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Passionate or Obsessed? Entrepreneurs and Career Success

Conference Paper · June 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.1261.3761

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Alessandra Tognazzo Martina Gianecchini

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 PASSIONATE OR OBSESSED? ENTREPRENEURS AND CAREER SUCCESS

Alessandra Tognazzo - alessandra.tognazzo@unipd.it

UNIVERSITY OF PADOVA
Martina Gianecchini - martina.gianecchini@unipd.it
UNIVERSITY OF PADOVA
Paolo Gubitta - paolo.gubitta@unipd.it
UNIVERSITY OF PADOVA

Category: 03 ENTREPRENEURSHIP >> 03_00 ENTREPRENEURSHIP - GENERAL TRACK

Acknowledgements:
This research was supported by the Italian Ministry of Education and Research (PRIN- N. 2008CZ8ERH).

Access to this paper is restricted to registered delegates of the EURAM 2014 (European Academy of Management) Conference.

ISBN No: 978-84-697-0377-9.

 Passionate or obsessed? Entrepreneurs and career success

ABSTRACT

Entrepreneurial passion has been considered a positive driver of entrepreneurial activity, but
scant attention has been paid to the difficulties of being an entrepreneur. Relying on the
dualistic model of passion, harmonious passion and obsessive passion, we hypothesize that
harmonious passion prevails over obsessive passion among entrepreneurs. We also propose that
harmonious passion positively affects entrepreneurs’ subjective career success, while obsessive
passion has a negative or no impact on it. We test our hypotheses on a sample of 257 Italian
entrepreneurs and find partial support for our hypotheses. Our findings shed light on the duality
of entrepreneurial passion and its conflicting consequences on entrepreneurs’ subjective career
success.

Keywords: Entrepreneurs, Passion, Career satisfaction

Passionate or obsessed? Entrepreneurs and career success

ABSTRACT

Entrepreneurial passion has been considered a positive driver of entrepreneurial activity, but

scant attention has been paid to the difficulties of being an entrepreneur. Relying on the

dualistic model of passion, harmonious passion and obsessive passion, we hypothesize that

harmonious passion prevails over obsessive passion among entrepreneurs. We also propose

that harmonious passion positively affects entrepreneurs’ subjective career success, while

obsessive passion has a negative or no impact on it. We test our hypotheses on a sample of

257 Italian entrepreneurs and find partial support for our hypotheses. Our findings shed light

on the duality of entrepreneurial passion and its conflicting consequences on entrepreneurs’

subjective career success.

KEYWORDS

Passion, Obsession, Entrepreneurs, Career satisfaction, Subjective career success, Passion

duality

1
1. Introduction

Entrepreneurs are often portrayed as animated by passion (Cardon, Wincent, Singh &

Drnovsek, 2009; MacGrath & MacMillan, 2000), thinking of their businesses as “their

babies,” and believing in their ability to exploit business opportunities (Cardon, Zietsma,

Saparito, Matherne & Davis, 2005). Their passionate involvement in their work has positive

effects on their firms by, for example, increasing employees’ motivation (Breugst, Domurath,

Patzelt & Klaukien, 2012) and attracting investors (Chen, Yao & Kotha, 2009). However,

passion also has potential drawbacks, especially when passion becomes obsession (Thorgren

& Wincent, 2013a).

Obsessed entrepreneurs tend to be workaholics (Gorgievski, Bakker & Schaufeli, 2010).

While they enjoy their jobs, they come to a point at which they cannot help but work, so they

work long hours (Hornaday & Aboud, 1987). Their jobs take over their lives, and their

businesses eventually absorb disproportionate space in their lives, leading to conflicts with

other activities (Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk & Beutell, 1996), stress reactions (Cooper &

Dunkelberg, 1986; Kets De Vries, 1988) and other personal consequences, such as increased

regret or disappointment (Markman, Baron & Balkin, 2005).

The subtle boundary between passion and obsession in entrepreneurship has received scant

attention by the literature; in fact, studies that have considered passion in the entrepreneurial

context (e.g., Cardon et al., 2009) have tended to neglect its negative facet. The purpose of

the present study is to determine whether passion or obsession is prevalent in entrepreneurial

activity using the dualistic model of passion proposed by Vallerand and colleagues (2003).

This model distinguishes two types of passion toward an activity: harmonious passion is a

motivational force that leads people to choose freely to engage in their passionate activity, so

the activity positively affects their well-being; obsessive passion is related to pressures that

2
push people to partake in the activity to the extent that it produces negative psychological

effects (Vallerand et al., 2007).

