Ministerio Das Infraestruturas Republica

Ministério das Infraestruturas
Républica Democrática de Timor-Leste
ROAD GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
July 2010
ADB TA No. 4942 – TIM Infrastructure Technical Assistance

Infrastructure Technical Assistance (ITA)
ROAD GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS L

JULY 2012
Sinclair Knight Merz

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Sinclair Knight Merz
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Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1. General ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Purpose ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.3. Scope ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.4. Structure of the Manual ..................................................................................................................... 1
2. Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards ........................................................................... 3
2.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Design Standards.............................................................................................................................. 3
2.3. Departures from standards ............................................................................................................... 3
3. Project Cycle and Route Corridor Selection............................................................................................... 5
3.1. Project Cycle ..................................................................................................................................... 5
3.1.1. Problem Identification ................................................................................................................... 5
3.1.2. Pre-Feasibility ............................................................................................................................... 5
3.1.3. Feasibility...................................................................................................................................... 7
3.1.4. Design ........................................................................................................................................ 12
3.1.5. Commitment and Negotiation ..................................................................................................... 12
3.1.6. Implementation ........................................................................................................................... 12
3.1.7. Operation .................................................................................................................................... 13
3.1.8. Evaluation ................................................................................................................................... 13
3.2. Route Corridor Selection ................................................................................................................. 13
3.2.1. Desk Study Route Selection ....................................................................................................... 13
3.2.2. Preliminary Identification of Potential Route Corridors ............................................................... 14
3.2.3. Site Visit and Survey .................................................................................................................. 17
3.2.4. Topographic and Geomorphologic Characteristics ..................................................................... 18
3.2.5. ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
3.2.6. Construction Materials ................................................................................................................ 19
3.2.7. Recommendations...................................................................................................................... 19
3.2.8. Report Outline ............................................................................................................................ 19
4. Survey Requirements .............................................................................................................................. 21
4.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 21
4.2. Method of Data Collection : Photogrammetric vs. Field Survey ...................................................... 21
4.3. Survey Data Products ..................................................................................................................... 21
4.4. Survey Data by Project Type .......................................................................................................... 22
4.5. Field Surveys .................................................................................................................................. 22
4.6. Topography ..................................................................................................................................... 24
4.7. Bench Marks ................................................................................................................................... 24
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4.8. Profile and Cross Sections .............................................................................................................. 25
4.9. Photogrammetric ............................................................................................................................. 26
4.10. Detailed Survey and Alignment Design ........................................................................................... 26
5. Design Controls and Criteria .................................................................................................................... 27
5.1. Objective ......................................................................................................................................... 27
5.2. Applied Standards ........................................................................................................................... 27
5.3. Basic Design Factors ...................................................................................................................... 27
5.4. Design Approach............................................................................................................................. 27
5.4.1. Road Functional Classification ................................................................................................... 29
5.4.2. Levels of Development (Stage Construction) ............................................................................. 31
5.4.3. Terrain ........................................................................................................................................ 31
5.4.4. Design Vehicle............................................................................................................................ 32
5.4.5. Density and Character of Adjoining Land use ............................................................................ 36
5.4.6. Design Traffic Volume ................................................................................................................ 37
5.4.7. Design Speed ............................................................................................................................. 37
5.4.8. Safety ......................................................................................................................................... 38
6. Cross Selection Elements ........................................................................................................................ 39
6.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 39
6.2. Lane widths and Marginal Strips ..................................................................................................... 40
6.3. Shoulders ........................................................................................................................................ 40
6.4. Normal Crossfall.............................................................................................................................. 41
6.5. Medials ............................................................................................................................................ 41
6.5.1. General ....................................................................................................................................... 41
6.5.2. Median Types and Width ............................................................................................................ 41
6.6. Side Slopes and Back Slopes ......................................................................................................... 42
6.7. Roadside Ditches ............................................................................................................................ 44
6.8. Clear Zone ...................................................................................................................................... 44
6.9. Kerbs ............................................................................................................................................... 45
6.9.1. Curb Configurations.................................................................................................................... 45
6.9.2. Kerb Placement .......................................................................................................................... 46
6.10. Right of Way.................................................................................................................................... 46
6.11. Four Lane and Divided Roads ........................................................................................................ 46
6.12. Single Lane Roads .......................................................................................................................... 47
6.13. Typical Cross Selections & Standard Cross Sections ..................................................................... 47
7. Sight Distances ........................................................................................................................................ 48
7.1. General Considerations .................................................................................................................. 48
7.2. Stopping Sight Distance .................................................................................................................. 48
7.3. Stopping Sight Distance : Single Lane Roads................................................................................. 51
Geometric Design Standards Page ii

7.4. Passing Sight Distance ................................................................................................................... 51
7.5. Minimum Provision of Passing Slight Distance ............................................................................... 53
8. Horizontal Alignment ................................................................................................................................ 54
8.1. General ........................................................................................................................................... 54
8.2. Targent Sections ............................................................................................................................. 54
8.3. The Circular Curve .......................................................................................................................... 54
8.4. Reverse Curves, Broken- Back Curves, and Compound Curves .................................................... 60
8.5. Isoloated Curves ............................................................................................................................. 62
8.6. Minimum Length of Curve ............................................................................................................... 62
8.7. Widening on Curves and Embankments ......................................................................................... 62
8.8. Switchback Curves.......................................................................................................................... 63
8.9. Transition Curves ............................................................................................................................ 65
8.10. Superevation ................................................................................................................................... 66
8.11. Superelevation Runoff..................................................................................................................... 66
8.12. Shoulder Super elevation ................................................................................................................ 67
9. Vertical Alignment .................................................................................................................................... 69
9.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 69
9.2. Vertical Curve Formula ................................................................................................................... 69
9.3. Types of Vertical Curves ................................................................................................................. 70
9.3.1. SAG Vertical Curves................................................................................................................... 71
9.3.2. Crest Vertical Curves .................................................................................................................. 71
9.3.3. Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves .......................................................................................... 72
9.4. Maximum Gradients ........................................................................................................................ 77
9.5. Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks ............................................................................................... 78
9.6. Minimum Gradients ......................................................................................................................... 78
9.7. Gradients through Villages .............................................................................................................. 78
9.8. Critical lenghth of gradient .............................................................................................................. 78
9.9. Climbing Lanes ............................................................................................................................... 78
9.10. Vertical Clearances ......................................................................................................................... 81
10. Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment ....................................................................................... 83
10.1. Alighment Defects Due to Mis-Phasing ........................................................................................... 83
10.2. Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action .......................................................... 83
10.3. Vertical Curve Overlaps One end of the Horizontal Curve .............................................................. 83
10.3.1. Insufficient separation between the Curves .............................................................................. 83
10.3.2. Both Ends of the Vertical Curve Lie on the Horizontal Curve ................................................... 84
10.3.3. If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve
may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the vertical curve is a
sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. An example of such a visual defect
Road Geometric Design Standards Page iii

is shown in Figure10-1e. The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident as in Figure
10-1a, or to separate them....................................................................................................................... 84
10.3.4. Vertical Curve Overlaps both ends of the Horizontal Curve ..................................................... 84
10.3.5. Others MIS –Phasing ............................................................................................................... 84
10.4. The Economic Penalty due to phasing ............................................................................................ 84
11. Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram...................................................................................... 85
11.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 85
11.2. End Area Calculations..................................................................................................................... 85
11.3. Calculating Earthwork ..................................................................................................................... 86
11.4. Mass Haul Diagram ......................................................................................................................... 86
11.5. Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram ....................................................................... 87
12. At Grade Junctions/ Intersections.......................................................................................................... 93
12.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 93
12.2. Design Requirements...................................................................................................................... 93
12.2.1. Visibility..................................................................................................................................... 93
12.2.2. Comprehension ........................................................................................................................ 93
12.2.3. Maneuverability ........................................................................................................................ 94
12.3. Selection of Junction Type .............................................................................................................. 94
12.4. T-Junctions...................................................................................................................................... 94
12.4.1. Figure 12-3: Staggered X-Junctions ......................................................................................... 96
12.5. Cross Junctions............................................................................................................................... 96
12.6. Distance between adjoining junctions ............................................................................................. 96
12.7. Visibility Play ................................................................................................................................... 97
12.8. Turning Lanes ................................................................................................................................. 98
12.8.1. Right Turn Lane ........................................................................................................................ 98
12.8.2. Left Turn Lanes ........................................................................................................................ 99
12.9. Traffic Islands ................................................................................................................................ 101
12.10. Private Access .............................................................................................................................. 102
12.11. Roundabouts ................................................................................................................................. 102
12.11.1. Use of Roundabouts ............................................................................................................. 102
12.11.2. Safety ................................................................................................................................... 103
12.11.3. Traffic Flow ........................................................................................................................... 103
12.11.4. Site Conditions ..................................................................................................................... 103
12.11.5. Driver Conditions .................................................................................................................. 103
12.11.6. Roundabouts regularize traffic flow and should reduce accidents as well as increase capacity
103
12.11.7. The General Layout .............................................................................................................. 103
13. Safety and Miscellaneous Design Items.............................................................................................. 106
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13.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 106
13.2. Safety Rest Areas and Sce ic Overlooks ...................................................................................... 106
13.3. Bus Lay-Byes and Parking Bays ................................................................................................... 106
13.4. Parking Lanes ............................................................................................................................... 108
13.5. Public Utilities ................................................................................................................................ 108
13.5.1. General ................................................................................................................................... 108
13.5.2. Electric Light and Power Authority .......................................................................................... 109
13.5.3. Water and Sewerage Authority ............................................................................................... 109
13.5.4. Telecommunications Authority................................................................................................ 109
13.6. Safety Barries................................................................................................................................ 110
13.6.1. Jersey Barriers ....................................................................................................................... 110
13.6.2. Grouted Rock Guardrail .......................................................................................................... 111
13.6.3. Steel Rail Guardrail ................................................................................................................ 111
13.6.4. Steel Rail Guardrail ................................................................................................................ 111
13.6.5. Suggestions Regarding Placement of Barriers ....................................................................... 111
14. Pavement Markings............................................................................................................................. 113
14.1. General Principles ......................................................................................................................... 113
14.2. Materials........................................................................................................................................ 113
14.2.1. Paint (Reflectorized and Non Reflectorized)........................................................................... 113
14.2.2. Thermoplastics (Reflectorized and Non – Reflectorized)........................................................ 113
14.2.3. Preformed Tape...................................................................................................................... 113
14.3. Colours .......................................................................................................................................... 114
14.4. Type of Markings........................................................................................................................... 114
14.4.1. Longitudinal Lines................................................................................................................... 114
14.4.2. Tranverse Lines ...................................................................................................................... 117
14.4.3. Other Markings ....................................................................................................................... 118
14.5. Post Mounted Delineators ............................................................................................................. 120
14.5.1. Materials and Design .............................................................................................................. 120
14.5.2. Color and Applications............................................................................................................ 120
14.5.3. General Requirements of Post Mounted ................................................................................ 121
Road Geometric Design Standards Page v

1. Introduction
1.1. General
MOI has initiated a comprehensive program to rehabilitate, upgrade and expand the road network in the
country. In the past, roads have been designed and built using different standards adopted by various
consultants. Due to non-uniformity in design and construction of roads, administrators have difficulties in
maintenance and management of roads. To plan and implement road program in a coherent way precipitated
the need to develop the road geometric design standards to establish a uniform framework.
1.2. Purpose
Road Geometric Design Standards is an essential component in the design development of a road network.
This manual sets the policy and framework for the planning and design of all the roads in Timor-Leste.
The purpose of this design manual is to give guidance to the engineers responsible and to provide the means
for all road projects to be designed and built in accordance with the agreed set of standards.
1.3. Scope
The procedures for the geometric design of roads presented in this manual are applicable to national,
regional, local and urban roads as defined by MoI in this road design standards. The use of the procedures
described in this manual should help in achieving reasonable uniformity in geometric design for a given set of
conditions.
It is recommended that in the future, MOI should review and update a more detailed set of Road Geometric
Design Standards in the form of a Road/ Highway Manual to include the other phases of Road Design.
1.4. Structure of the Manual
The Manual is divided into 14 main chapters. Following the general introduction given in Chapter 1, a
summary of the standards and design criteria developed within the manual are given in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 provides information extracted from “TRL Overseas Road Note 5, published 2005”, to give
guidance in road management. This chapter also discusses preliminary design considerations it lists
procedures for identification of potential alignments in the route corridor selection process.
Chapter 4 discusses survey requirements.
Chapter 5 discusses those external controls and criteria affecting the selection of the geometric design values.
These include a discussion of the road hierarchy and functional classification; terrain considerations; the
design vehicle; density and character of adjoining land use; design traffic volume and design speed.
Chapter 6 discusses cross sectional elements of the road include lane widths, shoulders, cross fall, side
slopes and back slopes, roadside ditches, clear zones, and right-of-way.
Chapter 7 discusses about sight distance and develops the formulae and application of both stopping and
passing sight distances.
Chapter 8 discusses horizontal alignment elements includes tangent sections, curves, and superelevation.
And provides information on tangent sections, and proceeds to a discussion of curve elements, including
circular curves, reverse, broken-back, compound curves, and isolated curves. Lane widening requirements for
curves are explained, and the special considerations in switchback, or hairpin, curves are listed. Transition
Road Geometric Design Standards Page 1

curve requirements are discussed. Superelevation standards are then developed, including rates, run-off and
shoulder superelevation.
Chapter 9 discusses the issue of vertical alignment. Subchapters deal with the topics of crest and sag curves,
sight distances, maximum and minimum gradients, climbing lanes, and vertical clearances.
Chapter 10 discusses information relates to the need for phasing between horizontal and vertical design,
problems associated with mis-phasing and possible corrective actions.
Chapter 11 discusses about earthwork quantities and the mass haul diagram. Attention to these elements
during the design process will usually result in an optimized alignment with minimized costs.
Chapter 12 discusses at-grade junctions, including design requirements, selection of junction type, t-junctions,
cross junctions and roundabouts; sight distances; and junction elements including turning lanes and traffic
islands.
Chapter 13 discuss about safety and miscellaneous items. This chapter includes the design of safety rest
areas and scenic overlooks, bus lay-by and parking bays, parking lanes, public utilities, railway grade
crossings, safety barriers and emergency escape ramps.
Chapter 14 discuss all about pavement marking different types, principles of application and material
specifications.
Finally, the appendix provides information on Timor-Leste general characteristics of national and regional
road networks, providing figures and tables placed in the appendix rather putting in the body of the text to
provide further explanation of the method of determining sight distances, in listing utility location requirements,
in providing typical cross sections and supplementary information on procedure for design and on
preparations of plans and drafting, and terms & definitions and abbreviations are presented
Geometric Design Standards Page 2

2. Summary of Standards and Departures from Standards
2.1. Introduction
Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is designed to meet the
needs of the road users. The principal geometric features are the road cross-section and horizontal and
vertical alignment. Appropriate standards and combinations of geometric design elements should fulfill the
following objectives:
Topography, land use and physical features.
Environmental considerations.
Road safety considerations.
Road function and control of access.
Traffic volume and capacity.
Design speed and other speed controls.
Design vehicle and vehicle characteristics.
Economic and Financial considerations.
Alternative construction technologies.
2.2. Design Standards
The design standards to be used for roads of various traffic volumes (AADT) are summarized in the several
following tables. Of these, Table 2-1 presents an overview of design standards relating to road functional
classification and traffic volumes, and illustrates the split between paved and unpaved standards.
Tables 2-1 is the summary of Timor-Leste’s road design standards presented in excel format, reflecting the
government policy of designs. These standards apply to national, regional, local and urban roads.
The determination of each particular standard item is discussed further in this manual.
2.3. Departures from standards
It is anticipated that there may be situations where the designer will be compelled to deviate from these
standards. An example of a Departure from Standard is the inclusion of a road width lesser than the standard
road classification because of not been able to meet the minimum traffic volume. Or use of a gradient greater
than the desirable value to minimize excessive earthworks. Where the designer departs from a standard, he
must obtain written approval from Director of Roads. The Designer shall submit the following information to
MoI.
•
•
The number, name, and description of the road
•
The facet of design for which a Departure from Standards is desired;
•
A description of the standard, including normal value, and the value of the Departure from Standards
•
The reason for the Departure from Standards, and
Any mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety.

The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards to the Director of Roads for
evaluation. If the proposed Departures from Standards are acceptable, the Departures from Standards will be
submitted to the Secretary of State – Public Works for final approval.

