and interlocked will have a peak fiction angle of (i). With increasing normal stress and displacement, the asperics wil be sheared off andthe fiction ansle will popessivey diminish to a minimim yale of the basic, or rvdual. ction angle of he ack. ‘Tit dition shearing condition is represented on the Mobr diagram as a cared sseagth avelope with an inital slope equal to (6 i reucing to 6 rat higher pormal stresses. ‘The shear stess-nocmal stress relationship shown in Figure 4.12 can be quantified using 2 technique developed by Barton (1973) based on the shear stengih tehavice of artificially produced rough clan “joints” The study showed tha th shear strength of rough rock Surface depends on the rlaionship benveen the roughness the rock strength and the normal stress, and ean be defined by the following empl equation reo'tan(o3Rc less (%)} can be an ‘Where JRC isthe joint roughness costicint JCS ie the compressive srngth ofthe rock at the Sracue surface and i the elfestive normal tes, 4 Rock Slept tne, Lecture Neeson cesar ein iat ton | ove? Nessa rhs ame Ene ol hers ough sobcs tumen eh Sd anata slope aon 1986 % wie, file 4 roms ar orm Ses o0 urng,/ Ree a ef de tt = 1936) {Mrampetnon Reh ad, ove Sipe Caginstring estar nines sos Comer -& 4.3 Determination of shear Strength on Rock Mass ‘our main altematives for finding ition parameters 1 Empirical Methods 2 Laboratory Shear Testing 3 Feld Shear Testing Back Analysis ‘Most common eypircal method to determine shear strength TL Baton and Choubay (1977) 2. Ladanyi and Archarbaul (1972) 46341 Barton’s estimate af shear steength vation (Al) is valid at low normal stresses where shear displacement is due to sliding along {be inclined sures. At higher nomal sweses, the steagih of the intact material will be ncseded and te tee will end to break off, resulting ina shear strength bekaviour which i fore closely related 1o the intact material srengh tha tothe ficdonal characteristics ofthe surfaces. {While Paton's approach has the merit of being very simple it docs not reflect the realty that Changes in shear tength with increasing normal sess are gradual rather than abrupt. Baron nd his co-worker (1973, 1976, 1977, and 1990) staid the behaviour of natural rock joins snd fave proposed that equation 4.4) canbe resin as: sjnnf IRC isthe joint roughness coefficient and ICS isthe join wall eompressivestength. Barton and Choubey (1977), on the basis of thst direct shear test results foe 150 samples of ‘aviably weathered ook joins, revised this equation to im{ orc SS} (3) Where, Where is the resichual fiction angle Barton and Choubey suggest that ¢ ean be estimated som, = @p ~ 20) + 20("/2) Where + isthe Sshmillschound number wet and weathered facture surfaces and & the ‘Sela ekound number on dey unweather sawn surdases ” Rock lp tng ces rat wan Mma eotimates CIRC gum that 6 Be esimated by ony a apts us by Dare sg ei! y Brn nd Chay (98 Baa Hel mass yar inse P eects sc my hie —— oe hoy Seeing al ry cme, he een ve ne fst ee fe SEL Ciera ee sys wi sa | reno ——— ooo Pn ee ra [ore as rere Ts ree TT Cf rer fren st tig 42 ——__* | ——_" ie sce ” Kos me aes cater ata ang cade? a ch sine Saninnien rors ta Drobo stemahe tn revere torent) rent epets-ne em of ain igure 4.8. Atentns nan Kr ents FRE ro easuretn of wae BEES. ‘Am Alternative method t estimate JRC Barton and Bans (1990) suggest tet JRC ca also be ‘stinated fon spe it tet in which pai of ating dicoesiniy surtices are ited unt one slides fn the other The JIC wale fs estima foe the tit fnglew by means of the falling equation ao 1 uRo™ tore, Rost Step Caan, Lacan Nets: Chae ‘hava a2 ee J compressive strength were publish Sg hot al CO ihe Seriaticecers se hammer fr estimating joint walle SPST are som at SEIT can (6) 5 est FEE. no 2-2-2 28 SE y ae 5 fe 2 7 FE F. ek? i: 5s a3 2g Intute tics a een i .asa ae joint replicas, and a review of literature, Berton ant eth ppd eve ume EC