We suggest that this distinction is particularly relevant in determining entrepreneurs’

subjective career success. Since subjective career success is affected by individual attitudes,

orientations and characteristics (Cooper & Artz, 1995; Heslin, 2005; Peluchette, 1993), both

the feeling of engagement in their own activity and the pressure to meet others’ expectations

may influence the entrepreneurs’ perceptions of their career success differently.

Based on our research framework, we conducted an empirical analysis of a sample of Italian

entrepreneurs in order to determine, first, whether passion or obsession is prevalent in their

entrepreneurial activity and second, to assess the influence of these two elements on

subjective career success.

This study makes several contributions to both entrepreneurial and career literature. First,

although previous theoretical work concerning entrepreneurial passion has considered that it

might have both positive and detrimental effects on entrepreneurial outcomes (Cardon et al.,

2009), no prior work has conceptualized the dualistic model of passion in assessing

entrepreneurial activity. Second, our work enriches the literature on subjective career success

(e.g., Hall & Chandler, 2005; Ng, Eby, Sorensen & Feldman, 2005) by adopting a predictor

(i.e., passion) that has received scant attention and focusing on a professional group (i.e.,

entrepreneurs) whose career success has been studied primarily in terms of objective

measures (i.e., business growth, income). Third, we contribute to the literature in the positive

psychology field (Vallerand et al., 2003) by validating the dualistic model of passion on a

sample of active entrepreneurs. Finally, we answer a call for research in the entrepreneurship

literature that focuses on the role of individuals and their emotions (Cardon, Foo, Shepherd &

Wiklund, 2012).

3
The paper is structured as follows. We review the relevant literature in order to draw our

hypotheses. Next, we test our model using a sample of individuals who are actively engaged

in entrepreneurship in order to take an empirical look at the psychological mechanisms of

passion at play. Finally, we present our findings and discuss the theoretical and empirical

implications of our work.

2. The dualistic model of passion for entrepreneurial activity

The entrepreneurship literature has defined entrepreneurial passion as “consciously

accessible intense positive feelings experienced by engagement in entrepreneurial activities

associated with roles that are meaningful and salient to the self-identity of the entrepreneur”

(Cardon et al., 2009, p. 517). This definition stresses the positive component of

entrepreneurs’ passion. More generally, Vallerand et al. (2003) define a passion for an

activity as a strong inclination toward an activity that one finds important, likes (or even

loves) and to which one devotes time and energy. This description fits the driving force that

pushes entrepreneurs to work long hours with stubbornness and persistence. In this sense,

passion is not considered a personality trait but a “special relationship one develops with a

specific activity” (Mageau et al., 2009, p. 637). Based on this concept, a person pursues an

activity with passion when it becomes a central feature of his or her identity (Mageau et al.,

2009; Schlenker, 1985). People with a passion for dancing do not just dance: they are

dancers. Similarly, people with a passion for their entrepreneurial activity do not just work:

they are entrepreneurs.

From a theoretical point of view, although passion is related to motivation, it is a separate

construct. Whereas motivation encompasses a broad array of psychological forces that incite

individuals to exert effort (Gatewood, Shaver, Powers & Gartner, 2002), passion refers more

specifically to intense, positive inclinations toward specific tasks. Vallerand et al. (2003)

4
demonstrate empirically that passion impacts but is separate from intrinsic and extrinsic

motivations as well as constructs like flow and affect.

Further developing the concept of passion, Vallerand et al. (2003) propose a dualistic view

that suggests that, depending on the context in which activities are internalized in a person’s

identity, one can experience a more harmonious or a more obsessive passion toward the

activity. Harmonious passion is undertaken freely and willingly, while an obsessive passion

is the result of internal or external pressures (e.g., to increase one’s self-esteem in the eyes of

others). In other words, the person controls the activity under harmonious passion, while the

activity controls the person under obsessive passion.

Results of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses validate the two-factor structure of

the passion scale, which corresponds to harmonious and obsessive passion (Rousseau,

Vallerand, Ratelle, Mageau & Provencher, 2002), and several studies demonstrate its validity

in the realm of work (e.g., Carbonneau, Vallerand, Fernet & Guay, 2008; Vallerand &

Houlfort, 2003), leisure, sport and recreational activities (e.g., Amiot, Vallerand &

Blanchard, 2006; Stenseng, 2008). In addition, both types of passion are found to correlate

positively with measures of activity valuation, time invested in the activity and perseverance

in an activity (Vallerand et al., 2007; Vallerand, 2008).