3. Project Cycle and Route Corridor Selection
3.1. Project Cycle
Projects are planned and carried out following a sequence of activities, known as the ‘project cycle’ as follows:
1. Problem identification
2. Pre-feasibility
3. Feasibility
4. Design
5. Procurement and negotiation
6. Implementation
7. Operation
8. Monitoring and evaluation.
The first three steps (1-3) make up the planning phases of the project cycle, though evaluation (step 8) may
also be considered integral to the planning process by providing feedback on the wisdom and processes of
past decisions. Figure 3.1 provides an outline of the stages of the project cycle.
3.1.1. Problem Identification
The first stage of the cycle is to find potential projects. General planning identifies key transport constraints
and sketches solutions at a global or macro level, and should prioritize these as to the need and urgency for
resolution. The planning process takes into account government policies and programmers (in all relevant
sectors) which impact on transport development. The need for general road development is therefore
examined in a very wide socio-economic and policy-orientated context.
The framework for general planning could be cross-sectoral in nature or it could also be focused specifically
on transport issues. In all cases, however, the scope is ‘macro’ in nature, taking in a complete region or city.
Examples of transportation studies include:
A national or regional development study (e.g. regional spatial plans)

An urban development study (or master plan)
A national or regional transport study (sometimes known as a multi-modal or inter-modal transport study)
An urban land-use/transportation study
An integrated rural accessibility plan
A road safety strategic plan
3.1.2. Pre-Feasibility
At the start of the pre-feasibility stage there is a clearly defined transport problem (identified in general
planning), but no strong evidence that this problem could be solved by road improvement, or any other
transport solution in an environmentally or economically acceptable manner. By the end of the pre-feasibility
stage, there will be clear evidence whether or not a road improvement project is worthwhile. If it is, the pre-

feasibility will normally identify what type of project would be suitable, checks that the
Figure 3.1: Outline of Stages in Project Cycle
project is not premature and provides the information needed to commission a feasibility study. Typically, this
phase might identify ‘corridors’ that require a new road.

An affirmative pre-feasibility study will also trigger the inclusion of a ‘line-item’ in the long-term road
preparation budget (of the ministry or its highway agency). It gives advance warning that there is a need to be
budgeted for the future implementation of this particular project.
The pre-feasibility study may indicate that the proposed road improvement project would not be effective in
solving the problem, or should be reconsidered later, perhaps when there is more traffic). In that case the
process should be terminated or shelved without incurring the high cost of a feasibility study.
3.1.3. Feasibility
The feasibility study finds the most suitable road improvement project for solving or helping to solve an
identified transport problem. At the start of the study there is a clearly defined problem with the expectation
that the problem can be solved by some form of road improvement, in a manner that is environmentally,
socially and economically acceptable. This expectation is backed up by the evidence needed to justify the
considerable cost of carrying out a feasibility study (identified in a pre-feasibility study).
By the end of the study there should be a clear recommendation for a specific road improvement project. The
study will provide evidence that this particular project should be carried out and that this project provides the
most suitable solution to the problem, taking into account its operational benefits and its environmental and
economic implications. It also provide a detailed description and a preliminary engineering design (PED) and
associated drawings of the proposed project to enable costs to be determined at a level of detail to enable
funding decisions to be made.
The feasibility study will also provide an input to the road preparation budget process, giving greater detail
(than earlier phases) of costs that will be incurred and project timings.
3.1.3.1. The Process of Appraisal
When carrying out a feasibility study, it is recommended that the steps shown in Table 3.1 are undertaken.
These steps are broadly sequential, though many of the tasks are carried out in parallel, and there is scope
for many feedback loops between tasks. Figure 3.2 provides a simplified illustration of the technical process of
appraisal showing how individual tasks relate to each other and contribute to the general appraisal process

Figure 3.2: Feasibility Study Process
A key concept in the appraisal process is the comparison of the project against the situation that would have
prevailed without the project. These are the basic ‘with’ and ‘without’ cases that are used in the economic
analysis of the project; the appraisal process should always have this comparison in view.
Table 3.1: Outline of expected contents of a feasibility study report

Stage Task
Context and objectives Define objectives and the macro-economic context
Locate the project within its geographic, economic and social

context, and determine alternative ways of meeting objectives
Preliminary considerations including assessment of institutional

capabilities and governance
Fieldwork and surveys Assess traffic demand both vehicular and person movements
Geotechnical investigations for route locations, materials,

hydrology, etc.
Environmental surveys
Social surveys
Safety considerations
Engineering design Establishing project costs
Establishing project benefits
Comparative analysis (economic or cost-effectiveness, and

financial if appropriate)
Sensitivity and risk analysis
3.1.3.2. Project Types and Other Considerations
3.1.3.2.1. The need for improvement
The project objectives need to be clearly defined from the outset. The need may arise for a variety of reasons,
including:
•
•
To support some other developmental activity
•
To provide fundamental links in the national or a district road network
•
To meet a strategic need
•
To increase the structural capacity or traffic ability of an existing road to cope with higher traffic flows
•
To provide an alternative to an existing transport link or service
•
To address a major safety hazard, environmental or social problem
To rectify damage or failure that has caused sudden deterioration of the existing road
3.1.3.2.2. Road types and functions
Within each broad category there is likely to be a hierarchy that corresponds to the different functions of
roads. The type and functional category of a road will largely determine the standards that are used in the
planning and design process for the particular project under consideration.

The nature of the appraisal process will be significantly influenced by the type of road under consideration. In
forecasting travel demand, for example, urban roads and by-passes are likely to require complex traffic
analysis modeling, because of the scope for traffic diversion between alternative routes and modes. On the
other hand, rural access roads will require simple traffic analysis; though will require informed estimates of the
developmental impacts that may emerge from their construction. Similarly, the major benefits of urban road
projects are likely to be time savings resulting from reduced congestion, whereas the major benefits of an
inter-urban road are likely to be savings in vehicle operating costs. The benefits of rural access roads are
developmental or social, and hence difficult to quantify in money terms.
The format of the following chapters is to present, where possible, a generic appraisal process followed by
qualifications that relate to the specific nature of the road type and function.
3.1.3.2.3. Type of road improvement
The definitions of work activities, in respect of improving road pavements and shoulders, composed of three
broad areas of activity as follows:
•
•
Maintenance
•
Renewal (pavement reconstruction)
Development (construction, widening, new carriageway works)
3.1.3.2.4. Stage construction
Stage construction consists of planned improvements to the pavement standards of a road at fixed stages
through the project life. Normally, the road alignment needed at the final stages of the project is provided from
the outset. A typical policy will be to construct a gravel road initially which will be paved when traffic flows
have reached a given level. Stage construction is a form of development project in that any later
improvements in capacity are planned from the outset.
When considered purely in terms of optimal economic benefits, stage construction policies often have much to
commend them. However, difficulties can arise in practice, particularly with regard to the future funding of
such projects. If a stage construction policy is proposed, its viability will depend crucially on the successful
implementation of the improvement at the correct time in the project life. Experience has shown that budget
constraints often prevent the later improvement phase of stage construction projects from being funded, with
the result that anticipated benefits from the project do not materialize.
Stage construction is a risk in any situation, and is particularly unlikely to be an option for rural or urban roads,
because of the specific uncertainties of traffic demand in these environments
3.1.3.2.5. Network considerations
In general, when constructing or improving a road network where economic constraints apply, the most
economical solution for one road link may not necessarily be the best solution for the network as a whole. The
cost of implementing one project to high standards may consume resources that would be better spent over
the whole network, or in filling other gaps in the network with lower standard roads. In those countries where
the basic road network is incomplete, it will usually be appropriate to adopt a relatively low level of geometric
standards in order to release resources to provide more basic road links. This policy will generally do more to
foster economic development than building a smaller number of road links to a higher standard.

3.1.3.2.6. Analysis period and design life
The analysis period may be partly dictated by the nature of the investigation. For example, long periods are
useful when comparing mutually exclusive projects, whereas short periods may be appropriate for small
projects (such as regravelling of rural access roads), where the life of the investment is expected to be limited
to a few years.
When choosing design standards for a road, a fundamental decision must be made as to whether those
design standards should hold only for the analysis period for which a project is being analyzed or whether
standards should be chosen for a shorter or longer period than this. In the past, geometric standards have
effectively been chosen for a life far in excess of the economic analysis period, whereas pavement design
standards have been chosen based on the actual analysis period itself, or even for a shorter period when
coupled with stage construction.
However, there is rarely any economic justification to providing a higher standard of geometric design than is
required by the most realistic traffic forecast for a reasonable period into the future (perhaps 10 years)
3.1.3.2.7. Uncertainty and risk
All stages of the project cycle involve uncertainty and risk. Projects in developing and transition countries are
always against a background of economic, social and political uncertainty, usually to a considerable degree.
The appraisal of a project involves the collection of a large amount of data and forecasting of trends into the
future. All data collected in the field are subject to errors and some can be particularly inaccurate. By the time
this data have been used to make future projections, any error can be magnified significantly. When this is
coupled with the uncertainties which exist in the projection process itself, the appraisal can be subjected to
substantial errors.
Risk is also associated with the recommended solution. Governance of the road sector and the institutional
capacity of the executing agency will impact on whether the planned design can be implemented as
conceived. The feasibility appraisal team must work largely within the constraints of existing organization
structures and procedures relating to road procurement and maintenance practice but it would be sensible for
the team to comment on these where they may have an impact on the outcome of the road appraisal.
Projects should not be appraised with recognition of uncertainty, but they should be designed to minimize the
associated risk. The approach that is necessary to deal with uncertainty should depend on the level of project
development. If the project is well defined, risk analysis is likely to be appropriate. This involves formal
probability analysis of the likely range of outcomes. If he project is exploratory, with project identification as a
component, then scenario analysis is more appropriate. The intention of the set of scenarios is not to act as a
forecast of what will occur, but to span a wide but plausible range of possibilities. Projects should be chosen
on their ability to deliver a satisfactory level of service across a range of scenarios. In this way, the economic
return of a project need not be the sole criterion since social and political realities can also be taken into
account.
3.1.3.2.8. Checklist of the expected outputs
Table 3.2 contains a checklist of the key outputs that should be expected in a feasibility study report. A fuller
description of each output is contained in the final chapter on reporting the feasibility study.
Table 3.2 Outline of expected contents of a feasibility study report

Topic Main Outputs
Existing Road Physical characteristics
Traffic characteristics
Maintenance regime
Road user costs
Proposed Works Nature of works
Environmental issues
Social factors
Traffic projections
Maintenance regime
Road user costs
Analysis Do-nothing/do-minimum analysis
Analysis of individual options
Economic analysis
Sensitivity analysis
Multi-criteria analysis (where appropriate)
Recommendation
3.1.4. Design
Preliminary design and feasibility are often simultaneous, but detailed design, which can be very costly (up to
15 percent of project costs), usually follows a provisional commitment to the project. Numerous decisions,
which will affect economic performance, are taken throughout design; and economic appraisal often results in
redesign.
3.1.5. Commitment and Negotiation
Commitment of funds often takes place is a series of stages. This is followed by invitation to tender and
negotiations with contractors, potential financiers and suppliers. At this stage, there are still considerable
uncertainties.
3.1.6. Implementation
Detailed recommendations on project implementation are beyond the scope of this chapter. However, several
aspects of the earlier stages in the project cycle will affect the success of the implementation.

The better and more realistic plan, the more likely it is that the plan can actually be carried out and the full
benefits realized. A flexible implementation plan shall be sought. It is almost inevitable that some
circumstances will change during the implementation. Technical changes may be required as more detailed
soils information becomes available or as the relative prices of construction materials change. Project
managers may need to change and re-plan parts of the project to take account of such variations. The more
innovative and novel the project is, the greater is the likelihood that changes will have to be made during
implementation
3.1.7. Operation
This refers to the actual use of the road by traffic; it is during this phase that benefits are realized and
maintenance is undertaken.
3.1.8. Evaluation
The final phase of the project cycle is evaluation. This consists of looking back systematically at the
successful and unsuccessful elements of the project experience to learn how planning can be improved in the
future.
For evaluation to be successful, it is important that data about the project is collected and recorded in a
systematic way throughout all stages of the project cycle without this, it is usually impossible to determine
details of events and information that were available during periods leading up to the taking of important
decisions.
Many different people may carry out evaluation. For each stage of the project, data shall be collected for
identifying problems that need to be brought to the attention of the project’s management.
The evaluation shall result in specific recommendations about improving aspects of the project design, which
can be used to improve ongoing and future planning.
3.2. Route Corridor Selection
3.2.1. Desk Study Route Selection
Road Design, Construction and Maintenance requires an approach depending on the terrain. The shortest
road alignment is not necessarily the easiest, quickest or most economical option for construction and
maintenance. Frequently, topography, slope stability, flood hazard and erosion potential are likely to be the
most significant controls in the choice of the most suitable alignment and design of cross-section.
Variations in geology and slope greatly influence road design and hence the cost of construction and these
variations can occur over very short lengths of alignment. Geology, geomorphology and hydrology, therefore,
are key factors in the design, construction and maintenance of roads. An appreciation of these factors alone
is not enough to construct roads in an environmentally sound way. Road geometry, earth works, retaining
structures and drainage measures must be designed in such a manner as to cause the least impact on the
stability of the surrounding slopes and natural drainage systems.
Excessive blasting, cutting, side tipping of spoils and concentrated or uncontrolled surface water runoff can
lead to instability and erosion. Although many of these effects are often unavoidable, the design and the
construction method adopted should aim to minimize them. This chapter describes the methodology for

analyzing possible corridors and selecting the optimum route from technical, economic, social and
environmental considerations.
Before commencing with selection of the route corridors, the controlling requirements of the route need to be
defined. These may include the following:
a) What are the constraints in regard to the beginning and ending points of the road? Must these be at
existing junctions in villages or towns? Are such junctions inadequate from a standpoint of skew or
right-of-way? Do economic considerations such as amount of earthworks limit the alternatives?
b) Through which villages must the route pass? Must the route pass directly through these villages, or
can linking roads connect the villages? If so, what are the implications to the villages in terms of
lost trade?
c) If major rivers are to be crossed, what are the possible crossing locations, given constraints of
topography and geology? What are the economics of the alternative bridge sights with the
corresponding road geometries?
d) What is the desired design speed and design standard? How does this standard fit the terrain in
terms of geometric parameters such as gradients, and horizontal and vertical curves?
The desk study comprises a review of published and unpublished information concerning the physical,
economic and environmental characteristics of a study area. Some of the data that may be required for the
desk studies are the following sources:
a) Published literature covering a range of topics including road construction and maintenance case
histories and geological, economic and environmental reviews.
b) Topographical maps
c) Geological maps, agricultural soil maps and other natural resource maps; and
d) Aerial photography
For studying and selecting suitable alignment corridors, a detailed analysis based on the maps, and aerial
photography may be required:
3.2.2. Preliminary Identification of Potential Route Corridors
Using the 1:50,000 scale maps and with knowledge of the constraints as listed in Section 3.2, it is possible
to trace out some possible alternative alignments. This is readily accomplished by referring especially to the
vertical geometric design criteria for maximum grade and plotting possibilities through correlation with the
contour lines shown on the map.
For instance, assume that the road classification and terrain are such that a 10% maximum grade is
permissible. Assume also that the contour interval on the 1:50,000 map is 20 meters. A preliminary alignment
needs to be selected such that a distance of no less than 200 meters is used to achieve the 20-meter interval,
giving a 10% grade.
The steps in the survey process are summarized in the following sections
3.2.2.1. Project Route Identification
The purpose of this reconnaissance stage of the survey process is to identify possible alternative routes in
terms of the “corridors” within which they lie.
Possible routes shall be examined on maps, satellite images and air photos, where available, and a broad
terrain classification shall be made for collation of the regional information, possibly on a data storage system.