St he manc,{ te ao we, Where JRC sd Eten 109 Instock sas, 110 mm corny seal samples and JRC and Late jit wall compressive suength (JCS) decrees with increasing Scale Barton and Bands (17 Foren te scale corrections for ICS defined bythe following relationship efi 1 beter tain ‘Where 4CSean Leng) eer 100 laheratory scale samples and JCS sia blck ies 4.32 Poin load Test ‘The pint load test san appropriate method to estimate the compressive tena for rock slope design Figure 426() The equipment fs portable, and tests can be earied oat quickly and inexpensively inthe field on both core and lump samples (SRM, 1985), Besous the point oad tes provides an index vale forthe stength,asual practice i to ealfrate the ress sith 3 Timed numberof wana compressive test on prepared core samples. ‘The test procedure involves pacing the sample between the platens and applying a load withthe Iydelie jack to break the sample in fension IP is the point load breaking senzt, then the point loadin, 35 given by (432) sly Where Des the equivalent ore diameter, defined as 12D? (diametal tess where D isthe care damier) 22 = 282 asi ake amp 0) ‘Where W is the specimen width and D isthe distance betwee the platens onDyisthe ‘minim cross-sectional area of lamp sample for he plane through he plata 2 ‘The sizecoectd pont loa sensi inden Is (S0) ofa rock spevinen is dfined athe value of Is that would have Been measured by’ a dame test with D ~ SOmum. For tests condocte co Samples with dimensions different from £0-ram, the resus can be standardized 10 3 siz acted point load sength index by applying a somestio stor her 38 flows uso = her ash ‘The value ofthe size-coestion factories shown in Figure 4.26(b) andi given by anne (BY ase Ie has boon found, om average hat the unin sompeesi 25 times the Point loodsrength inde. Howse, etm ma ifreat types of Show thatthe ato ek ‘ary btn 15 and 50, expecially Tor anisowopic chs. Consequently, te most reise res Ins obtined i ysis aliboin test ae cate ok rock Cig, Ne nearest he Ae: FF TES qt face nthe vk oF 3B ORE TT sould be adjusted by messing the aug | SSA EARE CRE Sem i mc Se oe ig tad ts rs a mt dngot 42 Potato rata eee a alone sae ail Seats alocorane erin pacer — 44 Shear strength of discontiies 1 geclpical mapping calor damood dling idemify discontinuities on wich shea file oad tape, wil boxes to dtnnine the fiction agle and cohesion of the sng {SS der cay out subilty ata. The iveiation program should abo cht asactisths ofthe sing surface that may modify the shea sth Peeters prise soni eharcesisis inde continous length, surface rug). 4nd te thickness and characterises of an pepe MOSS ny ini, wll athe eet of water om The illowing sets Sete 2s pane ct "he tlstnshp beeen the shea strength and the pret Ie sei pa 2 Coufal in which the shar suet of 8 pasagraphs. Assume a number of test samples were cot fom a block of rk Sino planar cenit Furthermore, the dsconiniy comains a cemented ining mates sch tht tls fr ‘would have to bé applied to the two halves of the sample in onder separate them Each sample ie subjected to afore at right angles to the dsconinity surface ovemal st {is applied inthe diction parallel to the disomtnuty (shear sess, splocenent (95) is measured (Figure 4. 2 jand a force 1 bile the shear “Apne i poe — i Ground files sscompenying eamhquates clude landslides, lguefston, lateral spreads, fren seems, and ground cracks. Earthquake shakin ofcm iskges ck and debris fn sce slopes, wigeting rock falls avalanches. ad lansides. These slides Rave Been Known, to bury entre towns and maybe the mos danaging aspect ofthe earthquake event ” Le & arthqale® being induced by seismi $1 Base pee of Sy rk ils. 28 cht a Ne 606.1 cathake at Monnet La 214 ton bowler it 5 ton boulder traveled a di in] BELGE Sic elt Gm ee 1 Te SE ay Sm Ma Sahl ane through Pssincen class 007 fmatgn (ibson a, 1998). For thess three event, fed ad ued ai mt we 0M 7k, which abot