Entrepreneurship scholars also recognize the relevance of this model (e.g., Cardon et al.,

2009), although virtually no research has addressed the two components of passion in this

context.

2.1 Harmonious and obsessive passion for entrepreneurial activity

Research shows that people who have a harmonious passion have internalized their activity in

an environment where they feel autonomous (Mageau et al., 2009). As a result, these people

have freely endorsed the importance of the activity and pursue it for autonomous reasons

5
(e.g., because of the inherent satisfaction it brings). Although the activity occupies a

significant space in the person’s identity, it is not overpowering, so engagement in the

activity remains under the person’s willful control and remains in harmony with other aspects

of the person’s life (Vallerand et al., 2003). When entrepreneurs are passionate, they “show

strong and positive emotions toward their projects” (Chen et al., 2009, p. 203), emotion that

others perceive through their animated facial expression, energetic body movements and rich

body language.

In contrast, obsessive passion results from internalizing the activity into one’s identity such

that one is compelled to invest in the activity. In such cases, intrapersonal and/or

interpersonal pressures are also internalized, further pushing the person to engage in the

activity (Mageau et al., 2009). Thus, individuals feel compelled and pressured to engage in

their activity because of the contingencies attached to it, such as the maintenance of one’s

value or sense of worth (Mageau, Carpentier, & Vallerand, 2011). As a result, the activity

tends to be overly valued, to be favored above all other aspects of the person’s life and to take

disproportionate space in the person’s sense of identity (Vallerand et al., 2003). Obsession

resembles what Kets De Vries (1985) defines the dark side of entrepreneurship intended as a

(p. 166) “unique ways of dealing with the stresses and strains of daily life”, made of need of

control, sense of distrust, desire for applause, peculiar defensive tactics. Such factors cause

entrepreneurs to experience loneliness, relational and health problems and the continuous

need to achieve (Buttner, 1992; Simpson, Irvine, Balta & Dickson, 2013). Therefore, the

experience of entrepreneurial passion may produce response patterns that are blind or

misdirected (Cardon et al., 2009), but it may also sustain positive outcomes, such as

exploiting new opportunities through habitual entrepreneurship (Thorgren & Wincent,

2013b).

6
The studies reported here show that entrepreneurs experience both harmonious and obsessive

passion for their activity but do not determine whether one is prevalent over the other.

In order to answer this question, we must first consider that one of the main motives of

entrepreneurial career choice is autonomy, which is defined as the degree of freedom

available on the job (Douglas & Shepherd, 2002; Van Gelderen & Jansen, 2006).

Entrepreneurs decide on the pace and the instruments of their work, they enjoy greater

personal freedom than employees and they have the flexibility to modify their work

schedules to fulfill family commitments. According to the dualistic model of passion, an

environment that sustains autonomy is also a main determinant of harmonious passion

(Mageau et al., 2009).

We must also consider that the time perspective associated with the two elements of passion

differs. Indeed, among entrepreneurs a general long-term positive attitude supersedes

temporal feelings related to negative business events. As Cardon (2008, p. 78) argues, “the

loss of a client may yield a negative short-term emotion such as frustration, even when the

entrepreneur still holds positive feelings for the venture and its future potential.” Passionate

entrepreneurs are likely to display overall positive affects at work because “passion ensures

that the entrepreneur persists in the face of difficulties and keeps enthusiasm high during the

pursuit” (Cardon et al., 2005, p. 37).

Finally, personality research finds that entrepreneurs score higher than employees on two

dimensions: conscientiousness and openness to experience (Zhao & Seibert, 2006). Balon,

Lecoq and Rimè’s (2013) work on passion and personality finds that these two dimensions

relate specifically to harmonious passion but are not connected with the obsessive passion.

These three arguments suggest that, although entrepreneurs may feel both harmonious and

obsessive passion, harmonious passion prevails over obsessive passion:

7
H1. Entrepreneurs experience more harmonious passion than obsessive passion for their

entrepreneurial activities.

3. The impact of passion on entrepreneurial career success

Entrepreneurs’ careers have been studied in the career literature since its first theoretical

development. Schein’s (1978) seminal work on career anchors, defined as “the pattern of

self-perceived talents-motives, and values [that] serves to guide, constrain, stabilize and

integrate the person’s career” (p. 127), introduced entrepreneurial creativity as one of the

motives for some individuals to launch their own ventures. According to Schein,

entrepreneurs have an overarching need to create something that is entirely their own

product. As such, entrepreneurial careers recall the main characteristics of the protean career

model (Hall, 1996), since entrepreneurs have a strong sense of personal achievement and

desire to keep control over their own work (Heslin, 2005). As Hall emphasized (1976, p.