Visits shall be made to site to check interpretations, and findings shall be summarized to assist in planning
and next stage.
Aerial photos at a scale of approximately 1:100 000 and Land sat images at 1:500 000 or 1:250 000 shall be
used to interpret boundaries between terrain types, where changes in topography, geology, drainage pattern
or vegetation (land use) occur. A change in any of these will give rise to different engineering conditions,
which could affect the design of the road. Such items as the following shall be considered:
a) Changing course of major rivers

b) Drainage areas of major river systems
c) Extent of flooding of low-lying areas
d) Possible sources of water for construction
e) Possible sources of construction materials
f) Pattern of regional instability
g) Extent of erosion
h) Spread of deforestation
i) Assessment of land acquisition/site clearance problems
j) Location of all possible bridge sites
3.2.2.2. Route Corridor Assessment
Route corridor options can be divided into the following categories:
a) Ridge top alignment

b) Compound alignments
c) Valley floor alignments
Ridge top alignments are often the most stable and least costly. They are also favored on socio-economic and
environmental grounds, as they usually follow established lines of communication and habitation. However,
steep slopes and changes in ridge-top elevation dictate that alignments are frequently required to traverse a
side slope beneath ridge tops.
Climbing sections of mountain roads can be designed as gradual traverses of side slopes at a limiting
gradient, as switchbacks, or as a combination of the two.
In choosing between these possibilities, it should be noted that the switchback has the following advantages:
a) A greater flexibility in route corridor location can normally be achieved.

b) The crossing of steep and unstable lower valley side slopes can be minimized or avoided; and
c) The use of switchbacks to connect lengths of relatively easy ground, such as valley floors and ridge
tops, can in some cases lead to a more direct alignment with a saving in overall route length.
The disadvantages associated with the switchback approach are:
a) On side slopes steeper than 30o, limited space to construct cut and fill slopes necessitates either a
relaxation in geometric standards or more expensive retaining structures;
b) Lack of spoil sites and access difficulties create problems during construction.
c) Instability and erosion can easily extend from one loop of the road to another, both up slope and
down slope.

d) Storm runoff tends to become concentrated requiring large-capacity drainage structures and
erosion protection works, and the cost associated with failure of any part of the drainage system is
usually high; and
e) Switchbacks result in a Departure from Design Standards.
If the topography allows, creating offset switchbacks, in which the hairpins are not immediately above one
another but are staggered across the slope, can reduce the problems associated with switchbacks. This will
minimize drainage problems and limit the danger of instability to fewer hairpin loops.
The advantages of a valley floor alignment are:
a) Relatively little climbing and descent are involved, thus making route alignment easier and shorter,
with correspondingly lower vehicle operating costs and higher speeds.
b) A ready supply of construction materials is normally available.
c) Control of spoil disposal and construction of pilot tracks can be less demanding.
However, despite the attractiveness of a more direct route and low gradients, the construction costs of a
valley floor alignment may be significantly higher than a ridge top alternative, because of the high costs of
bridging and cross-drainage. On socio-economic grounds, valley routes may be less favored if the majority of
villages are located on ridge tops.
For each of the possible alternative alignment corridors, the existing maps should be studied and aerial
photographs examined with a stereoscope. From this study it will be possible to assess the positive or
negative influence of the following local factors:
a) Topographic, geologic, and physical characteristics.

b) Number, type and characteristics of water courses
c) Potential risk of slides, slope instability or floods
d) Human settlements affected by the road; and
e) Environmental impact of the selected route.
On the basis of the study of the existing maps and aerial photography and of the criteria mentioned in Section
3.1, aerial photography can be accomplished for the possible alternative alignments. From this aerial
photography, maps at a scale of 1:25,000 can be produced for use in carrying out a more detailed desk study
of the corridor and a preliminary road alignment
3.2.2.3. Identify Corridors and Propose Alignment Alternatives
Dividing the future project road into distinct workable sections containing possible alternative alignments can
conclude the desk study of existing documentation and the site visit and survey.
The proposed corridors along the above mentioned alternative alignments are next studied and compared in
the Preliminary Design. This should be accomplished at 1:50,000 scale using the topographic maps.
The terrain level and its variation along the proposed alignment corridors are shown in the longitudinal profile
at scale 1:50,000/1:5,000 horizontal/vertical.
The possible alternatives are next evaluated by the following criteria:
a) What are the relative lengths of the alternatives? Normally the shortest distance is preferable.

b) What are the average and mean gradients of the alternatives? Normally the least severe grade
alternative is preferred. However, the relation of minimum grade may be the inverse to the shortest
length route.
c) Which alternative more closely follows an existing road or track? This makes survey and
construction easier and may indicate the route of least earthworks.
d) Which alternative follows the least severe terrain type? An alignment through, for instance, rolling
terrain should be less costly to construct, have lower vehicle operating costs and maintenance
costs, and less severe horizontal curves than a route through mountainous terrain.
e) Which route remains for a longer period on the crest of the terrain? Such an alignment minimizes
the need for drainage structures.
f) Which alignment minimizes the need for land acquisition? Which alignment minimizes the need to
demolish buildings and houses?
g) What is the total number of bridges required for each alternative? What is the total aggregate
length of these bridges?
h) Which route results in the least environmental disturbance to the surrounding area?
i) Which route has the least overall project cost, including both design and construction?
3.2.3. Site Visit and Survey
After the preliminary office work, a site visit must be made to the road. Where terrain constraints made such a
visit problematic, a flight can be made over the terrain and all potential routes can be directly examined from
the air.
When potential route corridors have been identified from the desk study analysis, then a reconnaissance
survey is usually employed to verify interpretations, to help determine the preferred corridor, and to identify
factors that will influence the feasibility design concept and cost comparisons.
A team consisting of the following personnel should make a site inspection visit:
a) Highway Engineer
b) Soils & Materials Engineer
c) Hydrologist
d) Chief Surveyor
e) Bridge/Structures Engineer
f) Environmentalist/Sociologist, and
g) Local Administrative Personnel.
In most cases, the reconnaissance survey will significantly modify the desk study interpretations.
Reconnaissance survey data can either be recorded onto topographical maps or aerial photographs.
During the reconnaissance survey, the following information should be determined:
•
•
Terrain classification;
The location of topographical constrains, such as cliffs, gorges, ravines, rock out crops, and
•
any other features not identified by the desk study;
Slope steepness and limiting slope angles identified from natural and artificial slopes (cutting
•
for paths, agricultural terraces and existing roads in the region);
•
Slope stability and the location of pre-existing land slides;
•
Rock types, geological structures, dip orientations, rock strength and rip ability;
•
Percentage of rock in excavations;
Materials sources, presence and distribution;

•
•
Water sources;
Soil types and depth (a simple classification between residual soil and colluviums is useful at
•
this stage);
•
Soil erosion and soil credibility;
•
Slope drainage and groundwater conditions;
•
Drainage stability and the location of shifting channels and bank erosion;
•
Land use and its likely effect on drainage, especially through irrigation;
•
Likely foundation conditions for major structures;
•
Approximate bridge spans and the sizing and frequency of culverts;
•
Flood levels and river training/protection requirements;
Environmental considerations, including forest resources, land use impacts and socio-
•
economic considerations;
•
Verify the accuracy of the information collected during the desk study;
•
The possibility of using any existing road alignments including local re-alignment
•
Improvements; and
Information on the physical accessibility to bridge sites and the proposed corridors, including
the geomorphology of drainage basins, soil characteristics, slopes, vegetation, erosion and
scouring.
During the site inspection the team should examine all alternatives. This information can be combined with the
results of the desk study to determine the most appropriate alignment alternative.
3.2.4. Topographic and Geomorphologic Characteristics
This section of the report concerns the main geomorphologic, geological and geotechnical features of the
corridor where the different route alternatives are located.
The general study of the corridor should be conducted using the 1:50,000 scale aerial photos, while the local
conditions of rocks and soils characteristics should come from the field survey.
The aerial photo study should be supported by the geological map, hydro geological map and the
topographical maps at scale 1:250,000 and 1:50,000.
Topography and Hydrology

The report on the corridor selection should provide details relating to the general topography of the region.
Geology and Tectonics

Details of geology are obtained to gain an appreciation of the nature and possible sources of construction
materials; to determine the need for rock earthworks; and to anticipate pavement structure requirements. The
general geology through which the route passes should be described. Similarly a tectonic investigation can
reveal both material sources and areas that should be designed taking into account possible seismic activity.
The tectonic investigation is only necessary in proven earthquake areas.
Rock Outcrops and Soils

Rock outcrops should also be mapped, identified by type, and evaluated as possible material sources.
Similarly sedimentary rocks in riverbeds can be evaluated as material sources and for foundation strength at
possible river crossings. Types of soils encountered can be identified and mapped not only to estimate
pavement structure requirements but to identify possible borrow material sources.

3.2.5.
Stability Against Sliding and Erosion

In stable areas where there are possible occurrences of landslides, slips, earth flows, and rock falls should be
identified. These areas are to be avoided if possible in identifying alignment alternatives. Similarly cuts on
steep slopes in volcanic rock should be avoided as this may result in collapse of the hillside. Areas of unstable
soil and marked erosion should also be avoided
3.2.6. Construction Materials
The survey along the route corridor should indicate adequate availability of construction materials, as follows:
Embankment: Materials for construction of embankment can be obtained from highly weathered and
decomposed basalt or other formations like trachytes and conglomerates. Such sources need to be identified
along the route.
Gravel Aggregate: Natural gravel aggregate is available in some riverbeds and banks. Formations such as
regoliths can supply natural aggregate, but the fine content and the grading curve must be carefully
ascertained. Crushed Aggregate, essential for concrete works and for pavement surface layers requires fresh
and hard rock such as basalt
3.2.7. Recommendations
The route corridor selection process concludes with detail as to why a certain alignment alternative was
selected and why others were considered, but rejected.
All the selected alignment options, however, need to be considered in the Preliminary Engineering Design,
and cost estimates prepared for comparison.
It will then be possible to select for the most viable route to be selected, taking due account of construction
costs, benefits to the local population, and length of travel, for each alternative.
3.2.8. Report Outline
The route corridor selection report should be presented in the following report format outline:
1. Introduction
1.1 General
1.2 Requirements of the TOR
2. Study of Maps, Aerial Photography and Literature
3. Proposed Corridors
3.1 Preliminary Identification of Potential Corridors
3.2 Proposed Alignment Alternatives: A, B, and C
3.3 Estimation of Bridge Requirements: A, B, and C
3.4 Estimated Road Link Lengths: A, B, and C
4. Site Visit and Survey
4.1 General: Condition of Existing Road, if Any
4.2 First Section
4.3 Second Section
4.4 Third Section
5. Towns Passed Through by Project Road
6. Orographic and Morphological Characteristics

6.1 General
6.2 Morphology and Hydrology of the Area
6.3 Geology (Tectonics if required)
6.4 Field Survey
6.4.1. Introduction
6.4.2. Rock Outcrops and Soils
6.4.3. Slope Stability and Erosion
6.4.4. Construction Materials
7. Socio-Environmental Impact of the Project on the Area
7.1 General
7.2 Alternative Alignments
7.3 Impact of Construction
8. Recommendations
8.1 Alternative A
8.2 Alternative B
8.3 Alternative C
8.4 Summary

4. Survey Requirements
4.1. Introduction
This chapter presents the topographic survey requirements associated with the geometric design process.
Survey data for design purposes consists of mapping of sufficient detail for the level of design being
undertaken. In some instance a digital terrain model (DTM) for use with computer design software may be
required.
The survey data product is dependent on project type and can be collected by aerial photography, field
topographical survey, or a combination of the two.
The following factors should be considered when determining the survey data required:
1. Size and scope of the project

2. Time requirements to move from data collection to the start of design
3. Estimated data collection costs
4. Level of accuracy and detail needed
The project designer is responsible for identifying the appropriate survey data requirements (type of data,
accuracy, and area of coverage). The project designer is also responsible for obtaining the survey data and
for selecting the method of data collection.
4.2. Method of Data Collection : Photogrammetric vs. Field Survey
Topographical ground survey has the capability of achieving greater accuracy than photogrammetric. The
effectiveness of aerial photography depends on location (urban or rural), ground cover, etc.
Photogrammetric is sufficiently accurate for most applications and can be more cost effective for all but small
projects. For mapping and DTMs, photogrammetric is usually the preferred choice. However, if a project is
short, has dense foliage, or requires only mapping of limited features, a field survey is the logical choice.
Some fieldwork will be required for most projects to compile property lines, right-of-way (ROW) information,
utility, and culvert, tree, building, bridge and sign data unavailable through aerial photography.
Elevations of photogrammetric DTM points on hard surfaces are accurate to within ±60 millimeters. If more
precise vertical accuracy is required for areas of a project, the data must be obtained through a field survey. If
precise vertical accuracy is required, such as for highway pavement elevations, or if obstructed views occur,
photogrammetric data can be supplemented with survey elevations. It is recommended that survey data be
collected before the photogrammetric data to help assure the accuracy of the DTM. Appropriate methods also
depend on factors such as project location (rural or urban), and length.
4.3. Survey Data Products
While survey data requests will typically originate from the unit responsible for the design, they should also
serve the requirements of Construction. The project designer has the responsibility to ensure that survey data
obtained by Design meets Construction needs, eliminating the need for additional pre-construction ground
data.

Mapping used for design development and right-of-way is generally provided at 1:2000 scales. In addition,
1:500 scale mapping can be provided for highly complex projects or bridge sites.
If vertical data is required, it is provided as DTMs that have replaced contours and cross sections. DTMs allow
more flexibility for the designer and potential follow-up use in construction. Using the DTM approach,
earthwork quantities for payment purposes can be calculated based on the final design centerline. With DTM
data, cross sections for stakeout purposes can be generated at any desired interval and with any desired
station numbering. DTMs should be requested if the project will be designed using CADD design software, if
cross sections along multiple alignments are required, or if Construction needs require centerline cross
section data.
Photogrammetric mapping products consist of 2D graphic files and 3D DTM surfaces (i.e. *.ttn or *. dtm files)
for use in the CADD system.
Field survey data must be obtained using total stations or GPS, the output from which should be compatible
with the CADD system to be used
4.4. Survey Data by Project Type
The amount and type of survey data generally required and the method of data collection depends for each
project type. Some projects may require a combination of products and typical bandwidths by project type.
These should be kept as narrow as possible but should be usable for ROW mapping. The bandwidth can vary
within a project and the DTM band can be smaller than the mapping band.
Bridge rehabilitation projects will generally not require any terrain data unless necessary for major
rehabilitation. When terrain data is necessary, use the same terrain guidelines used for new bridges and
bridge replacement projects.
Resurfacing and rehabilitation projects usually do not require project wide mapping. However, limited data
may be required such as pavement elevations where superelevation adjustments are anticipated. Other
projects may require very limited data such as pavement and shoulder edges. If only limited data is needed
then a field survey is preferred.
4.5. Field Surveys
Detailed ground surveys along the length of the proposed project roads should use the most up-to-date
surveying equipment such as total stations or GPS to examine the road alignment and cross sections and any
bridge sites and culvert sites that are considered necessary to complete the detailed design and the
estimation of quantities.
Since projects are to be carried out utilizing CADD, it is essential to organize the topographic surveys as the
first step of a coherent data collection - design chain. Therefore the whole topographic survey should be made
using total stations which will directly record the alignment, profile, and cross section data on electronic files
which will be retrieved by the CADD system during the design stage. A control traverse should be established
using GPS or coordinated and tied into the national grid system. These points shall be referenced in the field
in permanent concrete posts and shall be shown on the plan and profile drawings.
The existing road centerline should be identified and staked every 20 meters. The coordinates will be
recorded automatically using Total Station theodolites.
The start and end of horizontal curves, and roadway cross sections will also be taken.

The following methodology will be used to establish the original setting out data for the reestablishment of the
centerline:
• The control traverse will be established, monumental, and the coordinates in X, Y, Z accurately measured
and tied in to the National Grid System. Concrete monument will be established at intervals of 300 - 400
meters. These monuments will be located as close as possible to the limit of the road reserve and where
•
one beacon is visible from the other along the road.
•
Using the established polygon network of monuments, each of the centerline points will be coordinated.
Using the method of least squares, the best-fit horizontal alignment through the coordinated points will be
established.
Cross sections will be leveled for each centerline point to a minimum of 20 meters distance from the
centerline. Road edges, cuts, ditch edges, culverts, hilltops, water crossings and embankments will be taken.
Topographic survey information will be collected for an adequate distance on each side of the centerline and
cross sections at appropriate intervals, depending on the type of terrain.
Each cross section will comprise such numbers of points as to enable it to properly define the existing road
and such other spots as are required to define the ground shape for an adequate distance beyond the existing
construction width. The data will be used to generate a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for the whole road. All
pertinent features including buildings, drainage structures details, built up areas, etc. will be recorded for
inclusion on the design drawings.
New alignments will be recommended where inadequate horizontal sight distances and sharp curves exist
and wherever the existing route is not to the standards. Therefore, the vertical and horizontal alignments shall
be given due attention with respect to sight distance, maximum grade, maximum length of grade criteria, and
safety. In introducing new alignments, major bridges and drainage structures as control points or as node
points are to be retained on the new centerline wherever they are in good condition. Should there be a need
for realignment of the existing road, topographic surveys along the chosen realignment will be established.
The centerline of the road will be defined every 20-25 meters interval. Topographical cross-sections,
extending at least 25 meters either side of the centerline, will be taken at each of the centerline reference
points.
Recommended bridge and major culvert sites will be surveyed and mapped at a scale of 1:500 with contours
at 0.5 meters intervals or greater in the more severe sections. Each of the site surveys will be tied to the
elevation of the primary traverse.
Topographic data will be processed by the project computer system as work progress.
Detailed site investigation and surveys shall be carried out for areas susceptible to flooding or landslide and at
all recommended new or replacement drainage structure locations including a sufficient length upstream and
downstream to the structure. All topographical surveys undertaken shall be acceptable to international
standards for such works.
Each survey crew will be equipped with an electronic total station, a three-prism line road, and an electronic
field book. The total station will have unlimited on-board data storage by utilizing integrated circuit data
storage cards. The use of an electronic field book will allow the Total Station operator to code in descriptions
and other important information for each data point.
Survey teams can carry out the topographic field work requirements as follows:
•
•
One team for the location of the control points, whether GPS or National Grid;
•
One team to survey the center line and the longitudinal profile,
One team to survey the cross sections, and