he ve met gti rms, ae sels fm fem a A Te gd ok lat eagles as hry tect eee br el ine Ses bee ae lanier rele ee a es cee as ramos eon Tre Irate Cow, 1078 Va (Cheng, 1997), For xa airs dso oom it source and fine sot Highly weathered rock comprising core stones in mt and esd ol are more likely to fi than fresh rock, 2 Induraion-Poouly inated rock in which the particles are weakly bonded it ‘mori tal han songer, welH indurated rock, > Discontinuity: - charcterisics- Rock consining closely spaced, oper dsconinuiss are more suscepuble to failure than massive rock in vvigh he «dscns re cosed andl ¥ Water: «Slopes in hich the water table is high, or where there has been ree! ‘inf are stecpible ofl, Bie tlatcnship Beten these five cnitions and the slope file hazard is stated i he essa tes i Figure 61. Is aloof intrest tht he hazard is high for preexisting lenses! 1h slop eer i 25, Farha, the is a zd fr slopes wil loa reli gett 2000, probably because seismic shaking i amplified by the topography (Harp a4 Tin 20) an psec am an atic ‘The decision tree shown in Figure 6.11 can be Mirena sock al and slide aad al defined 8 8 aca Step Coantering Cesare ones bs Crapser- 5 Banrot bar Drama apne 11 Deion te fr sscepily of rck pesto earhgsakewedaced fare Keck 1942) Where a (isa single component acceleration-sime series for a strong-metion recoed with total uration Ta (seconds), tis the time in seconds, and g is the acceleration of exaviy. The ‘occurrence of rock falls and sides as been corelated withthe Aras intensity of the reorded ‘trong motion records forthe Whitier and Superstition eartyuakes in California. The study ‘Showed thatthe Aras intensity threshold for slides in Miocene and Pliocene deposits was inthe range of 008-06 mvs, and the threshold for Precambrian and Mesozoic rocks. where the Aiscontiaites were ope. was in the range of 0.01-0.07 mu [Note that this method is restricted to sites where accelerations histories are availble er can beesimated 5.1 Seismic hazard analysis ‘The design of slopes that may be subjected to seismic ground motion requires quantitate ‘information on the magnitude of the motion (Abrahamson, 2000). This informacion may be either the peak ground acceleration (PGA) or the acelrston-time history of the motions, ‘spending on te method of stability onaysis thai tobe sed. The proces by which the desizn imation parameters are established is grmed"sisvic hazard” analysis, which involves the following tvee steps (NHI, 1998; Glass. 2000) 1 Leniiaton of seismic sources capable of pee motos athe sit bs Evalation of simic potent for each capable source. 6, Evahation ofthe intensity of design ground tions atthe site, Unnplerentation ofthese ve steps involves the following ast. ing strong ground ‘Same sources: Fthguakes ae the result of fult movement, so identification of seismic Sources Tnclades establishing the types of fats and thee geographic location, depth, size and Srietation, This information i usually available from publications sch as geological maps and reports prepared by government geological suey soups and Uaivensiten and any previous 9 ac Sie ing Lecture Hates on: Chapae"? hovel Ba. hoe Bua a a pga SE Th le des, her nee OF Sal ee et foes nas Cha, ct ete a ne ef ecn cars te i Seems Mme ee blige a ae (SRD Be se icone of mone Bein thee re cm ence pn Secared by sett city in Noth America has occurred west of the Rev ocr a Ee Me aud by died wapig. followed by wench, geophysie Sse od ay tt rb ch Seriya uy eel ee canon of al pr wae et saline ess Oo Oe nesses andthe Maton Tecod og catgut, cand mann its Oct esas capable of Bencrating 00g pd a a ol cher te myo te pound mere SIGS ther fom bled coe st sind oro cane herd aay it Suldagcoe oon wih ene sup ps in wih he couy ive taeo swig. or eaml, be fine pak cceon level (0 2 faon of gree Srieane sik pay ef gente 50 er pe Fane eaO9E ‘Tetemin ds ap asf tailcon he et For example Det Sea te onic