201), “the protean person’s own personal career choices and search for self-fulfillment are

the unifying or integrative elements in his or her life [and] the criterion of success is internal

(psychological success), not external.” According to this model, subjective success, a

person’s evaluation of his or her career in terms of the factors that the person deems

important, is more important than objective success in the form of money and status (Hall,

2004; Nabi, 1999).

Although a feeling of individual achievement and self-fulfillment appear to be relevant to

entrepreneurs’ sense of career success, most studies on entrepreneurship focus on firm-level

success indicators like firm size, growth, return on equity, and business survival but devote

scant attention to individual success criteria (Lau, Shaffer & Au, 2007). We suggest that,

given the protean nature of the entrepreneurial career, individual-level subjective evaluation

of success is more appropriate for determining entrepreneurs’ career outcomes.

8
Many variables have been analyzed as possible predictors of subjective career success (see,

e.g., Ng, Eby, Sorensen & Feldman, 2005; Peluchette, 1993). Although passion may

resemble some of these previously studied concepts, such as calling (Hall & Chandler, 2005;

Dobrow & Tosti-Kharas, 2011), work engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008), job

involvement (Parasuraman et al., 1996), proactive personality and self-control (Converse,

Pathak, DePaul-Haddock, Gotlib & Merbedone, 2012), passion remains a distinct concept

that has not yet been explicitly considered.

3.1 Harmonious passion and entrepreneurs’ subjective career success

People with harmonious passion for their work can choose to engage in the activity they love

and are in control of their engagement with their work. Their work activity occupies a

significant but not overpowering space in their identity and is in harmony with other aspects

of the person’s life. Therefore, engagement in the activity is flexible in the sense that the

individual can decide when to and when not to engage in the activity. Research demonstrates

that such autonomous control is positively associated with psychological well-being (Burke

& Fiksenbaum, 2009; Philippe, Vallerand & Lavigne, 2009) and work satisfaction

(Carbonneau et al., 2008; Thorgren, Wincent & Sirén, 2013) and that it affects relevant work

outcomes, such as commitment (Forest, Mageau, Sarazzin & Morin, 2011). Studies in

entrepreneurship also relate passion with positive work outcomes. For instance, Schindehutte,

Morris and Allen (2006) demonstrate that passion is particularly relevant during

entrepreneurial peak experiences, which they define as highly memorable moments

associated with intense feelings of joy, fun, happiness and self-realization. Further, Cardon at

al. (2009) propose a positive relationship between passion and entrepreneurial behaviors like

absorption and persistence, which are conductive of success.

9
Since individuals with harmonious passion can concentrate on the task they like, retain

control over their work activities and experience positive feelings about their jobs, we expect

a positive relationship between entrepreneurs’ harmonious passion and their subjective

evaluations of career success:

H2. Harmonious passion for entrepreneurial activity is positively associated with

entrepreneurs’ subjective career success.

3.2 Obsessive passion and entrepreneurs’ subjective career success

The entrepreneurial literature and research on the dualistic model of passion present

conflicting results related to the relationship between obsessive passion and individual

outcomes.

Research demonstrates that obsession predicts an increased level of negative outcomes, such

as conflict between work and other life activities, burnout and psychological distress at work

(Forest et al., 2011; Vallerand, Paquet, Philippe, & Charest, 2010). Similarly, studies in

entrepreneurship (Baron, 2007; Hmieleski & Baron, 2008; Kets De Vries, 1985) demonstrate

that long working hours and other obsessive behaviors could lead to negative feelings (e.g.,

loneliness and social isolation), which may inhibit entrepreneurs’ ability to respond to

dynamic environments. Obsessed entrepreneurs become abnormally averse to even moderate

levels of the risk that is inherent in the venturing environment; as a consequence, they reject

promising business opportunities, thereby negatively affecting their success. While no studies

have explicitly tested the effect of entrepreneurs’ obsession on their subjective evaluation of

their career success, following this stream of literature we may hypothesize that:

10
H3a. Obsessive passion for entrepreneurial activity is negatively associated with

entrepreneurs’ subjective career success.

However, some studies of the dualistic model of passion that test the relationship between

obsessive passion and positive outcomes, such as work satisfaction, and that predict a

negative effect, find no significant direct effect (Carbonneau et al., 2008; Thorgren et al.,

2013; Vallerand et al., 2010). Extending these results to the realm of entrepreneurship, we

formulate a second hypothesis:

H3b. Obsessive passion for entrepreneurial activity is not associated with entrepreneurs’

subjective career success.