• One team for the land acquisition survey
The output from the Total Station and data collection is a computer file which contains horizontal coordinate
points, vertical elevations, and a description of all points needed to develop a full topographic map of the area.
The computer file must be capable of being downloaded directly into a computerized design and drafting
program. These programs should then be able to generate, if so desired, a three-dimensional digital terrain
model. The plot can be checked and verified by the surveyors shortly after the fieldwork. The step-by-step
procedure to be used for data collection is as follows:
•
•
Base map information may be obtained from the Mapping Authority.
The road is divided into survey subsections at a distance of 2 km. A coordinate system will be established
•
for the roadway sections.
A Global Positioning System (GPS) Survey Control System will be used to locate precisely the
topographic control points required for the project. A series of receiver stations will be used to generate
these points with a high degree of accuracy by measuring signals generated from a group of three or four
geosynchronous satellites. The establishment of the zero-zero coordinate point will be determined after a
•
review of the existing coordinate information.
A bench circuit will be run using accepted level procedures and degrees of accuracy. Each benchmark
will be monument and assigned coordinate points. Once horizontal and vertical controls are established,
the survey crews will then cross-section the roadway alignment. The width of each cross-section will be
dependent on the terrain of the roadway and the different natural and man-made features. The minimum
distance from centerline for cross-sectioning will be 25 meters. The number of points will depend on the
topography, road lane characteristics, project road features within the right-of-way, and as required for
the purpose of design and computations of quantities for earthwork and profile course. Areas where
existing roads cross the alignment and areas affected by cross drainage will require additional
topographic survey. Such supplementary topographic survey will be carried out concurrently during the
progress of survey along the alignment
4.6. Topography
All points of detail are to be located by a right-angle offset wherever possible, with chainage and offset being
recorded. Only when this method is not possible are other techniques such as bearing and distance, to be
used. Structures (buildings, bridges, culverts, etc.) are to be checked by detailed face measurements. All
physical features adjacent to the line whether natural or artificial are to be recorded within a range of 25 meter
either side of the centerline in open country and in small villages (market centers) and towns.
4.7. Bench Marks
Standard benchmark leveling procedure is to be followed with the following limitations observed:
• A benchmark is to be established every 300 - 500 meters along the line close to the right of way,
and at all major structures (bridges and box culverts) Bench marks must be inter-visible (see Figure
•
4-1 Standard Bench Mark).
Every benchmark is to be checked leveled by a forward run and a subsequent backward run
•
forming a closed "loop."
The following standard of accuracy is to be maintained:
C=±K

Where C = maximum permissible error of closure in centimeters,
K = distance between bench marks in kilometers
This gives Table 4-2 for comparison of accuracy
Table 4-2: Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys
K (km) 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
C (cm) ⎯0.7 ± 1.0 ± 1.4 ± 2.2 ± 3.2
Figure 4-1: Standard Bench Mark
4.8. Profile and Cross Sections
Profile and cross-section leveling can be run simultaneously. All profiling is to be done by direct leveling to two
decimal places of a meter, and wherever practicable the cross section levels are to be obtained in the same
manner. Where impracticable direct leveling may be replaced or extended by the use of either a hand level or
Rhodes arc for cross-section work. Where it is not possible to close a day's work on a permanent benchmark
as in the case of failing light, a sudden storm, and etc., a Temporary Benchmark (TBM) shall be established
from which the work may be resumed.
Cross-sections shall be taken to a minimum distance of 25 meters each side of the centerline. Profile leveling
will be run between each pair of consecutive benchmarks, previously established, and the leveler must close
on each successive benchmark as a turning point. For each succeeding length of profile any error from the
preceding length shall be discarded, the elevation of the intervening benchmark, previously established, being
accepted and used for the succeeding length of profile.
The disclosure on each previously established benchmark shall not exceed 1.5 centimeters. Check that
closure on each successive benchmark is within the prescribed tolerance. Where the difference is outside this
limit the run must be repeated

4.9. Photogrammetric
The processes of detailed survey, alignment design and setting out are time consuming, especially if changes
to the alignment are made later owing to unforeseen ground conditions or changing design criteria. The use of
photogrammetric can speed up these procedures and provide the flexibility to allow additional off-site
engineering works such as access to borrow pits spoil disposal sites and slope drainage works, to be
designed at a later date.
As an example, photogrammetric from aerial photographs of 1:25,000 scale can yield uncontrolled contour
mapping at a maximum scale of 1:5,000, with contours at 5-meter intervals. It is advisable to correct the
contour model by establishing two ground control points in each stereo pair, by tying points on the
photographs either to the national or local grid, or by GPS. The main problems associated with the use of
photogrammetric relate to the lack of ground definition in areas of shade, cloud or dense forest cover.
It may be worthwhile taking photography with an 80 percent photograph overlap in order to be able to select
an appropriate air base for the amount of exaggeration required. For interpretation in areas of high relief the
viewer would use every photograph in the run (80 percent overlap, giving a short air base and minimum relief
exaggeration). For areas of low relief the viewer could select every other photograph, to double relief
exaggeration. In extreme circumstances of very flat ground the viewer could select every third or even every
fourth photograph, doubling the relief exaggeration each time.
The scale of photography is an important factor to consider in the reliability and ground resolution of the
interpretation. Table 4-3 indicates the optimum scales of photography required to perform various desk study
and design tasks.
4.10. Detailed Survey and Alignment Design
With the route corridor confirmed, the alignment engineer, with a survey team, will flag the approximate
centerline. An approximate alignment should first be drawn onto photogram metrically plotted contour maps
and enlarged prints of aerial photographs in the office prior to embarking on detailed fieldwork.
If slope stability is critical to the alignment, then geotechnical-mapping surveys should be undertaken at
scales of between 1:1,000 and 1:5,000. It will be easier for personnel to locate themselves with the required
accuracy if an approximate centerline has been set out, but the engineer should be prepared to modify the
location of the centerline in the light of the geotechnical survey. In very difficult ground, these surveys should
ideally be carried out prior to the centerline flagging exercise using aerial photograph enlargements or
compass traverse as a means of location positioning.
With the alignment confirmed, detailed design of all subsequent works can proceed. Design of the detailed
vertical and horizontal alignments will require topographical mapping at a scale of 1:1,000 with contour
intervals at a maximum of 2 meters, using ground survey, photogrammetric or a combination of the two.
Ground survey may be preferable at this stage due to the greater survey accuracy required. The use of
photogrammetric will require the establishment of a base line traverse and the commissioning of air
photography. Plan and profile drawings and schedules of earthwork and retaining wall designs and quantities
can then be produced for contract documentation.

5. Design Controls and Criteria
5.1. Objective
Geometric road design standards are used as an aid to achieving consistent and operationally effective road
designs. Rapid expansion and improvement to road networks in Timor Leste precipitated the need for
standards to:
a) maintain a degree of uniformity and consistency in the design of roads according to their road users
needs and performance requirements,
b) provide safe and reliable road facilities for movement of traffic,
c) give a basis of economic design and ensure that road funds were not misspent, through
inappropriate provisions designs criteria.
d) enable satisfactory designs to be produced, even where there is not a high degree of expertise,
5.2. Applied Standards
These standards have been prepared essentially based on the geometric design criteria taken from the
American Association of State Highway. For roads relatively low traffic volumes gives particular relevance to
the data from Overseas Road Note 6 – Transport Research Laboratory (UK) – Crown Copyright 1988.
American Association of State Highways and Transport Officials (2004). A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets. Washington, DC: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
5.3. Basic Design Factors
The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the functional classification of the road; the nature
of the terrain; the design vehicle; the traffic volumes expected on the road; the design speed; the density and
character of the adjoining land use; economic and environmental considerations. The design process is
illustrated in Figure 5-1.
5.4. Design Approach
The vast majority of roads in Timor-Leste are of a rural nature, thus the emphasis of these standards is on the
geometric design of rural roads. The design approach to roads which could be classed as urban will
essentially be the same as that for rural roads.
Rural local road traffic volumes are quite low volume, most with less than 50 average daily traffic (ADT) and
common with even less than 20 ADT. The geometric design considerations are the same as for any highway
project. The geometrics are governed by the function of the road, safety, traffic volume, vehicle size and
environmental issues are evaluated for the design. Primary difference between the low volume rural local
roads from high volume national and regional roads is the increased in flexibility to vary a geometric element
in order to resolve a constraint. Traffic speed and convenience are reduced to assist in the resolution of
environmental problems. Design flexibility is applied to low volume rural local roads where efficient traffic
movement is not as important as on national and regional roads.
Roads with very low level of traffic carrying less than 20 vehicles per day, main concern is that the road exists
and provides reliable, all season access. The use of inexpensive standards at minimal cost is appropriate,
even if traffic speeds will be limited. This is called a basic access approach. For roads with more than 50
vehicles per day, the increased numbers of vehicles justify the use of a higher standard. The road is designed

so that vehicles are able to travel at a reasonably consistent speed. This is called the design speed
approach.
Roads in urban areas are characterized by busy pedestrian activities and frequent stopping of vehicles turning
to short intersection spacings and congested built up areas. Lower design speeds are usually adopted for
urban roads and different cross-sectional elements are applied to take account the nature of traffic and
adjoining land use.
Roads designers should refer to the latest version of AASHTO: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets, or similarly recognized international standards for further guidance on urban road design. The
set of a specialized software modeling system is an essential tool for
Figure 5-1
road design. The leading market software suites have built-in design rules that allow the user to select from all
major international design standards, such as AASHTO, AustRoads, Highway Link Design, etc. The most
judicious approach may be to adopt one of the international standards for the initial alignment design. Then,
using the features of modern design software which allow overriding and customization of the design, apply
less rigorous criteria for the more complex design situations.

Recommended minimum standards for such design are presented in this manual. Minimum values should
generally be used where possible. Minimum values may be reduced to some specific situation as follows:
• To avoid excessive right of way acquisition

• To avoid property demolition
• To preserve environmentally important areas
• To avoid excessive cost
The principal factors influencing the choice of design standard for a road are set out in the following clauses.
5.4.1. Road Functional Classification
Functional classifications of roads is a process by which roads are grouped into classes according to the
character of service they are intended to provide. The basis for this process is the recognition that individual
roads do not serve travel or transport independently, but most travel and transport involved movement
through a network of roads.
Classifying roads by the functions offers management tool for the maintenance, development and financing of
the road network. The functions of roads are important in prioritizing activities and resource allocation. Roads
have different purpose and as this identified , the suitable technical standard, level of maintenance, level of
access control, desired speed etc. may be distinguished and determined.
The general purpose of functional classification studies is to help in organizing, planning and administering
road networks by classes of roads based on their importance and function they serve. Functional
classification leads to the identification of several more specific purposes and applications of functional
classification as follows:
• Assisting in long-term road network and road service level planning

• Once the road network is organized into functional classes based on the importance and function the
roads serve, systematic long-term planning of each class is facilitated.
• Assigning road maintenance and development responsibility
• A functional classified road network provides a rational basis for determining responsibility for two or
more levels of government, if this is considered appropriate. In these cases, usually considerations
are made for possible decentralization of road ownership and responsibility of certain part of the road
network from the national government to regional/local administrations.
• Assigning uniform standards
• Functional classification provides a rational basis for determining the most appropriate set of design,
construction and maintenance standards.
• Assisting in managing access
• In addition to the use of functional classification to define the arterial (main) roads with full control of
access, a logical extension is to develop a policy for access control appropriate also to the other
functional classes.
• Assisting in determining the optimal size of the network
• Functional classification can be used as a mechanism to establish logical criteria for distinguishing
roads that should not be public roads.

In the functional classification process, roads in Timor-Leste are divided into four classes as follows:
•
Rural Roads
National Roads Arterial roads are centers of national and international
importance and roads terminating at international
boundaries, connecting nation’s capital and to region’s
capitals.
• Provides high level of service for long distance

movement of goods and people and thus to/from central
corridors for especially heavy vehicles.
• These roads link locations where change of transport

mode is possible.
Regional Roads • Roads that provides more local purposes, serve mainly
traffic within regions and districts at lower speeds and
shorter distances.
• Roads that serve as collector of traffic to/from local

network to the national road network.
Local Roads • Local roads connecting sub-district capitals to villages

and more remote areas with agricultural potentials
Urban Roads • Local roads inside towns and cities.
Urban Roads
Urban Arterial Roads Urban Arterial Road is a continuous road with partial access
control for through traffic within urban areas. Basically it conveys
traffic from residential areas to the vicinity of the central business
district or from one part of a city to another which does not intend
to penetrate the city centre. Arterial roads do not penetrate
identifiable neighborhoods. Smooth traffic flow is essential since it
carries large traffic volume.
Urban Collector Roads Urban Collector Roads A collector road is a road with partial
access control designed to serve on a collector or distributor of
traffic between the arterial and the local road systems. Collectors
are the major roads that penetrate and serve identifiable
neighborhoods, commercial areas and industrial areas.
Urban Local Roads Urban Local Roads The local street system is the basic road
network within a neighborhood and provides direct access to
abutting land. They are links to the collector road and thus serve
short trip lengths. Through traffic should be discouraged.

5.4.2. Levels of Development (Stage Construction)
In a situation of changing land use, uncertainties in traffic demands and economic uncertainties, hard for road
to be regarded as ‘final’. There will always be requirements for future restructuring or modification. Where it is
obvious that medium term requirements would modify the best short term design for a particular road, it is
often possible to consider stages of construction to provide better options for future action. While this ties up
some funds and prevents their use on other current projects, the effect can be much less than if the longer
term design was adopted in the first instance.
When constructing or improving the road network and when economic constraints apply, the most economic
solution for one road link may not necessarily be the best solution for the network as a whole. The high cost of
implementing one project may consume funds which would be better spent over the entire network. There will
be gaps in the basic road network in addition to poor geometric standards over the network. If individual
projects are designed and built to traditional standards, this will reduce the rate at which new roads can be
provided to fill the basic gaps in the network. It will generally be more appropriate to most practicable
standards in order to maximize the length of road that can be constructed. This policy will generally do more
to foster economic development than building a smaller number of road links to a higher standard.
When developing appropriate geometric design standards for use, the first step is to define the objective of
the project in terms of the three levels of development as follows:
Level 1: to provide access;

Level 2: to provide additional capacity;
Level 3: to increase operational efficiency;
Level 1
Initially, it is necessary to establish a road network to at least provide a basic means of communication
between centres of population. At this stage, little attention is paid to geometric standards as it is much more
important to consider whether a road link exist at all or, if it does, whether it is “passable at all times”. For
roads whose objective is to provide fundamental access (Level 1), absolute minimum standards can be used
to provide an engineered road or the choice of standards will be governed only by such issues as traction
requirements, turning circles and any of the road requirements for the road to be all weather.
Level 2
The next stage is to build capacity into the road network. Decisions will need to be taken on whether or not it
should be paved and on what is an appropriate structural strength to carry the traffic intended for use. Road
width will normally be governed only by the requirement that vehicles should be able to pass each other. It
may be appropriate to design a variable width road where the cross-section is narrow on straight and
increased width on bends and on other restrictions where safety is concerned.
Level 3
At this stage is when substantial traffic growth is generated and demands for improved operational efficiency
and higher safety. The development (Level 3) is to consider operational efficiency of the traffic and at this time
that road geometric design standards really be important to be applied.
5.4.3. Terrain
Research indicates that terrain is one of the factors that modify drivers’ expectation of being able to maintain
speed. Terrain is therefore included as one of the elements used in selecting the design parameters in this
standard. Terrain also has a significant effect on the costs of achieving high geometric standards. In flat
inland areas, high standard alignments fit the terrain and can obviously be achieved at practically no
additional cost, while in steep mountainous country, costs escalate rapidly as standards are increased.
Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:

FLAT: Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road, having
continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope up to 5 percent).
ROLLING: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately and where
occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope
from 5 percent to 25 percent).
MOUNTAINOUS: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain imposes
definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited
sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 25 percent to 50 percent).
ESCARPMENT: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added to cater to those
situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above terrain types cannot be met. We refer to
escarpment situations inclusive of switchback roadway sections, or side hill transverse sections where
earthwork quantities are considerable, with transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent
In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and higher standards will
become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for roads in either flat or rolling terrain. Drivers
accept lower standards in such conditions and therefore adjust their driving accordingly, so minimizing
accident risk. Design speed will therefore vary with transverse terrain.
5.4.4. Design Vehicle
Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in geometric design. Vehicle
characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to weight ratio, minimum turning radius and
travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and width. The road elements affected include the selection of
maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design.
Ownership of standard passenger vehicles (cars) is currently (2010) very low and they make up little of the
total annual vehicle kilometers on the road network. However, the use of cars is growing rapidly, albeit from a
low base rate. In 2009, motorcycles made up well over 50% of the total journey miles for the whole of the
road network and their usage is growing rapidly. The overall use of trucks is growing at a very modest rate.
The public transport system consists largely of mini-buses (microlets) and large buses. Currently, the use of
mini-buses is growing steadily, while the operation of large buses is in decline. Passenger car taxis are
available in Dili, whilst small trucks known as Angunas provide an informal public transport service in the more
remote rural areas.
Unlike the majority of developing countries, special provisions for non-motorized vehicles (NMV’s) are not
necessary. Outside Dili, the presence of NMV’s is virtually non-existent. Even within the capital, there is low
prevalence of NMV’s, and these are normally restricted to street traders with hand carts. There are large
numbers of handcarts with estimate of one per four families. Carts are used for journeys less than one
kilometer, some people use carts to carry good to and from markets and this may involve journeys of over five
kilometers. These journeys are generally undertaken on roads, since footpaths are seldom of suitable widths
and grade to allow handcart use.
The present vehicle fleet in Timor-Leste includes increasing number of four-wheel drive utility vehicles and
single unit trucks. Until more detailed information becomes available regarding the makeup of the vehicle fleet
in Timor-Leste, the four design vehicles indicated in Table 5-1 should be used in the control of geometric
design:

Table 5-1: Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics
Design Vehicle Design Overall (m) Overhang Wheelbase Min. Design Turning
Vehicle (m) (m) Radius (m)
Designation Height Width Length Front Rear
4x4 Utility Vehicle DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Single Unit Truck DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
Single Unit Bus DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
Semi-Trailer DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8.4= 13.7

Combination 13.2
The maximum turning path for a single unit truck, a single unit bus, and a semi-trailer combination are shown
in Figures 5-10 through 5-12, respectively.