ted ccleaner pooal Up ca Cpe secanescraes vey) These bled aclrtns can be wed in genes ‘tnd ave vat pang sad dsp wii cch sone 52 Determination of Earthqeake Mo As a complement to the polished maps, aseismic hazard analysis for a specifi site can be seaduced by evaluating the mogitde of ground mins fio all capable sourées With tt el grange gun mao ese The value of sete sal, ‘ors tothe we of pblsbed cosas disused inthe previo paragraph isthe ably © iscaport the latest development in lel seismicity, Futhommare, i 6 possible to devel SES¢pesiic wroand motions conpared with the regina seismieiy on which the codes 3 ‘stblsh the loetion and syle of faking of 3 tative eahquake magnitude. Second, an approriat of magnitude, fut mechanism, site 1-sus¢ supe eater ‘athqtakes, of fom theoretical models ofthe propagation of song ground motions. depending ‘on the amu of observed deta avaible. For evample, fr subduction zones na inthe casters United Sates the PGA on rock ata hypocenta sane i given by (Youngs et, 188) IMPGA)= 19.16 + 1.085 Mey — 4.738 lal FIFA expOII2IM (6.29) For 20 < R-< 40km, and Mov > 2. The moment magnitide is a measure ofthe hese enersy released by the earthquake, an he hypocentr i the point Irom which te seismic waver ft Time histories: ~ IF deformation analyses are 19 be caicd ont, itis cesar) to use a representative ime history ofthe ground motions. Tine historic con be selected fom pesously recorded motions, of by simulation technigns to generate a project-specific synthetic time history. Tn scecting a representative time history fom the catalogue of avilable records. the relevant characterises ofthe project and source sites should he mated as closely as posible Some of the characterises that are imporart in matching time histories include magnitude, Source mecanist, focal depth, stesosoure diatance, ste geology. POA. frequency cote, ration and eneray content, 52.1 Pseudo-statie stablty‘anaysis. ‘The limit equilibrium method of detemining the facto of safety ofa sling block as descr above can be modified to incorporate theffest on sabity of seismic around motors. The analysis procedure knovn asthe pseudo-statc metho, involves simulating the ground motions 3 sae haizomtal force ating ina direction out of the face. The maznitade of his force i te product ofa seismic coefficient ky (imensioles) and the weight ofthe sliding Block W ‘The value of kr may be taken a5 equal to the design PGA, which is expresed asa faction of the _aviyaccceaton (ie. a= 0.1 ifthe PGA is 10% of gravity) However, this isa conservative ‘ssumptin since the actual ansent ground motion witha duration ofa few seconds is being ‘replaced by a constant force ating over the entire desig life of the slope. 1m the design of sil slopes and earth dns. it is common that hy i faton ofthe PGA, provided ‘hat thee is no los of shea strength during eetic loading (Seed, 1979. Pyke, 1999) Sady of slopes using Newmark analysis with yield acceleration Ky equal 0 SOY ofthe PGA they 05~ aang) showed that permanent seismic diplacement would be less than len (lyact and Franklin, 1984) Based on these studies, the Califomia Department of Mines and Gecloay (COMG, 1997) suggests that iis reasonable to use @ valu Of kr equal to SOP ofthe design PGA, in ombitstion with apseadosatic factor of safety of L.0-1.2, With respect os slope. and ok slepes whee the ock mass contains o dita sling srfae and scene movement can be tolerated, it may be reasonable to use the CDMG procedure to dstermine a vale for hi However, for rock slopes there aretvo conditions for which it maybe advisable to toe hx vale somewhat greater than 05 times the PGA. Fis, where the slope sontins 2 i surface for which there is likely w be a sigfcant decrease shear stent Aisplgement sliding plates om which the strength would bs sensitive to movewent include smooth, plage joints or bedding planes with no ialling. Sosoak. where the slope is a ‘opeeripic high point ant some amplification ofthe ground motions any be expected Tn ot C8 Step Cain, {turer on: Chg harot Bg the sensitivity of the slo a) ats 1 chsh PE 0 Sig sc he pots Wy Ke ote eh ” paataon pitt CM 1 aap AION 63) Te txt quan as sy crman e8 on wives es ne of uit aa r= tl +2 The ogation do ssf eva the sear esse wan Acting ten angle 6 sth) above the horns, and factor of safety is given by 8 =O 0s dp— briny + YONEAN Wi Gp Thy cally +O) my se ‘Sty ofthe fet ofthe vert compontt onthe fcr of safety has shown that incopori ‘be verical component wll at change te factor of safety by more than about 10%, provid Bate cy ML 1990), nn macnn cs ‘fighting the fre) ore afer are este anne ra 4: Vt tke al ema wl come ike ck sn” snd oe Sins caninaring ler 6: Graphical Presentation af Geo 161 Definitions of Geological Terms. 62 Graphical Techniques for Dia Problems {63 Evalation of Potential Slope Paobleme 61 Definitions of Geological ers Tie following is a summary of infomation that may be collected to provide a complete description ofthe rock mass. and comments on how tose properties influence te performance fof the rock mass. Ths information is based. primaniy on prvedates developed by the Ierational Society of Rock Mechanics (SRM, 1961), with some additonal information frm the Geological Society Enginsering Group (1977) Figure 35() illuseates the 12 essential Fenures of geological stecture, each of which is deserted ia moc dtl this section. The dagram and photograph in Figure 3.3 show tat es of dicontimitis on occu in erogonal sets (tly at ght angles) i response tothe Ses eld that has deformed th rock: the photograph shows thre ortoznal jigs a mass ‘rite, Orthogonal sructre is also iastated inthe seccaet in Figure 211. The value of {ecognizing orthogonal structure on an outcrop or in astecone stat these Features ae en the most prevalentin et and are ikl to contol stb ‘The following is ais, ands desertion ofthe parenctes that define th rock mass. 1 Rook pe: ~The rock ype is defined by the origin ofthe rock Le sedimentan. metamrie for igneous), the mineralogy, the color and ghin size (Deere and. Miler, 1966). The Itnortnce of defining the rock type is that there is wide experience in the perfomance of Aitfernt rock types (eg erate wstllystonger snd more massive than Sb) and this information provides a seul gudelin on he likely bebavier of the rock, istics ofthe 2. Discontinuity type Discontinuity ypes range ftom clean tension jolts of United lens {als containing several meters thickness of clay gouge and legis of many Kilometers: obviously the shear sieagh of such dicoatinuties will be very diferent. We provide = Uefston ofthe six mast common types of scons 4 Discontinuity orientation: » The orientation of discontinuities is expcssed a the Sip a Sip ‘ietoa (orks) ofthe sutface. The dip of the plan ie the maim ange ofthe pls © {he horizontal (angle & ), while the dip dteston i the dresion of the horizontal mace of te lin fi, measured clockwise from noth, angle «(se Figure 2.4. Fo the place sbown in Figure 35 that dips to the northeast, the rintation ofthe plane can be completely defined by five digits: 50045, where he di 30> andthe dip diction is 48. This eto of defining iscontinity oremation Caxitates napping beatae the dip and dip direction can Ke rad From single compass tcading (Figure 6) Also, the results can be pled disetly on a soronet osnalyze the stsctural ecto nwsins the compas shown Figure 3.6 te ip is read off graduated scale onthe i hinge, while the ip distion is read fF the compas scale that i grated from O° 10 360. Some compe allow the grafuad cise 9 be rotted to aesount fr the magnetic deviation atthe sit 50 that was ip rections age Fslative tote noth Ifthe soaps des not hve thi ete then the bagnetc readings 6 ovo Leaner ap hart wa ed cinton 29° eo expe. 294 “ si enteajmtn nra£ te Tbe magi alias ese seca cheer iemeinie seeentel Eger