4. Methods

We compiled the data for this study by means of a telephone survey and tested our

hypotheses using structural equations modeling. We followed the recommended two-step

approach in which the measurement model is first specified to obtain sufficient reliability and

validity for the constructs, and then the hypotheses concerning the relationships between

constructs are tested (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). This section explains our sample,

measures and data analysis methods.

4.1 Participants and procedure

A random sample of 1,210 private Italian companies was identified from the records of the

local Chambers of Commerce, where all the active firms are registered and they provided the

phone numbers and names of the firms. Between July and September 2012, interviewers

contacted each firm and asked to speak with the entrepreneur, defined as the person who has

11
both the property and the control rights of the company (either the founder or one of the

owners who currently has governance and management responsibilities). Using a computer-

assisted telephone interview technique (CATI), the interviewers asked respondents for a wide

range of information about their motivations and attitudes, their histories and backgrounds,

and their demographics. The final sample of those who agreed to participate consisted of 257

respondents, for a response rate of 21.2 percent, which aligns with the average in similar

studies (e.g., Murnieks, Mosakowski & Cardon, 2012).

Most of the entrepreneurs in our final sample were male (75.9%); the average age was 52

years, and 28 percent had an education level above high school (e.g. bachelor or master

degree).

4.2 Measures

4.2.1 Entrepreneurial harmonious passion and obsessive passion

We adapted the passion scale proposed and validated by Vallerand et al. (2003) to

entrepreneurial activity. We factor-analyzed the responses using principal component

analysis with varimax rotation. In line with recommendations from previous research (e.g.,

Conway & Huffcutt, 2003), a principal components exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with

varimax rotation (eigenvalue cutoff of 1.0) resulted in eigenvalues favoring a four-factor

solution, which accounted for 66 percent of the variance. However, we predicted a two-factor

solution (i.e., harmonious and obsessive passion). Ample research shows that the commonly

used rule that eigenvalues must be greater than 1 tends to produce too many factors (Gorsuch,

1997), so we imposed a two-factor solution in line with our theory (i.e., eigenvalue cutoff of

1.2). All items loaded on one of two factors, with cumulative variance for the factors totaling

51 percent, loadings on the respective factors exceeding .56 for all items, and only one item

with a cross-loading of .33 (all others were less than .20). Next, we conducted a confirmatory

12
factor analysis (CFA) on the model to test the theoretical structure of the two-factor

entrepreneurial passion construct. Table 1 provides the results of this model compared to a

variety of alternatives.

*** Insert Table 1 here ***

A reviewing of each model identified some misfit because of the constraint of some highly

correlated error terms. Once set free, the model fit improved significantly across all models.

Respecification of the model is a key part of structural equation modeling (Kline, 2005), but

continuous respecification or respecification of model parameters that alter the theory is

discouraged without replication (Cortina, 2002). In our case, the theoretical meaning of our

constructs and the model as a whole was unchanged by including these paths. Although a

significant chi-square value indicates that the model is an inadequate fit, the sensitivity of this

test to sample size confounds this finding and makes rejection of the model based on

evidence alone inappropriate (Bagozzi, 1980). However, a ratio of less than 3.00 (χ2/df<3)

indicates a good fit for the hypothesized model; in our case, it is 2.23 (Carmines & McIver,

1981). Chi-square difference tests also confirmed our two-factor model as the best fitting

model (Table 1).

With regard to the structural model fit indices, the RMSEA (0.08) is below the upper limit of

0.07 (Steiger, 2007). Moreover, according to Bentler and Bonnet (1980), studies in which

TLI is less than .90 can usually be improved substantially. Studies have shown that both TLI

and CFI values that are greater than 0.90 are needed in order to ensure that mis-specified

models are not accepted (Hu & Bentler, 1999). A CFI ≥ 0.95 and a TLI close to 0.95 (0.92)

are both indicative of good fit, and an SRMR value lower than 0.08 is deemed acceptable (Hu

& Bentler, 1999) as being close to well-fitting models that obtain values less than .05 (Byrne,

1998; Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2000). Overall, the fit was acceptable with regard to

13
relevant goodness-of-fit indices. All loadings between the indicators and the latent variables

were statistically significant (p < .05). At the construct level, we found a positive correlation

between the two constructs (0.56), which is in line with the finding of Vallerand et al. (2003).

Cronbach’s alphas obtained were 0.76 and 0.87 for harmonious passion (HP) and obsessive

passion (OP), respectively.