Figure 5-10: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck (DV2)

Figure 5-11: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV3)
Figure 5-12: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination (15m overall) also Applicable for
Truck (Tandem) Plus Trailer DV4
Roads conforming to Design Standards R1/U1 through R4/U4 should be designed to accommodate the most
restrictive of the above design vehicle. Standard R5/U5, two lane roads should accommodate all except for
the semi-trailer combination DV4. Standard R6, RR1 and RR2 roads need only to accommodate the
requirements for utility vehicle and passenger cars - DV1.
5.4.5. Density and Character of Adjoining Land use
For urban or peri-urban conditions, the design speed selection is influenced by other factors. In such areas,
speed controls are frequently included. Traffic speeds are in fact influenced by the presence of other vehicles
traveling in and across the through lanes, physical and right-of-way constraints, together with pedestrian and
safety considerations

5.4.6. Design Traffic Volume
A further factor influencing the development of road design standards, and in particular the design speed, is
the volume and composition of traffic. The design of a road should be based in part on factual traffic volumes.
Traffic indicates the need for improvement and directly affects features of design such as widths, alignments,
and gradients. Traffic data for a road or section of road, including traffic trends, is generally available in terms
of annual average daily traffic (AADT).
Using road functional classification selection and design traffic flow, a design class, or standard with reference
to the design parameters associated with that class as given in Table 2-1.
The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from local rural roads to regional roads to
link to the national roads. However the actual flows will vary from region to region and it is important that the
designation of a road by functional type should not give rise to over-design for the traffic levels actually
encountered.
Design classes from R1/U1 to R6/U6 and RR1 to RR2 have associated bands of traffic flow as was shown
in Table 2-1. The range of flows extends from less than 50 to greater than 10,000 motorized vehicles per day
(excluding motorcycles), and covers the design conditions for all single carriageway roads.
In the light of uncertainties inherent in traffic estimation and future forecasting, therefore, the Design Traffic
Flow shall normally be limited to be no more than one Design Class step higher than the average daily traffic
(AADT) in the first year of opening. For example, a road with a first year traffic flow of 190 vehicles per day
rising to 410 vehicles per day in the last year of it’s design life, should be constructed to Design Class U56/R6
rather than Design Class U5/R5 (see Table 2.1, Summary of Road Design Standards)
The design traffic flow band in this case is therefore 100 - 400 vehicles per day (U6/R6) Design to the higher
Design Class U5/R5 would result in an over-design of the road during almost the whole of the life of the road
and may provide a non-economical solution.
It may be desirable, especially for national roads, to develop geometric standards that are consistent despite
variations in traffic volumes. Conversely, a policy dependent on AADT would result in a more economical
allocation of resources. This procedure with several alternatives requires a special attention of the engineer in
choosing the geometric design parameters.
5.4.6.1. Average Daily Traffic
5.4.7. Design Speed
Timor-Leste is an island with a coastline length about 780km and the width of about 200km. Estimated longest
distance trip from Dili is approximately in the range of 200kms. Steep hills and valleys dominate the terrain,
with the main feature being a mountain ridge running east-west across the island.
Considering the topography and geology of Timor-Leste, general upgrading to a higher standard of design
speed will be costly, will involve a huge amount of cut and fill, which will be destabilizing in difficult
geotechnical conditions and environmentally undesirable. Considering the estimated longest travel distance,
terrain, economic and environmental constraints; the design speed considered suitable for Timor Leste aimed
to be 50-80 kph in national roads, 30-60kph in regional roads and 20-50kph in local rural roads as shown in
Table 2-1.
The Design Speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to the design
parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with a reasonably consistent
speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be constrained to minimum parameter values over short

sections or on specific geometric elements. Every effort should be made to use as high a design speed as
practicable while maintaining the desired degree of safety, mobility and efficiency
Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, superelevation, sight distance and
gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. Thus all of the geometric design parameters of a
road are directly related to the selected design speed. The design speeds given in Table 2-1 have been
determined in accordance with the following guidelines:
i) Drivers on long-distance journeys are apt to travel at higher speeds than local traffic.
ii) On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are undesirable.
iii) Drivers usually adjust their speeds to physical limitations and prevailing traffic conditions. Where a
difficult location is obvious to the driver, he is more apt to accept a lower speed of operation.
iv) Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs) may justify a higher design
speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than for a less heavily trafficked road in similar
topography.
v) Change in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class, should not be affected abruptly,
but over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed gradually. The change in design
speed should not be greater than one design speed step, and the section with the lower geometric
standards should be long enough to be clearly recognizable by drivers (not, for example, just one
single curve).
vi) It is often the case that the physical terrain changes two steps, i.e. - from mountainous to flat terrain.
Where possible in such circumstances, a transition section of road shall be provided with limiting
parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type. Where this is not possible, i.e.- a Departure from
Standards, special attention shall be given to the application of warning signs and/or rumble strips to
alert the driver to the changing conditions.
It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen design speed should ensure a
safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced way, avoiding the application of
minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a particular location when the other elements are
considerably above the minimum requirements.
5.4.8. Safety
Whatever design standard is adopted, safety is a major goal of road design. Highway engineering safety is
usually assumed to be optimized by linking geometric elements to a design or operating speed, so that the
resulting geometry has a consistency which reduces the likelihood of a driver being presented with an
unexpected situation. The theme of enabling the driver to perceive hazards in time to take appropriate action,
and of providing geometric parameters appropriate to the likely speed of operation, runs throughout the
Standard

6. Cross Selection Elements
6.1. Introduction
The elements of a cross-section are shown in Figure 6.1. The width and slope of the cross-section will
normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or kerbs, drainage features, and earthwork profiles. These
terms are defined in the Definition portion of the manual text; major elements are repeated here for clarity:
Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including traffic lanes,
auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes, and
bus bays and lay-byes.
Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders
Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and back slopes
Figure 6.1
Road cross-sectional parameters are related to volume and characteristics of traffic and will vary with the
requirements of vehicular traffic and needs of pedestrian. The road cross-section includes the traffic lane,
shoulders, drainage feature and earthwork profile.
For urban roads, cross-section elements may also include facilities for pedestrians, cyclists, or other specialist
user groups. These include kerbs, footpaths, and islands. It may also provide for parking lanes. Bus lay-byes,
parking lanes, passing lanes, and viewing areas are presented in Chapter 14.
Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and characteristics of the terrain. The
cross-section may vary over a particular route because these controlling factors vary. The basic requirements
are, however, that changes in cross-section standards shall be uniform within each sub-section of the route
and that any changes of the cross-section shall be effected gradually and logically over a transition length.
Abrupt or isolated changes in cross-section standards lead to increased hazards and reduced traffic capacity
and complicate construction operations.
In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept isolated reductions in cross-section standards, for
example when an existing narrow structure has to be retained because it is not economically feasible to
replace it. In such cases a proper application of traffic signs and road markings is required to warn motorists

of the discontinuity in the road. However, all such narrow structures must be widened or replaced however
when the width across the structure is less than the adjacent carriageway width.
6.2. Lane widths and Marginal Strips
Road capacity is a measure of the number of vehicles that are able to use the road at any time and is mainly a
function of road width. A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the width of the
carriageway and condition of the pavement surface. Lane widths of 3.00m-3.5m above a traffic volume of
1000AADT used for Design Classes R1/U1, R2/U2, R3/U3 and R4/U4 are desirable considering the reduction
in capacity, driver comfort and safety associated with narrower lanes. The extra cost of 2.75-3.50 m above
that for 2.25-2.50 m is offset to some extent by a reduction in cost of shoulder maintenance and a reduction in
surface maintenance due to lessened wheel concentrations at the pavement edges.
Narrower lanes are appropriate on lower volume roads. Standards for carriageway widths are shown in Table
2-1 for all Road Design Classifications.
Auxiliary lanes at intersections often help to facilitate traffic movement. Such added lanes are discussed in the
Chapters 12.
The marginal strip is a narrow pavement strip attached to both edges of a carriageway. It is paved to the same
standard as the pavement structures. For divided roads, the marginal strips are provided on both sides of the
carriageway in both directions. The marginal strip is included as part of the shoulder width and is demarcated
from the through lane by lane edge markings on the marginal strip. Table 1.6.3 indicates the lane and
marginal strip widths that are to be used for the various road standards.
Table 6.1 Lane and Marginal Strip Width

Design Standard Lane Width (m) Marginal Strip Width (m)
R1/U1 3.50 0.50
R2/U2 3.50 0.25
R3/U3 3.00 0.25
R4/U4 2.75 0.25
R5/U5 2.50 0.00
R6/U6 2.25 0.00
RR1 (3.50) 0.00
RR2 (2.50) 0.00
6.3. Shoulders
Accommodation of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic, animals, and
pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support of the pavement courses.
Shoulder widths vs. design standards, terrain type, and urban/rural environment are presented in Table 2-1.
Minimum shoulder width of 1.0 meter is recommended for 2 lane roads with provisions of frequent stopping
places can be carried out inexpensively.
Wide shoulders have the advantage of enabling a vehicle to pull off the travelled lanes of the carriageway and
to stand clear of moving traffic, thus avoiding creation a hazard and maintaining the capacity of the travelled
lanes. They also enable a driver to avoid collision with objects on the road and allow room for regaining
control of the vehicle.
Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed at least 0.30 to 0.50m with a single
bituminous surface treatment. This has several advantages. It would prevent edge raveling and maintenance
problems associated with parking on a gravel shoulder. It would provide paved space for vehicular parking

outside of the traffic flow. It would provide a better surface for vehicles experiencing emergency repairs. It
would also provide for the very heavy pedestrian traffic observed in the villages, traffic that would otherwise,
especially during inclement weather, use the roadway. All of the above also indicate an improvement in terms
of roadway safety.
If large amount of non-motorized traffic are expected on the road, consideration should be given to the
provision of wider shoulders to accommodate them. The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.0 meters in
urban/peri-urban areas where a provision for a parking lane is required. The degree of urbanization
determines whether a parking lane is required. In urban areas, the shoulders should be paved rather than
sealed.
In cases, where gradients exceed 8% the shoulder should also be paved to prevent erosion. However where
terrain is severe, the existing roadway width is narrow, and where the shoulder width could only be maintained
through an excessive volume of earthwork – e.g. at escarpment conditions, standards can be reduced through
the Departure from Standard process presented in Chapter 2.
6.4. Normal Crossfall
Normal crossfall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not being
so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water varies with its smoothness and
integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of crossfall should be related to the need to carry
surface water away from the pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion of
material starts to become a problem.
The normal crossfall should be 2.5 percent on paved roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads. Shoulders
having the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal crossfall. Unpaved shoulders on a
paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the crossfall of the roadway. The precise choice of normal
crossfall on unpaved roads will vary with construction type and material rather than any geometric design
requirement. In most circumstances, crossfalls of 4 percent should be used, although the value will change
throughout the maintenance cycle. The recommended applications of normal crossfall are given in 2-1. For
shoulder crossfall in superelevated conditions, refer to Section 8.8.
6.5. Medials
6.5.1. General
A median is a highly desirable element on all roads carrying four or more lanes and should be provided
wherever possible. The principal functions of a median are to provide the desired freedom from the
interference of opposing traffic, to provide a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles, to provide for speed
changes and storage of right-turning and U-turning vehicles and to provide for future lanes. For maximum
efficiency, a median should be highly visible both night and day and in definite contrast to the through traffic
lanes
6.5.2. Median Types and Width
Medians may be depressed, raised or flush with the pavement surface. They should be as wide as feasible
but of a dimension in balance with other components of the cross-section. The general range of median width
varies from a minimum of 1.20 m in a local urban situation to a desirable width of 18 m on a rural national
road. On wide medians, it is essential to have a depressed centre or swale to provide for drainage.

Figure 6.2 gives examples of kerbed and unkerbed medians while Table 6.2 give the minimum and desirable
widths and types of medians that are to be applied to the various road standards. The median widths as
expressed are as the dimensions between the through lane edges and includes the right shoulders if any.
Table 6.2 Median Width and Types (Urban)

Design Median Width
Standard
Area Type
Flat Rolling Mountainous
Min Des. Min Des. Min Des.
U1 4.0 12.0 3.5 9.0 3.0 6.0
U2 3.0 9.0 2.5 6.5 2.0 4.0
U3 2.5 7.5 2.0 5.0 1.5 3.0
U4 2.0 6.0 1.5 4.0 1.0 2.0
Note: Min – Minimum Des. – Desirable (for consideration of landscaping)
6.6. Side Slopes and Back Slopes
Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to provide a reasonable opportunity
for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating the safety aspects: the top of the slope (hinge
point), the side slope, and the toe of the slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back
slope, forming a ditch). Figure 6-1 illustrates these three regions.
Research has found that rounding at the hinge point can significantly reduce the hazard potential. Similarly,
rounding at the toe of the slope is also beneficial.
(1) HINGE POINT
CARRIAGEWAY (2) SIDESLOPE

(5) BACKSLOPE
(4) DITCH B OTTOM
SHOULDER
(3) TOE OF SLOPE
Figure 6-2: Designation of Roadside Regions
Source: AASHTO

Refer to Table 6-3 for details of side slopes and back slopes.
Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as recoverable, non-recoverable, or
critical. Recoverable slopes include all embankment slopes 1:4 or flatter. Motorists who encroach on
recoverable slopes can generally stop their vehicles or slow them enough to return to the roadway safely.
Fixed obstacles such as culvert head walls should not extend above the embankment within the clear zone
distance.
A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from which most motorists will be unable
to stop or to return to the roadway easily. Typically, vehicles on such slopes typically can be expected to
reach the bottom. Embankments between 1:3 and 1:4 generally fall into this category.
Since a high percentage of encroaching vehicles will reach the toe of these slopes, the clear zone distance
extends beyond the slope, and a clear runout area at the base is desirable.
A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper than 1:3 generally fall into this
category.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety considerations, height of cut or fill, and
economic considerations. Further, the guideline in this chapter may be most applicable to new construction or
major reconstruction. On maintenance and rehabilitation projects, the primary emphasis is placed on the
roadway itself. It may not be cost-effective or practical because of environmental impacts or limited right-of-
way to bring these projects into full compliance with the side slope recommendations provided in this guide.
Table 6-1 indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design according to the height of fill and
cut, and the material.
Table 6-3: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal
Material Height of Slope Side Slope Back Slope Zone Description
Cut Fill
Earth or Soil 0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height See Standard Details Critical
Black Cotton Soil* 0.0 - 2.0m - 1:6 - Recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:4
*Move ditch away from fill as shown in Figure 6-2
However, this table should be used as a guide only, particularly as concerns applicable standards in rock cuts,
where a controlling influence is cost. Note also that certain soils that may be present at subgrade may be
unstable at 1:2 side slopes, and for these soils a higher standard will need to be applied. Slope configuration
and treatments in areas with identified slope stability problems should be addressed as a final design issue.

6.7. Roadside Ditches
For detailed design of roadside ditches, refer to Drainage Design Manual. However, a summary of minimum
ditch dimensions is given as follows. Minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m in mountainous and
escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere, using a “v-ditch” configuration. The side slope and back slope of
ditches should generally be no less than 1:2; however, these slopes should conform to the slopes given in
Table 6-1.
Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black cotton soils. Where this is not
possible, they shall be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of the embankment, dependent on
functional classification (6m for trunk roads), as shown in Figure 6-2. The ditch in this instance should have a
trapezoidal, flat-bottom configuration.
Figure 6-2: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils
The minimum desirable grade for paved roadside ditches should be based upon the drainage velocities
needed to avoid sedimentation. The maximum desirable grade for unpaved channel should be based upon a
tolerable velocity for vegetation and shear on soil types. The channel grade does not have to follow that of the
roadbed, particularly if the roadbed is flat. Although desirable, it is unnecessary to standardize the design of
roadside drainage channels for any length of the highway. Not only can the depth and width of the channel be
varied to meet different amounts of runoff, slopes of channel, types of lining, and distances between discharge
points, but the lateral distance between the channel and the edge of the traveled way can also be varied.
6.8. Clear Zone
The term “clear zone” is used to designate the unobstructed, relatively flat area provided beyond the edge of
the traveled way for the recovery of errant vehicles. The clear zone includes any shoulders or auxiliary lanes.
Once a vehicle has left the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result of an encroachment depends
upon the physical characteristics of the roadside environment. Flat, traversable, stable slopes will minimize
overturning accidents, which are usually severe. Elimination of roadside furniture or its relocation to less
vulnerable areas are options in the development of safer roadsides. If a fixed object or other roadside hazard
cannot be eliminated, relocated, modified, or shielded, for whatever reason, consideration should be given to
delineating the feature so it is readily visible to a motorist.
For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside recovery area that is as wide as
practical on a specific highway section. The cleared width should be a minimum of 15 meters each side from
the edge of the roadway for the higher road standards.