Beara ee pall einied sues Seer ee 4 een cine Caginsneg Spacing: »Disconimity spacing ean be mapped in rock aces and in dil cor. with he tae ‘spacing being calculate rom the aparet spacing for dicomtinuis inclined to the face, spacing categories range fom extemely wide (2m) very narow (hmm). Mewsuremest of dscontinaty spacing ofeach st of discontinuities will define the size and shape of Blocks nd give an indication of stability modes sucha oping failure. Alo, te rock mass sent is elated to spacing because in closely factred rock the individual discontinuities ill ors realy oi 6 frm 3 comtinsous zone of weakness. [islon rine onl ort a ns act asd ty Seapets grad EStcicpaman andi peat ot aa th he fe fse Canc Persistence: » Persistence iste measure ofthe continuous length o ara ofthe discontinuity Persistence categories range from very igh (220 m) to ery low (cl m). This parameter ‘efines the sizeof blocks and the length of potential sliding surfaces, so the eapping should ‘oncenrae on measuring the persistence ofthe set of dscominies that walltave the ‘grates influence on sabiy- Wher its not possible to measre the length of disontnutes Airety on the face the prosedare canbe used to estate the average length of fratres hat extend beyond the dimensions ofthe face. Roughness:- The roughnes ofa dscntiouty surfce soften an important component of the shat strength, especially where the discon "i Roughness should be measured inthe eld on exposed suraces with leg hs of a east an, iE possible, ia the amicipated etection of sliding, and ean be detsrbsd in tems of 4 combination of both the large an small features: ‘Shape: stepped ought: ough Undetating Smooth Plana slisken sie s reve ectre Notes ons get hy hae Pe) sina oft 386, hich isa meg) ss unl ts cist F. Figure 3st as 8 dem th i ee with stan pres ine me ins OTe sing EY 2 ntl abi then the vag yaa ll ie mambo of &taled men vai = The dees aes east - ory sora emote EER Veal pace nod Ti cal dso fies or ‘Nive igh stresses, compared fo the Wall syen} Pe SS ite Seem cn er oa eI is ssally adequate 10 estimate the com et Se ee by nt ad te. The Schnit hammer tsi Se SLA berg 2 Sot kt coy sce rae Sedo its i rs 31 Cane nk bel sb ORNL aoa redone appa vl Bes atin compte sr Tan eet pinman a cpl = Nyman tase Bement son 1 setencogmt Caetivepdrpeld apace 2650 (aig eden eorond ees coher ape ty, wate apealbyapetela = sos ‘Eiet nists Stoe sa yee een =— 10-0 2 eave & ss = H mt a anak S stented at : Cabreteantnel atety tub 00504 eh ran 3 watt san ongsaee uy fn a = ss as Bete eateetst penn an, PSEA" tna a mang oon 8. Weathering: Reduction of rock suensih due to weathering will redice the shear strength of utcomimitics as described in (G). Wesheing will sho redace the shear strength ofthe rock mas duet the diminished strength ofthe intact rock. Weathering Eatepvies range from fesh Yok to residual soil. Weathering of rock takes the fem of both disintegration and decomposition, Disintegration isthe result of environmental ‘conditions sch as weting and drying, rezing and thawing tat breakdown the exposed surface layer. Disintegration is most peevalet in sedimentary rock such as sandstones and shales, particularly if they conan swelling cay, apd in metamorphic rocks with a igh mica coment. Decompostion weathering refers to changes im rock produced by «hemical agents such as oxidation (eg. yellow discoloration ia rock conning Hoo), Iydeation (€8 decompostion of feldspar in grate to kaolinite clay) and carbonation (solution of limestone) Table 32 (SRM, 1981) lists seathering graier tat ‘slepoize the rock mass aeoring tothe dete of disintegration and decomposition 9. Apertures Apett isthe perpendicular distance separating the adjacent rock walls of sn ‘pen discontinuity, in which te intervening spac is air or water filed; caeaoies of speture range fom cavernous (°1 m), to very tight (

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