4.2.2 Subjective career success

Subjective career success was operationalized through the variable career satisfaction (Ng et

al., 2005). In particular, following Greenhaus, Parasuraman and Wormley (1990), we

measured career satisfaction with five items (e.g., “I am satisfied with the progress I have

made toward meeting my overall career goals”). We performed a principal components EFA

with varimax rotation (eigenvalue cutoff of 1.0) and obtained a one-factor solution, with

cumulative variance for the factors totaling 60 percent and loadings on respective factors

more than .71 for all items. We set free the correlation between two error terms and obtained

a χ2 =5.12, df=4, p>0.1; RAMSEA=0.03; CFI=0.99; TLI 0.99; SRMR =0.2, which are

acceptable values. The Cronbach’s alpha was 0.83.

4.2.3 Control variables

The study included several control variables related to the entrepreneurs’ demographics and

educational and professional backgrounds.

Gender was coded as 1= male and 0 =female. There are several reasons for expecting that

women entrepreneurs are more satisfied with their careers than men are. Literature on the

relative deprivation of working women (Crosby, 1982) demonstrates that women have lower

professional expectations than men, so they are often as satisfied as males even if they are

paid less or employed in lower-quality jobs. In addition, business ownership enables them to

14
combine childrearing and a career, hence satisfying women’s work-life balance expectations

(Orhan & Scott, 2001). We also controlled for whether the respondent had children (1 = yes;

0 =no), as previous studies about passion at work consider this variable (e.g., Forest et al.,

2011). The entrepreneurs’ age was measured because older entrepreneurs are more likely to

be satisfied than are younger entrepreneurs, given their declining expectations about future

career attainment (Cooper & Artz, 1995). We also considered the education level (1 = tertiary

education; 0 = less than tertiary education), as Ng et al. (2005) demonstrate that education is

a determinant of career satisfaction. Finally, in terms of professional background, we

considered whether the respondent was a habitual entrepreneur (1 = yes; 0 = no). Thorgren

and Wincent (2013b) demonstrate that entrepreneurs who have been exposed to multiple ven-

ture engagements score higher on obsessive passion than do entrepreneurs who are pursuing

their first ventures.

5. Analysis and results

5.1 Analyses

To test our first hypothesis we calculated the descriptive statistics of harmonious passion and

obsessive passion, having the former a mean of 3.22 and the latter of 2.85 (Table 2). A paired

t-test shows that the mean difference between the two forms of passion is significantly

different from 0 (t (256) = 13.23, p < 0.001), which confirms our first hypothesis.

*** Insert Table 2 here ****

We used structural equation modeling (SEM) using STATA software (Version 13) to test the

proposed theoretical causal sequence. SEM can analyze patterns of relationships among

variables simultaneously, comparing observed variance–covariance matrices to expected ones

15
derived from proposed theoretical models of relationships. We used the standard maximum

likelihood method of estimation.

SEM analyses have the advantage of yielding fit indices that denote the adequacy of the

proposed model to the data. We relied on the CFI (Bentler, 1990), the TLI (Bentler & Bonett,

1980), the RMSEA (Browne & Cudeck, 1993) and the SRMR to evaluate model fit.

Means, standard deviations and correlations among all key variables are presented in Table 3.

Table 3 presents correlations for informative purposes only, but these correlations are not

interpreted because these analyses do not control for the common variance found between the

constructs. Specifically, correlations between passion and the other variables are expected to

differ from the relationships found using SEM because SEM controls for the common

variance, typically found between the two types of passion (e.g., Philippe et al., 2009;

Vallerand et al., 2003). By controlling for this positive correlation, we can investigate the

relationships between each type of passion and the dependent variable independent of the

effect of the other type of passion. We expect the two types of passion to correlate positively

because they share common elements. In addition, whether people are more obsessively

passionate or more harmoniously passionate, they report being equally satisfied with their

careers. The correlation between harmonious and obsessive passion observed in the present

study is similar to that found in previous research (e.g., Philippe et al., 2009; Vallerand et al.,

2003).

Kurtosis and skewness values for all variables are well below 3.0 for skewness and 10.0 for

kurtosis, which Kline (2005) indicates as requirements for SEM analyses.

*** Insert Table 3 here ***

16
5.2 Structural equations

We tested the proposed theoretical model, including the control variables, to evaluate the

processes that underlie the influence of passion on career satisfaction. The overall fit of the

model was adequate (χ2 = 382.88, df = 221, p < .001; CFI = .92; TLI = .90; RMSEA = .05;

SRMR = .07) (Figure 1).