For lower standard roads, the clear zone can be reduced as practical. It should extend beyond the toe of the
slope. Lateral clearances between roadside objects and obstructions and the edge of the carriageway should
normally be not less than 1.5 meters. At existing pipe culverts, box culverts and bridges, the clearance cannot
be less than the carriageway width; if this clearance is not met, the structure must be widened. New pipe and
box culvert installations, and extensions to same, must be designed with a 1.5-meter clearance from the edge
of the shoulder.
Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of 1.0m from the edge of the
carriageway.
6.9. Kerbs
The type and locations of kerbs affects driver behavior and, in turn, the safety and utility of a highway. Kerbs
serve any or all of the following purposes: drainage control, roadway edge delineation, right of way reduction,
aesthetics and delineation of pedestrian walkways.
Kerbs are extensively used on all types of low-speed urban highways. In the interest of safety, caution should
be exercised in the use of kerbs on high-speed rural highways. Where kerbs are needed in high-speed rural
highways due to drainage considerations, the need for access control, restricted right of way or any other
reasons, they should always be located at the outside edge of the shoulder.
While cement concrete kerbs are installed by some highway agencies, granite kerbs are also used where the
local supply makes them economically competitive. Conventional concrete or bituminous kerbs offer little
visible contrast to normal pavements particularly during the night. The visibility of channelizing islands with
kerbs and continuous kerbs along the edges of the traveled way may be improved through the use of
reflectorized markers that are attached to the top of the curb.
6.9.1. Curb Configurations
Curb configurations include both vertical and sloping kerbs. A curb maybe designed as a separate unit or
integrated into the pavement. Vertical and sloping curb designs may include a gutter, forming a combination
curb and gutter section.
Vertical kerbs may be either vertical or nearly vertical and are intended to discourage vehicles from leaving
the roadway. As shown in Exhibit 4-6A, they range from 150 to 200mm in height. Vertical kerbs should not be
used in along high-speed roadways because an out-of-control vehicle may overturn as a result of an impact
with such a curb. Since kerbs are not adequate to prevent a vehicle from leaving the roadway, a suitable
traffic barrier should be provided where redirection of vehicles is needed. Vertical kerbs and safety walk may
be desirable along the faces of long walls and tunnels, particularly if full shoulders are not provided. These
kerbs tend to discourage vehicles from driving close to the wall, and thus the safety walk, reducing the risk to
persons walking from disabled vehicles.
Sloping kerbs are designed so vehicles can cross them when the need arises. Sloping curb can be used at
median edges, to outline channelizing islands in intersection, or at the outer edge of the shoulder. When kerbs
are used to outline channelizing islands, offset should be provided.
Shoulder kerbs are placed at the outer edge of the shoulder to control drainage, improve delineation, control
access, and reduce erosion. These kerbs, combined with a gutter section, may be part of the longitudinal
drainage system. Where it is expected that 2-wheeled vehicles will use the roadway, sufficient width from the
face of the curb should be provided to avoid conflict between bicyclist and motorists.

Gutter may be provided on the travelled-way side of a vertical or a sloping curb to form the principal part of the
drainage system of the roadway. Inlets are provided in the gutter or curb, or both. Gutters are generally 0.3 to
1.8m wide, with a cross slope of 5 to 8 percent to increase the hydraulic capacity of the gutter section.
Generally it is not practical to design gutter sections to contain all the runoff, some overflow onto the surface
can be expected. The spread of the water on the traveled way is kept within tolerable limits by the proper size
and spacing of inlets. Grate inlets and depressions for curb-opening inlets should not be placed in the lane
because of their adverse effect on drivers who veer away from them. Warping of the gutter for curb opening
inlets should be limited to the portion within 0.60m to 0.90m of the curb to minimize adverse driving effects.
6.9.2. Kerb Placement
Vertical or sloping kerbs located at the edge of the traveled way may have some effect on lateral placement of
moving vehicles, depending on the curb configuration and appearance. Kerbs with low, sloping faces may
encourage drivers to operate close to them. Kerbs with less sloping faces may encourage drivers to shy away
from them. For low-speed urban roads, kerbs may be placed at the edge of the traveled way, although it is
preferable to be offset 0.30 to 0.60m.
6.10. Right of Way
Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road width and to enhance the safety,
operation and appearance of the roads. The width of right-of-way depends on the cross section elements of
the highway, topography and other physical controls together with economic considerations. Although it is
desirable to acquire sufficient right-of-way to accommodate all elements of the cross section and appropriate
border areas, right-of-way widths should be limited to a practical minimum in both rural and developed areas
affecting the economy of the inhabitants.
Right of ways will be equidistant from the centerline of the road to the left and to the right of the carriageway. It
should always be determined and shown on the final design plans of road projects.
Road reserve widths applicable for the different road classes are given in Tables 2-1. In mountainous or
escarpment terrain, a cut section may be of such depth that the right-of-way width is exceeded from the top of
cut on one side to the other top of cut.
Additional areas required for outlets etc., should be provided in a manner that will not endanger the future
integrity of the drainage facility and will provide adjoining land owners restricted use of this land after
completion of the road.
Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found necessary for economic, financial or
environmental reasons in order to preserve valuable land, resources or existing development or when
provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs because of physical constraints. In such
cases, it is recommended that the right-of-way should extend a minimum of a nominal 3 meters from the
edges of the road works. However, where this occurs, it is advisable to restrict building activity along the road
to prevent overcrowding, to preserve space for future improvements, and to provide for sight distances at
curves. The distance across the carriageway from building line to building line should be a minimum of 15m.
For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the road reserve width above the given values.
6.11. Four Lane and Divided Roads
Mention was made in Chapter 5 regarding traffic volumes and the need to increase the roadway to a four-lane
facility when a certain volume is reached.

It is also the case that some cities and villages have included a four-lane roadway as a feature in their master
plans.
Four lane and divided roads are required when the design traffic volume is sufficient to justify their use. They
are also frequently used in urban/peri-urban areas.
A minimum median width of 5.0 meters is required to allow the provision of left-turning lanes outside of the
adjacent carriageway, and to avoid having a turning passenger vehicle from the minor road protrude into the
through lanes. Minimum
6.12. Single Lane Roads
For low traffic volume roads (<100ADT), single lane operation is adequate as there will be only a small
probability of vehicles meeting, and the few passing maneuvers can be undertaken at very reduced speeds
using either the shoulder or passing bays. Provided sight distances are adequate for safe stopping, these
maneuvers can be performed without hazard, and the overall loss in efficiency brought about by the reduced
speeds will be small, as only a few such maneuvers will be involved.
The lowest design standards RR1 and RR2 will not allow passing and overtaking to occur on the carriageway
and passing bays must be provided. The increased width at passing bays should be such as to allow two
design vehicles to pass, i.e. a minimum of 5.0 meters width, and vehicles would be expected to stop or slow
down to a very slow speed.
Normally, passing bays should be located every 300 to 500 meters depending on the terrain and geometric
conditions. However, adjacent passing bays must be intervisible. Account should be taken of sight distances,
the likelihood of vehicles meeting between passing bays and the potential difficulty of reversing. In general,
passing bays should be constructed as the most economic locations as determined by terrain and ground
conditions, such as transitions from cuttings to embankment, rather than at precise intervals.
The length of individual passing bays will vary with local conditions and the type of design vehicle but,
generally, a length of 20 meters including tapers will cater for most commercial vehicles
6.13. Typical Cross Selections & Standard Cross Sections
Typical cross sections are illustrated in Standard Detail Drawings and Standard cross sections for the
standard classes of roads are illustrated in Appendix A of this manual.

7. Sight Distances
7.1. General Considerations
Sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car. For highway safety, the designer must
provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers can control the operation of their vehicles to avoid
striking an unexpected object on the traveled way. Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight
distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers, without risk of accident.
Two-lane rural highways should generally provide such passing sight distance at frequent intervals and for
substantial portions of their length (see Table 7-1).
7.2. Stopping Sight Distance
Although greater lengths of visible roadway are desirable, the sight distance at every point along a roadway
should be at least that needed for a below-average driver of a vehicle to stop. The stopping sight distance on
a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a
stationary object in its path.
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: (1) the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant
the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied; and (2) the distance
needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. These are referred to as a brake reaction
distance and braking distance.
Both AASHTO’s recent research and previous studies documented have concluded that a brake reaction time
of 2.5secs is considered adequate for conditions that are more complex than the simple conditions used in
laboratory and road tests, but it is not adequate for the most complex conditions encountered in actual driving,
The approximate braking distance of a vehicle on a level roadway traveling at the design speed of a roadway
maybe determined from the following equation:
2/a
Where:
d = braking distance, m;
V = design speed, km/h;
A = deceleration rate, m/s2
Studies documented by AASHTO’s research and studies show that most drivers decelerate at a rate greater
than 4.5m/s2 when confronted with the need to stop for unexpected object in the roadway. Approximately
90% of all drivers decelerate at rates greater than 3.4m/s2 Such deceleration are within the driver’s capability
to stay within his or her lane and maintain steering control during the braking maneuver on wet surface.
Therefore, 3.4m/s2 (a comfortable deceleration for most drivers) recommended as the deceleration threshold
for determining stopping sight distance.
The sum of the distance traversed during the brake reaction time and the distance to brake the vehicle to stop
is the stopping sight distance and were developed from the following equation:
d = (0.278)(t )(V ) + 0.039

V2
a
Where

d = distance (meter)
t = driver’s brake reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = design speed (km/h)
a = deceleration rate, m/sec2
Table 7-1: Sight Distances
Design Speed Passing Sight

Brake reaction distance Braking distance Stopping Sight Distance
Distance (m)
(m) (m) (m)
(km/h) from formulae
20 13.9 4.6 20 160
30 20.9 10.3 35 200
40 27.8 18.4 50 270
50 34.8 28.7 65 345
60 41.7 41.3 85 410
70 48.7 56.2 105 485
80 55.6 73.4 130 540
90 62.6 92.9 160 615
100 69.5 114.7 185 670
110 76.5 138.8 220 730
120 83.4 165.2 250 775
If terrain or right-of-way problems result in an inability to meet these criteria, right-of-way must be obtained
and/or geometrics improved to meet this important safety element. Alternatively in rare cases it may be
necessary to seek a Departure from Standard, and here a reduction would require lowering the design speed
in the section and provision of proper signage.
Control of Sight Distance
Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to meet the minimum requirements.
The following values should be used for the determination of sight lines (see Figures 7-1 and 7-2):
Driver's eye height: 1.08meters
Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters

Figure 7-1: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag
Figure 7-2: Stopping Sight Distance at Crest
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other sight obstructions
or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance (see Figure 7-3).
Figure 7-3: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

Sight Line (S) = 2R sin Δ where Δ = Deflection angle (o)
Relevant formulae are as follows:
Middle ordinate (M) = R (1-cos Δ )
Example: Radius = 1000 meters, Δ = 20o;
S = 2R sin Δ M = R (1 – costΔ)
2 2
= 2(1000)(sin 100) = 1000(1- cos 10o)

= 347 meters = 15.2 meters
The available sight distance needs to be checked separately for both stopping and passing sight distance, for
each direction of travel.
7.3. Stopping Sight Distance : Single Lane Roads
Certain classes of roads only have a single lane, with passing pullouts. In these circumstances, a stopping
sight distance is required to enable both approaching drivers to stop. This distance is the sum of the stopping
sight distance for the two vehicles, plus a 10-meter safety distance. The resultant distance is that shown in
Table 7-1, doubled, plus 10 meters.
Example:
Design speed = 50 km/hr. From Table 7-1
SSD = (65 x 2) + 10 = 140 meters
7.4. Passing Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that must be
available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of
an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the roadway. Otherwise, for
horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen cuttings on the insides of curves to
obtain the required sight distance. Care must be exercised in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas
where the sight distance may be obscured in the future due to vegetative growth.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction

d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1)
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s

a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s

v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent on ambient
speeds as per Table 7-2:
Table 7-2: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds
Speed Group (km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120
d3 (m) 30 55 80 100
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less the portion of
d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Resulting passing sight distances are as indicated in Table 7-1.
The usual values resulting from application of the formulae are reduced in this manual, as it is deemed
appropriate to address the distances covered by twice the d4 distance and the clearance distance d3. A driver
finding that he has insufficient distance after initiating the passing maneuver can choose to abort the
maneuver (see Figure 7-4). Values for Minimum Passing Sight Distance at various design speeds are given in
the fifth column of Table 7-1.

Figure 7-4: Passing Sight Distance
A method of measuring and recording sight distances on plans is given in Appendix C.
7.5. Minimum Provision of Passing Slight Distance
Sight distance records also are useful on two-lane highways for determining the percentage of length of
highway on which sight distance is restricted to less than the minimum needed for passing. This is important
in evaluating capacity. With recorded sight distance, as in the lower part of Figure C-1 of Appendix C, it is a
simple process to determine the percentage of length of highway with a given sight distance or greater.
Passing Sight Distance is a desirable requirement for two-way single roadway roads. Sufficient visibility for
passing increases the capacity and efficiency of a road, and should be provided for as much of the road
length as possible within financial limitations.
Table 7-3 gives guide values for the extent to which passing sight distance should be provided, labeled
percent passing opportunity.
Table 7-3 Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance
PERCENT PASSING OPPORTUNITY vs. TERRAIN

DESIGN
STANDARD
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban
R2 50% 50% 25% 0% 20%
R3 50% 33% 25% 0% 20%
R4 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%
R5 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%

8. Horizontal Alignment
8.1. General
In horizontal alignment, the key elements are the minimum radius of curvature, minimum stopping sight
distance and the minimum passing sight distance. In the design of horizontal curves, it is necessary to
establish the proper relation between the design speed and curvature and also their joint relations with the
superelevation and side friction. From research and experience, the limiting values have been established for
the superelevation (e), and the coefficient factor (f).
The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section, circular curve, transition
curve (spiral) and super elevation section. These elements are presented in detail in the following text.
8.2. Targent Sections
From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat terrain but are less so in
rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety standpoint, they provide better visibility and more passing
opportunities. However, long tangent sections increase the danger from headlight glare and usually lead to
excessive speeding. In hot climate areas, long tangents have been shown to increase driver fatigue and
hence cause accidents. This issue needs to be addressed in the course of the horizontal design. The
maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed 3.0 kilometers.
8.3. The Circular Curve
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, a sideways frictional force is developed between the tires and road
surface. This friction must be less than the maximum available friction if the bend is to be traversed safely. For
any given curve and speed, super elevation may be introduced to enable a component of the vehicle's weight
to reduce the frictional need. The general relationship for this effect is:
R min =
V2D
127(e + f )
Where:
VD = Design Speed (km/h)
e= Maximum superelevation (meter/meter, %/100)
f = Side friction coefficient (given in Tables 8-1, 8-2, 8-3 and Figure 8-1)

Table 8-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Superelevation
Design Speed VD 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

(km/h)
Min. Horiz. 15 20 41 73 113 168 229 304 394

Radius R (m)
Side Friction 0.35 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12
Factor (f)
Table 8-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 6% Superelevation
Design Speed VD 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

(km/h)
Min. Horiz. 15 21 43 79 123 184 252 336 437

Radius R (m)
Side Friction 0.35 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12
Factor (f)
Table 8-3: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4% Super elevation (Urban Streets)
Design Speed VD 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(km/h)
Min. Horiz. 15 22 47 86 135 203 280 375

Radius R .(m)
Side Friction 0.40. 0.32 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.12
Factor (f)

Limiting values have been established for both e and f in the formula. Side friction coefficients are dependent
on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of roadway surface, weather conditions, and type and condition
of tires. Tables 8-1, 8-2 and 8-3 were developed based on the results of several studies. Figure 8-1 illustrates
the graphical results of those studies for rural highways. As the driver in an urban environment tolerates a
higher degree of discomfort.
Figure 8-1: Side Friction Factors for Rural Highways
Example: V = 100 km/hr, emax = 8% f = 0.12 (from Table 8-1):
R= = 393.7
1002
127(0.08 + 0.12) Meters, round to 394 meters
Other equations used in the calculation of horizontal curve elements are given below and illustrated in Figure
8-2.
Elements of a Circular Curve
1) Δ : Deflection Angle by Arc Definition (in degrees)
⎡ Δ ⎤
2) R : Radius of Curve by Arc Definition
E = R ⎢Sec − 1⎥
3) T (Tangent Distance)
⎣ 2 ⎦
Δ
T = R tan
2
Figure 8-2: Curve Elements

L = Δ× R
4) E (External Distance) 2Π
5) L (Curve Length)
360
Δ
6) M (Middle Ordinate) M = R 1 − cos
Δ
2
7) C (Chord from P.C. to P.T.) C = 2R sin
2
8) Point-of-Curvature (P.C.) Station P.C.= P.I. – T
9) Point-of-Tangency (P.T.) Station P.T. = P.C.+ L
The desirable standards shown in Tables 8-1, 8-2 and 8-3 are based on these formulae. Minimum radius is
also dependent on maximum superelevation as given in section 8.8.
Tables 8-1. 8-2 and 8-3 list the minimum radii for horizontal curves for maximum superelevation rates of 8
percent, 6 percent and 4 percent, respectively.
Note that 4 x 4 utility vehicles, buses and trucks, and trucks with trailers (DV1, DV2/3, and DV4) require
minimum design turning radii of 7.3, 12.8, and 13.7m, respectively. As it is not practically possible to exclude
any of these categories from the lower standard roads, and as a certain amount of tolerance is required for
safe operations, the minimum horizontal curve radius of 15m is specified in Tables 8-1 and 8-2 for all design
standards. The result is that a curve with an absolute minimum radius of 15m shall be constructed (except
at switchback curves- see following text).
The horizontal curvature over a particular road section should be as consistent as possible. Isolated sharp
curves on an otherwise straight alignment are dangerous (see Figure 8-3). Increasing severity of horizontal
curvature should be affected gradually. Particular care should be taken to avoid sharp curves at the ends of
long straight sections. It is preferable that lengths of horizontal curves should be close to the desirable.