As Hypotheses 2 predicts, the results show that harmonious passion is positively related to

career satisfaction (γ = .55; p < .001), whereas there is a negative relationship (Hypothesis

3a) between obsessive passion and career satisfaction (γ = -.16; p < .1). Therefore, the

alternative hypothesis, 3b, which predicts no relationship between the obsessive component

and career satisfaction, is not supported (although the significance of the coefficient was not

high approaching the level of .1). As suggested above, we find a positive relationship

between the two types of passion (γ = .58; p < .001).

To confirm our results we also used ordinary least squares (OLS), as Pedhazur (1997)

suggests, and the results (not reported here) are similar to the SEM output.

*** Insert Figure 1 here ***

5.3 Common method

We used Harmon’s one-factor test to determine the presence of common method bias. In this

test, all the items are hypothesized to load on a single factor, representing the common

method, and estimates of common method variance are obtained. The results do not show a

dominant first unrotated principal component (eigenvalue: 5.51, cumulative variance: 29%),

indicating that common method bias should not affect the findings unduly (Podsakoff,

MacKenzie, Lee & Podsakoff, 2003).

17
6. Discussion

The scant scholarly consideration of the entrepreneur as an individual who pursues personal

career attainment, rather than only business profitability and growth, highlights the need to

examine the pressures and impulses of owning and operating a business. The purpose of the

present research was to identify one of the determinants of entrepreneurial activity, passion,

and its relationship with entrepreneurs’ subjective career success. Relying on a dualistic

model of passion as consisting of obsessive passion and harmonious passion, we validated

the model on a sample of entrepreneurs and tested the direct effect of harmonious and

obsessive passion on entrepreneurs’ career satisfaction.

Our first result indicates that harmonious passion is more common than obsessive passion,

sustaining the favorable interpretation of passion in the entrepreneurship literature (e.g.,

Cardon et al., 2009): despite the dark side of entrepreneurship and the risks associated with

obsessive behaviors, our findings confirm that the positive side of passion is predominant.

Fisher, Maritz and Lobo (2013) theorize a model of entrepreneurial obsession based on

clinical literature that suggests that obsession may have a relationship with passion and,

despite its potential to stimulate negative affect or anxiety, may contribute to desirable

entrepreneurial outcomes. Therefore, we add to this growing literature by finding that

entrepreneurial passion contains a negative component but that entrepreneurs are animated

primarily by a positive energy toward their work.

Our second finding provides additional insight into the predictors of subjective career

success. Although the career literature has paid some attention to factors that recall some

characteristics of passion, such as career calling, work engagement, job involvement,

proactive personality and self-control, no research has examined whether and to what extent

passion (harmonious and obsessive) directly affects career satisfaction. The present study

18
examines this issue and demonstrates a conflicting relationship between passion and

entrepreneurs’ career satisfaction.

On one side, our findings confirm a positive impact of harmonious passion on career

satisfaction. This result is relevant in the realm of entrepreneurial careers and more generally

adds to the protean perspective on career (Hall, 1996), which considers entrepreneurs to be

protean individuals. According to our results, a key factor in achieving career satisfaction is

the choice of work activities that are important to the entrepreneur’s identity and are in

harmony with other aspects of his or her life.

On the other side, our findings show that, when involvement in the work activity is due to

external pressures, career satisfaction is slightly negatively affected. This finding sustains the

existence of a “dark side” of entrepreneurship, as Kets De Vries (1985; 1996) suggest, but it

goes further by demonstrating this dark side’s potential negative effects on entrepreneurs’

career satisfaction. At the same time, our results do not confirm the findings of research on

the dualistic model of passion that show no significant direct effect of obsessive passion on

work satisfaction (e.g., Thorgren et al., 2013). However, the modest statistical significance of

our results does not exclude the possibility that other factors mediate the relationship between

obsessive passion and career satisfaction. For instance, variables that are related only to

obsession toward work, such as the number of hours devoted to work or work-family

conflict, have been demonstrated to affect career satisfaction negatively (e.g., Martins,

Eddleston & Veiga, 2002; Parasuranam et al., 1996). Hence, our findings open useful

avenues for further research about the mediators between obsession and career satisfaction.

Our findings also contribute to entrepreneurship literature. The distinction between obsessive

passion and harmonious passion recalls the dichotomy between the “push” and “pull”

motivations to become an entrepreneur (Gilad & Levine, 1986), where the former relates to

elements of necessity, such as insufficient family income, dissatisfaction with a salaried job

19
and desire for work-life balance, while the latter relates to independence, self-fulfillment,

entrepreneurial drive and a desire for well-being. Research (e.g., Amit & Muller, 1995)

demonstrates that pull entrepreneurs are more “objectively” successful (e.g., in terms of

personal income) than push entrepreneurs are. The present research supports this perspective

on a different success outcome and adds a complementary perspective that emphasizes the

importance of passion as a separate construct compared with motivation.