\
Figure 8-3: Isolated Curves

8.4. Reverse Curves, Broken- Back Curves, and Compound Curves
Curves are more frequent in rugged terrain. Tangent sections are shortened, and a stage may be reached
where successive curves can no longer be dealt with in isolation. Three cases of successive curves are (see
Figure 8-4):
•
•
Reverse Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the opposite direction
•
Broken-Back Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the same direction
Compound curve: curves in the same direction, but without any intervening tangent section
Figure 8-4: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves
The occurrence of abrupt reverse curves (having a short tangent between two curves in opposite directions)
should be avoided. Such geometrics make it difficult for the driver to remain within his lane. It is also difficult to
superelevate both curves adequately, and this may result in erratic operation.
The "broken-back" arrangement of curves (having a short tangent between two curves in the same direction)
should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of way conditions dictate otherwise.
Drivers do not generally anticipate successive curves in the same direction. This also creates problems with

superelevation and drainage. The distance between reverse curves should be the sum of the superelevation
runoff lengths and the tangent runout lengths.
The use of “compound curves” affords flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain and other controls. Compound
curves are advantageous in effecting desirable shapes of turning roadways for at-grade intersections. Caution
should however be exercised in the use of compound curves, because the driver does not expect to be
confronted by a change in radius once he has entered a curve. Their use should also be avoided where
curves are sharp.
Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same problems as are found at the
transition from a tangent to a small-radius curve. Where the use of compound curves cannot be avoided, the
radius of the flatter circular arc should not be more than 50 percent greater than the radius of the sharper arc;
i.e. R1 should not exceed 1.5 R2. A compound arc on this basis is suitable as a form of transition from either a
flat curve or a tangent to a sharper curve, although a spiral transition curve is preferred (see Section 8.8).
Where practical, a smaller difference in radii should be used. A desirable maximum ratio is 1.75:1.
Curves that are compounded should not be too short or their effectiveness in enabling smooth transitions from
tangent or flat-curve to sharp-curve operation may be lost. In a series of curves of decreasing radii, each
curve should be long enough to enable the driver to decelerate at a reasonable rate, which at intersections is
assumed to be not more than 5km/s although 3km/hr/s is still desirable. The desirable rate represents very
light braking, because deceleration in gear alone generally results in overall rates between 1.5km/h/s and
2.5km/h/s. Minimum compound curve lengths based on criteria presented in Table 8-4.
Minimum Length of Circular Arc
Radius(m) Acceptable Desirable
30 12 20
50 15 20
60 20 30
75 25 35
100 30 45
125 35 55
150 or more 45 60
Table 8-4 Lengths of circular arcs of different compound curve radii

8.5. Isoloated Curves
Long tangent roadway segments, joined by an isolated curve designed at or near the minimum radius; result
in unsafe operations, as a driver will anticipate derivable speeds in excess of the design speed. Good design
practice is to avoid the use of minimum standards in such conditions. For isolated curves, the minimum
horizontal curve radius as shown in Tables 2-1 shall be increased by 50 percent. This will result, generally, in
the ability to negotiate the curve at a speed approximately 10 km/h higher than the design speed
8.6. Minimum Length of Curve
For small changes of direction it is desirable to use large radius curves. This improves the appearance of the
road by removing rapid changes in edge profile. It also reduces the tendency for drivers to cut the corners of
small radius curves. For small deflection angles, curves should be sufficiently long to avoid the appearance of
a kink. Curves should be at least 150m long for a central angle of 5degrees, and the minimum length should
be increased by 30m for each 1degree decrease in central angle. The minimum length for horizontal curves
on main highways, should be about three (3) times the design speed expressed in km/h or L=3V.
8.7. Widening on Curves and Embankments
Design Values for Traveled Way Widening
The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible, as drivers following the design speed
will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Curve widening reduces such problems. Widening on curves
shall be provided to make operating conditions comparable to those on tangents. This is necessary as the
wheel tracking width is increased. Curve widening is required on all standards of roads and should be
sufficient to cater for the design vehicle. Widening is costly and very little actually gained in a small amount of
widening. It is suggested that a minimum widening of 0.60m be used. Note that the values in Table 8-5 are for
WB 15 design vehicle. For other design vehicle refer to AASHTO Exhibit 3-48 for the adjustment values to be
applied.
Widening is also required for Design Standards R1 through R6 at high fills for the psychological comfort of the
driver. Widening for curvature and high embankment shall be added where both cases apply. The height of
hill is measured from the edge of the shoulder to the toe of the slope. Table 8-5 below gives the values to be
adopted in the design.

Table 8-5: Widening on Curves and High Fills
Radius of Curve Widening: Curve Widening: Fill Widening

Single Lane (m) Two Lanes (m)
Curve (m) Height of fill (m) Amount (m)
>250 0.0 0.0 0.0-3.0 0.0
120- 250 0.0 0.6 3.0- 6.0 0.3
60-120 0.0 0.9 6.0 - 9.0 0.6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9.0 0.9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9.0 0.9
<20 See section 8.8: Switchbacks
Application of Widening on Curves
Widening should transition gradually on the approaches to the curve to ensure a reasonably smooth
alignment of the edge of the traveled way and to fit the paths of vehicles entering or leaving the curve.
Principal points of concern in the design of curve widening which apply to both ends of highway curves are as
follows:
• On simple curves, widening should be applied on the inside edge of the traveled way only. On curves,
designed with spirals, widening may be applied on the inside edge or divided equally on either side of the
•
centerline.
Widening should transition over the superelevation runoff length but shorter length are sometimes used.
•
Changes in width normally should be effected over a distance of 30 to 60m.
On highway alignment without spirals, smooth and fitting alignment results from attaining widening with
one-half to two-thirds of the transition length along the tangent and the balance along the curve
8.8. Switchback Curves
Switchback or hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing mountainous and escarpment terrain.
Employing a radius of 20m or less, with a minimum of 10m, they are generally outside of the standards for all
road design standards R1-R6, and are specified using the guidelines listed in the Departure from Standards
section (subchapter 2.2).
Switchback curves require a careful design to ensure that all design vehicles can travel through the curve.
They must therefore provide for the tracking widths of the design vehicles, as indicated in Figures 5-10
through 5-11. These figures show that the minimum outer radii for design vehicles DV2 through DV4 are
12.5m, 14.1m, and 12.5m, respectively. Minimum inner radii are 8m, 7.4m, and 6m, respectively.

Switchback requirements can be determined which allow for:
Passage of two opposing DV4 vehicles. This is recommended for Design Standards R1-R3
Passage of a single DV4 and a DV1. This is recommended for Design Standards R4-R5
Passage of only a single DV4. This is recommended to Design Standards R6
Figure 8-5 illustrates a switchback curve. For a design example, select Design Standard R6, which allows for
only the passage of a single DV4 vehicle? By superimposing Figure 3-11 for design vehicle DV4 over Figure
8-5 at the same scale, it can be shown that the requirements are (see Figure 8-6):
R = 10m Ri = 6m Rs 14m
Thus, although the normal carriageway width for DS6 is 4.5m, at the switchback curve a width of 8m is
required
Figure 8-5: Switchback Curve

Figure 8-6: Switchback Curve for Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle
Requirements vary depending on passage requirements, radius, deflection angle, and design standard, and a
template shall be used based on the design vehicle turning radii to ensure that the vehicles can negotiate
each switchback.
It is important to provide relief from a severe gradient through the switchback. Gradient parameters
associated with a switchback curve are indicated in subchapter 9.5
8.9. Transition Curves
The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius. Transition curves may be
inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the abrupt introduction of lateral acceleration. They
may also be used between two circular curves.
Drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and hence transition curves contribute to the
comfort of the driver in only a limited number of situations. For large radius curves, the rate of change of
lateral acceleration is small and transition curves are not normally required. It can also be argued that
transition curves are not a requirement for certain roads, particularly those of lower classification, where there
is insufficient justification for the additional survey and design work required. Another possible warrant would

be to consider spirals for roads where a significant portion of the curves has a super elevation in excess of 60
percent of the maximum superelevation.
If the choice is made to employ a transition curve, the Euler spiral, which is also known as the clothoid, shall
be used. The radius varies from infinity at that tangent end of the spiral to the radius of the circular arc at the
circular curve end. By definition the radius at any point of the spiral varies inversely with the distance
measured along the spiral. In the case of a combining spiral connecting two circular curves having different
radii, there is an initial radius rather than an infinite value.
8.10. Superevation
Factors limiting selection of higher values are as follows. Low friction values may prevail with thin layers of
mud on the pavement surface, with oil spots, and with high speeds and sufficient depth of water on pavement
surface to permit hydroplaning. Account has to be taken of the situation where truck and heavily and/or badly
loaded vehicles move slowly due to poor mechanical condition.
In urban areas where traffic congestion or extensive marginal development acts to curb top speeds, it is
common practice to utilize a low maximum rate of superelevation, usually 4 percent. Similarly, either a low
maximum rate of superelevation or no superelevation is employed within important intersection areas or
where there is a tendency to drive slowly because of turning and crossing movements, warning devices, and
signals. Superelevation is a requirement for all standards of roads
8.11. Superelevation Runoff
In alignment design with spirals the superelevation runoff is effected over the whole of the transition curve.
The length of runoff is the spiral length with the tangent to spiral (TS) at the beginning and the spiral to curve
(SC) at the end. The change in cross slope begins by removing the adverse cross slope from the lane or
lanes on the outside of the curve on a length of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent runout). Between the
TS and SC (the superelevation runoff) the traveled way is rotated to reach the full superelevation at the SC.
This procedure is reversed on leaving the curve. By this design the whole of the circular curve has full
superelevation, as shown in Figure 8-7.
Figure 8-7: Spiral Curve Transition
In design of curves without spirals the superelevation runoff is considered to be that length beyond the
tangent runout. Empirical methods are employed to locate the superelevation runoff length with respect to the
point of curvature (PC).

Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent approach and one-
third on the curve, as shown in Figure 8-8.
Figure 8-8 Circular Curve Transition
Tables 8-6, 8-7,8-8 and 8-9 give superelevation rates and length of runoff for horizontal curves at different
speeds for 8 percent, 6 percent and 4 percent maximum superelevation, respectively.
8.12. Shoulder Super elevation
Figure 8-9 depicts shoulder superelevation rates corresponding to carriageway superelevation rates. The
figure shows that on the low side (inner shoulder) of superelevated curves, the shoulder superelevation
matches the roadway superelevation. On the high side (outer shoulder), the superelevation is set such that
the grade break between the roadway and the shoulder is 8 percent. An exception to this occurs at a
maximum superelevation of 8 percent, where the resultant shoulder superelevation would be an undesirable
flat configuration. Here the superelevation is set at -1% to drain the shoulder.

Note: For the Design classes R5-R6 the shoulder may be sloped with the carriageway, but the shoulder
should then be surfaced on the outside of the curve
Figure 8-9: Shoulder Superelevation (for Surfaced Roads)

Vd=30km/h Vd=40 km/h Vd=50 km/h Vd =60 km/h Vd=70 km/h Vd=85 km/h Vd=100 km/h Vd= 120 km/h
R e e e e e e e e
(m) (%) L(m) (%) L (m) (%) L (m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%)
L(m)
7000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC
0
5000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
3000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 56 2.4 101
2500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 47 2.1 56 2.9 101
2000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 2.2 47 2.6 56 3.5 101
1500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.5 47 3.4 56 4.6 101
1400 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.1 39 2.6 47 3.6 56 4.9 101
1300 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.2 39 2.8 47 3.8 56 5.2 101
1200 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.4 39 3.0 47 4.1 56 5.6 101
1000 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.2 33 2.8 39 3.5 47 4.8 56 6.5 101
900 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.4 33 3.1 39 4.2 47 5.2 56 7.1 101
800 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.7 33 3.4 39 4.6 47 5.7 56 7.6 103
700 NC 0 RC 22 2.2 28 3.0 33 3.8 39 5.1 47 6.3 56 8.0 108
600 NC 0 RC 22 2.6 28 3.4 33 4.3 39 6.5 47 6.9 56 Rmin = 665
500 NC 0 2.2 22 3.0 28 3.9 33 4.9 39 7.2 47 7.8 56

400 RC 17 2.7 22 3.6 28 4.7 33 5.7 39 7.8 51 8.0 64
300 2.1 17 3.4 22 4.5 28 5.6 34 6.7 44 8.0 55 Rmin = 395
250 2.5 17 4.0 22 5.1 28 6.2 37 7.3 48 Rmin = 270
200 3.0 17 4.6 24 5.8 31 7.0 42 7.9 52
175 3.4 17 5.0 26 6.2 33 7.4 44 8.0 52
150 3.8 18 5.4 28 6.7 36 7.8 47 Rmin = 175
140 4.0 19 5.6 29 6.9 37 7.9 47
130 4.2 20 5.8 30 7.1 38 8.0 48
120 4.4 21 6.0 31 7.3 39 Rmin = 125

emax = 8.0%
110 4.7 23 6.3 32 7.6 41
R = radius of curve
100 4.9 23 6.5 33 7.8 42
V = assumed design speed
90 5.2 25 6.9 36 7.9 43
80 5.5 26 7.2 37 8.0 43 e = rate of superelevation
70 5.9 28 7.5 39 Rmin = 80 L = minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent runout)
60 6.4 31 7.8 40 NC = normal crown section
50 6.9 33 8.0 41 Table 8-6: Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 8%
40 7.5 36 Rmin = 50
30 8.0 38
Rmin=30

Vd=30km/h Vd=40 km/h Vd=50 km/h Vd =60 km/h Vd=70 km/h Vd=85 km/h Vd=100 km/h
R e e e e e e e
(m) (%) L(m) (%) L (m) (%) L (m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m)
7000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
5000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
3000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 56
2500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 47 2.2 56
2000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 2.1 47 2.6 56
1500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.2 47 2.7 56
1400 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.3 47 2.8 56
1300 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 RC 39 2.5 47 2.9 56
1200 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 RC 39 2.7 47 3.2 56
1000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.2 39 2.9 47 3.4 56
900 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.1 33 2.4 39 3.2 47 3.5 56
800 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.3 33 2.5 39 3.4 47 3.7 56
700 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.5 33 2.7 39 3.5 47 3.9 56
600 NC 0 RC 22 2.1 28 2.7 33 2.9 39 3.7 47 4.0 56
500 NC 0 RC 22 2.3 28 2.9 33 3.1 39 3.9 47 Rmin = 490
400 NC 0 2.1 22 2.5 28 3.3 33 3.4 39 4.0 47
300 RC 17 2.3 22 2.8 28 3.6 33 3.8 39 Rmin = 285
250 RC 17 2.6 22 3.0 28 3.8 33 3.9 39
200 2.3 17 2.8 22 3.3 28 3.9 33 Rmin = 215

175 2.4 17 2.9 22 3.5 28 4.0 33
150 2.5 17 3.1 22 3.7 28 Rmin = 150
140 2.6 17 3.2 22 3.8 28
130 2.6 17 3.3 22 3.8 28

emax = 4.0%
120 2.7 17 3.4 22 3.9 28
110 2.8 17 3.5 22 4.0 28 R = radius of curve
100 2.9 17 3.6 22 4.0 28 V = assumed design speed

90 3.0 17 3.7 22 Rmin = 100
e = rate of superelevation
80 3.2 17 3.8 22
L = minimum length of runoff (does not include tangent runout)
70 3.3 17 3.9 22
NC = normal crown section
60 3.5 17 4.0 22
50 3.7 18 Rmin = 60
40 3.9 19
Rmin=35
Table 8-7: Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 4%

Table 8-8 Minimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds, and emax = 8%

Table 8-9 Superelevation Runoff Lr (m) for Horizontal Curves

9. Vertical Alignment
9.1. Introduction
Two major aspect of vertical alignment are longitudinal profile and vertical curves which are governed by the
sight distance, comfort, vehicle performance and level of service.
The longitudinal profile of a road consists of a series of straight grades and vertical curves are required to
provide smooth passage of a vehicle from one grade to another and increase the sight distance over crests at
the junction of the grades. They should be simple in application and should result in a design that is safe,
comfortable in operation, pleasing in appearance and adequate for drainage. For simplicity, the parabolic
curve with an equivalent vertical axis centered on the vertical point of intersection is used.
Convex vertical curves are known as summit or crest curves, and concave vertical curves as sag curves.
At crest curves, the minimum length may be fixed by stopping sight distance or appearance requirements.
However, lengths above the minimum may reduce the overtaking sight distance available on the approaches.
At sag curves, the length may be fixed approximately by comfort related to vertical acceleration, appearance
or, on a slightly more deterministic basis, by drainage, headlight performance or overhead restrictions to the
line of sight.
The following text gives the formula and features of the vertical curve; gives values for maximum and
minimum gradients; indicates gradient requirements through villages; develops the criteria for incorporation of
a climbing lane; and provides vertical clearance standards.
9.2. Vertical Curve Formula
Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive gradients. The simple
parabola is specified for these. The parabola provides a constant rate of change of curvature, and hence
acceleration and visibility, along its length and has the form:
g 2 − g1
r= y= + g1x +
rx 2
L 2 Elevation of BVC
Where
r = rate of change of grade per section (%)
g1 = starting grade (%)
g2 = ending grade (%)
L = length of curve (horizontal distance m)
y = elevation of a point on the curve
x = distance in stations from the BVC (meters/100)
BVC = beginning of the vertical curve

G *L ⎡x⎤
y=
200 ⎢⎣ L ⎥⎦
2
EVC = end of the vertical curve

A related formula is:
Where
y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters)
x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (meters)
G = algebraic difference in gradients (%)
L = length of vertical curve (meters).
Examples of crest and sag vertical curves are shown in Figures 9-1 and 9-2, respectively.
Figure 9-1: Crest Curve
Figure 9-2 : Sag Curve
9.3. Types of Vertical Curves
The rate of change of grade to successive points on the curve is a constant amount for equal increments of
horizontal distance, and equals the algebraic difference between the intersecting tangents grades divided by
the length of curve or A/L in percent per meters. The reciprocal L/A is the horizontal distance in meters
required to effect a 1 percent change in gradient and is a measure of curvature. This quantity (L/A), termed k,
is used in determining the horizontal distance from the beginning of the vertical curve to the apex or low point
of the curve. The k value is also useful in determining the minimum lengths of vertical curves for the various
design speeds. The lengths of vertical curves used should be as long as possible and above the minimum
values for the design speeds where economically feasible.