Finally, adopting the dualistic model of passion, this research adds to extant studies on

entrepreneurial passion (e.g., Cardon et al., 2009) by challenging the view of passion as an

unquestionably beneficial factor for entrepreneurs. On the contrary, we suggest that not all

forms of passion for entrepreneurial activity are desirable. An entrepreneur’s evaluation of

career satisfaction may depend on whether he or she has harmonious passion or obsessive

passion for the activity.

6.1 Limitations and further research

This research opens useful avenues related to exploring the outcomes of the dark side of

entrepreneurship. Other than career satisfaction, research may explore both positive (e.g.,

self-efficacy, opportunity recognition) and negative (e.g., depression, emotional exhaustion)

effects.

Future research may also consider the relationship between motivations to become an

entrepreneur (push or pull factors) and subsequent career satisfaction (Heslin, 2005). In this

instance, research on longitudinal data will be invaluable in advancing the state of knowledge

pertaining to entrepreneurship, passion and satisfaction.

Concerning the relevance of this study to the career literature, this study has been concerned

primarily with testing hypothesized relationships between the two types of passion and

subjective evaluations of career success and has not sought to develop a model of all major

20
variables that influence career satisfaction. Further, future studies may investigate the

relationship between entrepreneurs’ passion and objective career success variables (such as

personal income), thus complementing our focus on subjective success. This analysis might

be extended to firm-level variables like performance and growth in small and medium-sized

companies, where the entrepreneur can directly affect the firm’s actions (Rauch & Frese,

2000).

Although this study provides the first step toward understanding the effects of emotions in

entrepreneurship, future studies can tease out the main and interactive impact of cognition

and emotions on measures of entrepreneurs’ success.

6.2 Practical implications and conclusions

Our research provides useful advice to practitioners and to individuals who are interested in

understanding and managing the pathways through which passion toward an activity affects

work-related outcomes. In particular, entrepreneurs may benefit by assessing how their career

satisfaction may be related to their own personal impulses. Satisfied entrepreneurs work more

effectively with their customers and employees, and their personal sense of success leads to

greater business success (Schmitt-Rodermund, 2004). However, our results indicate that only

harmonious passion, not obsessive passion, leads to career satisfaction, so the type of passion

entrepreneurs have for their activity matters with respect to their feelings and consequent

behaviors.

In conclusion, the results of this study further validate the dualistic model of passion in the

context of the entrepreneurial activity by showing that harmonious passion is more prevalent

than obsessive passion and that the two forms of passion have opposite effects (positive and

negative, respectively) on entrepreneurs’ career satisfaction.

21
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TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 1 – Test of different types of measurement models of entrepreneurial passion

2
Model χ df CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR
Single Factor 572.60 77 0.65 0.58 0.16 0.12
(p < .001)
Two Factors 455.71 77 0.73 0.68 0.14 0.17
(p < .001)
Two Factors (free covariance 404.10 76 0.77 0.72 0.13 0.10
between factors) (p < .001)
Proposed Two Factors model 131.90 59 0.95 0.92 0.07 0.06
(p < .001)
CFI = comparative fit index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation;
SRMR = standardized root mean square residual.

Table 2 – Descriptive statistics of harmonious and obsessive Passion

Model Mean s.d. Min Max
Harmonious Passion 3.22 .70 1 4.71
Obsessive Passion 2.85 .92 1 4.86
a
Average values

Table 3 - Means, standard deviations and correlations

Mean s.d. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Career satisfaction .81 .80 1.00
2. Gender .76 .43 .15 ** 1.00
3. Age 51.67 12.40 .33*** .30 *** 1.00
4. Habitual entrepreneurship .39 .49 .14 ** .26 *** .19 ** 1.00
5. Children .85 .37 .17 ** .11 * .47 *** .10 * 1.00
6. Education level .28 .45 -0.23 -.19 ** -.25 -.04 .14 ** 1.00
*** ***
a
7. Harmonious Passion .00 .58 .55 *** .08 .13 ** .19 ** .01 -.09
a
8. Obsessive Passion .00 36 .26 *** .11 * .20 ** .16 ** .10 -.14* .63***
a
Factor score values; *p<.1; ** p<.05; *** p<.0001; N= 257

31
 Figure 1 – Model and main results

32

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