The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves have been designed to provide sufficient stopping sight
distance. The design is based on minimum allowable "K" values, as defined by the formula:
K = L/A
Where
K= limiting value, horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change in grade

L = length of vertical curve (m)
A= Algebraic difference in approach and exit grades (%)
The formulae for design of crest and sag vertical curves can be rather complex to apply, and thus the design
is best accomplished through the application of a computer program, or by use of design charts. Figures 9-3
and 9-4 show the minimum length requirements for crest and sag curves, respectively, for differing design
speeds and algebraic differences in grade
9.3.1. SAG Vertical Curves
At least four different criteria for establishing lengths of sag vertical curves are recognized. These are:
• headlight sight distance,

•
•
rider comfort,
•
drainage control; and
a rule of thumb for general appearance.
However, the headlight sight distance basis appears to be the most logical for general use and this criterion is
used to establish the, design values for a range of lengths of sag vertical curves. It is convenient to express
the design control in terms of the k value. Table 9.1 indicates the minimum k values based on stopping sight
distance that is to be used.
Longer curves are desired wherever feasible and should be used, but special attention to drainage must be
exercised. Shorter sag vertical curves may be justified for economic reasons, in cases where an existing
element such as a structure that is not ready for replacement controls the vertical profile. Drainage of kerbed
pavements are especially important on sag vertical curves where a grade line of not less than 0.3 % within 15
m of the level point must be maintained.
9.3.2. Crest Vertical Curves
Minimum lengths of crest vertical curves are determined by the sight distance requirements. The stopping
sight distance is the major control for the safe operation at the design speed chosen. Passing sight distances
are not used as it provides for an uneconomical design. An exception may be at decision areas such as sight
distance to ramp exits where longer lengths are necessary.
The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves have been designed to provide sufficient stopping sight
distance. The design is based on minimum allowable "K" values, as defined by the formula:
K = L/A
Where
K = limiting value, horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change

in grade
L = length of vertical curve (m)

A = Algebraic difference in approach and exit grades (%)
Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical curves have been recommended based on design speeds and
stopping sight and passing sight distance requirements. They provide for ride comfort, appearance, and most
importantly, safety. These are shown in Tables 9-1 and 9-2, respectively, in terms of “K” values.
9.3.3. Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves
Especially for national and regional roads, where the algebraic difference between successive grades that are
small, the intervening minimum vertical curve, applying in the above formulae, becomes very short. This can
create the impression of a kink in the grade line. For this reason, where the algebraic differences in grade are
less than 0.5 percent, a minimum curve length is recommended for purely aesthetic reasons. A minimum
length of 200 meters is recommended, except in mountainous or escarpment terrain.
However, for lower standard roads, no minimum length should be specified. In these cases, the curve lengths
should be kept to a minimum to enhance drainage capabilities, and the curve lengths should match as a
minimum the K values given in Tables 2-1 for stopping sight distance. Where the difference in grade is less
than 0.5 percent, the vertical curve is often omitted. For higher volume roads, a minimum length should be
considered between vertical curves. If the vertical alignment is allowed to contain many curves of short
length, the result can be a “hidden dip” profile, and/or a “roller coaster” type profile, as indicated in Figure 9-5.
Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical curves have been recommended based on design speeds and
stopping sight and passing sight distance requirements. They provide for ride comfort, appearance, and most
importantly, safety. These are shown in Tables
9-1 and 9-2, respectively, in terms of “K” values.
Table 9-1: Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance and for Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
Design Stopping Sight Rate of Vertical Curve K Rate of Vertical Curve K

Distance for Crest for Sag
Design Speed (m/%) (m/%)
(Km/h) (m)
20 20 1 3
30 35 2 6
40 50 4 9
50 65 7 13
60 85 11 18

70 105 17 23
80 130 26 30
90 160 39 38
100 185 52 45
(Source AASHTO)
Table 9-2: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves
Design Speed Design for Passing Sight Rate of Vertical Curve K for Crest
(km/h) Distance (m/%)
(m)
30 200 46
40 270 84
50 345 138
60 410 195
70 485 272
80 540 338
90 615 438
100 670 520
(source AASHTO)

Figure 9.3
(SOURCE AASHTO)

(SOURCE AASHTO)
Figure 9.4

Figure 9-5: Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles

9.4. Maximum Gradients
Vehicle operations on gradients are complex and depend on a number of factors: severity and length of
gradient; level and composition of traffic; and the number of overtaking opportunities on the gradient and in its
vicinity.
For very low levels of traffic flow represented by only a few four-wheel drive vehicles other references
advocate a maximum traversable gradient of up to 18 percent. Small commercial vehicles can usually
negotiate an 18 per cent gradient; whilst two-wheel drive trucks can successfully manage gradients of 15-16
per cent except when heavily laden.
Maximum vertical gradient is extremely important criterion that greatly affects both the serviceability and cost
of the road. The design standards given in Tables 2-1 include both desirable and absolute maximum values.
These performance considerations have formed the basic limiting criteria for gradients as shown in Table 9-3.
Table 9-3: Maximum Gradients
Topography Maximum Gradient (%), for Design Standard
R1-R2 R3-R4 R5-R6 RR 1 RR2
D A D A D A D A D A
Flat 3 5 4 6 6 8 6 8 6 8
Rolling 4 6 5 7 7 9 7 9 7 9
Mountainous 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Urban 6 8 7 9 7 9 7 9 7 9
Note: First value shown is desirable value (D), second is absolute value (A).
When gradients of 10 percent or greater are reached, consideration should be given to paving these steep
sections to enable sufficient traction to be achieved, as well as for pavement maintenance reasons. However,
this is clearly not practical for all classes of roads, particularly at lower traffic volumes. There may be cases
where paving greater than 10 percent will be economical. This depends on the standard and the service of the
road to be provided.
As traffic flows increase, the economic dis-benefits of more severe gradients, measured as increased vehicle
operating and travel time costs, are more likely to result in economic justification for reducing the severity
and/or length of a gradient. On the higher design classes or road, the lower maximum recommended
gradients reflect these economics. However, a separate economic assessment of alternatives to long or
severe gradients should be undertaken where possible or necessary.
Standards for desirable maximum gradients were set to assure user comfort and to avoid severe reductions in
the design speed. If the occasional terrain anomaly is encountered that requires excessive earthworks to
reduce the vertical alignment to the desirable standard an absolute maximum gradient can be used.
Employment of a gradient in excess of the desirable maximum can only be authorized through the
employment of a Departure from Standard (see Section 2.2).

9.5. Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks
Where switchback curves are unavoidable in mountainous or escarpment terrain, there is a need to reduce
the maximum allowable gradient at any point through the curve. The maximum allowable gradient through a
switchback curve is 4 percent for road standards R1-R5 and 6 percent for R6, RR1, and RR2. Minimum
allowable gradient is 0.5%.
Corresponding crest and sag curves approaching the switchback curve must meet the requirements of
subsections 9.2 and 9.3, and the transitions must be completed outside of the switchback curve. The sag
curve above the switchback shall be made as long as possible to allow ascending vehicles to accelerate at
the flatter grade when leaving the switchback.
9.6. Minimum Gradients
The minimum gradient for the usual case is 0.5 percent. However, flat and level gradients on uncurbed paved
highways are acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway elevation above the surrounding ground is
adequate to drain the surface laterally. With curbed highways or streets, longitudinal gradients should be
provided to facilitate surface drainage
9.7. Gradients through Villages
In many instances the natural grade level is flat through villages. The adjacent roadside ditches in such
circumstances can readily become clogged and ineffective. It is also the case that they are deliberately
blocked to provide access to adjacent property or to channel flow for agricultural use. These practices lead to
saturation of the sub-grade and hence pavement failure, and should be avoided.
9.8. Critical lenghth of gradient
Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or the point at which it has
lost a certain amount of speed.
Critical length of gradient is considered to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon which a
loaded truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed.
Critical length of gradient is, to some extent, dependent on the gradient of the approach; a downhill approach
will allow vehicles to gain momentum and increase the critical length. In general, the critical length of gradient
decreases, as gradient increases. This is shown in Table 9-4 below. Where it is necessary to exceed the
critical length of gradient on heavily trafficked roads, it is desirable to provide either with safe passing
distances on the rise, or a climbing lane for heavy vehicles.
9.9. Climbing Lanes
A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient. A climbing lane is an
auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes and has the effect of reducing congestion in the through
lanes by removing slower moving vehicles from the traffic stream. It also enhances road safety by reducing

the speed differential in the through lane. The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road
standard, speed and traffic volume.
Benefits from the provision of a climbing lane accrue because faster vehicles are able to overtake more easily,
resulting in shorter average journey times, reduced vehicle-operating costs, and increased safety. Benefits will
increase with increases in gradient, length of gradient, traffic flow, the proportion of trucks, and reductions in
overtaking opportunities. The effect of a climbing lane in breaking up queues of vehicles held up by a slow
moving truck will continue for some distance along the road.
Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic volumes are greater than 400 ADT. Thus
the application of climbing lanes is limited particularly to national and district roads. Table 9-4 is prepared
according to the criteria that a 20 km/h speed reduction is expected for a truck. It is used in the design to
indicate locations where climbing lanes are recommended.
A climbing lane layout is shown in Figure 9-6. Climbing lanes must be clearly marked and, where possible,
should end on level or downhill sections where speed differences between different classes of vehicles are
lowest to allow safe and efficient merging maneuvers. The introduction and termination of a climbing lane
shall be effected by tapers of lengths of 100 meters. The tapers shall not be considered as part of the climbing
lanes.
The starting point of the grade can be approximated as a point halfway between the preceding vertical point of
intersection and the end of the vertical curve.
Table 9-4: Climbing Lanes
Design Class Gradient Critical Length of Gradient above Maximum Desirable

which a Climbing Lane is required Length of Gradient
(%) (m) (m)
R1-R2 4 300 900
R2-R4 5 240 800
R2-R4 6 200 700
R2-R4 7 170 600
R2-R4 8 150 500
R2-R4 9 130 400
R2-R4 10 Required 400
R5 11 Required 400
R5 12 Required 400

Consideration must be given to a balance between the benefits to traffic and the initial construction cost when
providing climbing lanes. In sections requiring heavy side cut, the provision of climbing lanes may be
unreasonably high in relation to the benefits. Reduced level of service over such sections is an alternative.
The climbing lane is sometimes not effectively utilized, especially when traffic flows are heavy, because the
drivers of slower vehicles fear that they will not be allowed to merge with the faster vehicles where the
climbing lane ends. The preferred layout forces faster vehicles to merge with the slower, thus allaying this fear
to some extent. This layout is preferred based purely on that fact that a vehicle can merge more readily with a
slower-than with a faster-moving stream of traffic (see Figure9-6).
The performance characteristics of a heavy vehicle are such that, for a particular gradient, the vehicle speed
will reduce to final ambient speed that can be maintained by that vehicle on that grade. This limits, in most
references, any discussion on the maximum length allowable at a given grade even considering the
employment of a climbing lane. However, in the interests of factors such as vehicle operating costs and travel
time losses, the absolute recommended maximum lengths at any given grade are also indicated in the last
column of Table 9-4. When these distances are reached, it is necessary to design a relief gradient of less than
6 percent between steep sections. The relief gradient shall extend a minimum of 100 meters.
These values have also taken into consideration the safety factors associated with the increase in speed
resulting in the descent of steep grades. Although they may mitigate the safety hazard, they do not eliminate
it. For example, a non-braking "typical" heavy truck will accelerate from 0 km/hr to 90 km/hr over a distance of
500 meters at a descending grade of 5 percent. This emphasizes the need to provide warning signs for such
vehicles at all long continuous grades.
Figure 9-6: Layout for Climbing Lane

9.10. Vertical Clearances
Bridges over water shall normally have a minimum clearance height according to Table 9-5. Unless a refined
hydraulic analysis has been made. The standard minimum headroom or clearance under bridges or tunnels
shall be 5.1m for all classes of roads. This clearance should be maintained over the roadway(s) and
shoulders. Where future maintenance of the roadway is likely to lead to a raising of the road level, then an
additional clearance of up to 0.1m may be provided. Light superstructures (i.e. - timber, steel trusses, steel
girders, etc) over roadways shall have a clearance height of at least 5.3m. See Bridge Design Manual for
further reference.
Table 9-5: Vertical Clearance from Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL)
Design Flow at Bridge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance (m)
5 to 30 0.6
30 to 300 0.9
>300 1.2
Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles shall not be less then 2.4m. For cattle and wildlife, underpasses
shall be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal plus 0.5m, and for horse-riding the clear
height shall be not less than 3.4m. Bridges above railways shall have a clearance height of at least 6.1m- if
not otherwise stated- to facilitate possible future electrification.
Over existing pipe culverts and box culverts, the roadway elevation cannot be less than as indicated in the
Drainage Design Standard.

10. Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
10.1. Alighment Defects Due to Mis-Phasing
Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so that the line of the road
appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and visual defects. It is particularly
important in the design of high-speed roads on which a driver must be able to anticipate changes in both
horizontal and vertical alignment well within the safe stopping distance. It becomes more important with small
radius curves than with large.
Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do no more than present
the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the road. Such defects often occur on sag curves.
When these defects are severe, they may create a psychological obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce
speed unnecessarily. In other cases, the defects may endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards
on the road ahead. A sharp bend hidden by a crest curve is an example of this kind of defect
10.2. Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action
When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are coincident, no phasing
problem occurs and no corrective action is required. Where defects occur, phasing may be achieved either by
separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths such that vertical and horizontal curves begin at a common
station and end at a common station. In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one
end of each of the curves is at a common station.
Cases of mis-phasing fall into several types. These are described below together with the necessary
corrective action for each type.
10.3. Vertical Curve Overlaps One end of the Horizontal Curve
If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a driver’s perception of the
change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed because his sight distance is reduced
by the vertical curve. This defect is hazardous. The position of the crest is important because the vehicles
tend to increase speed on the down gradient following the highest point of the crest curve, and the danger due
to an unexpected change of direction is consequently greater. If a vertical sag curve overlaps a horizontal
curve, an apparent kink may be produced, as indicated in Figures 10-1b and c.
The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is uneconomic, the
curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident at both ends, if the horizontal curve is of short radius, or
they need be coincident at only one end, if the horizontal curve is of longer radius.
10.3.1. Insufficient separation between the Curves
If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a false reverse curve
may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal curve. This is a visual defect, illustrated
in Figure 10-1d.
Corrective action consists of increasing the separation between the curves, or making the curves concurrent,
as in Figure 10-1a.

10.3.2. Both Ends of the Vertical Curve Lie on the Horizontal Curve
10.3.3. If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may
appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the vertical curve is a sag
curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. An example of such a visual defect is
shown in Figure10-1e. The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident as in Figure
10-1a, or to separate them
10.3.4. Vertical Curve Overlaps both ends of the Horizontal Curve
If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be created because a
vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage of the vertical curve while sight
distance is reduced.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal curve is less sharp, a
hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is because the change of direction
at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur on a downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where
vehicles may be increasing speed.
The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on to the horizontal
curve.
No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is combined with a gentle horizontal curve.
If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, depending on the “hand” of the horizontal curve will
appear in the road alignment.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate them
10.3.5. Others MIS –Phasing
Other types of mis-phasing are also indicated in Figure 10-1:
A sag curve occurs between two horizontal curves in the same direction in Figure 10-1g. This illustrates the
need to avoid broken back curves in design (see Chapter 8: Horizontal Alignment).
A double sag curve occurs at one horizontal curve in Figure 10-1h. This illustrates the effect in this case of a
broken back vertical alignment on design (see Chapter 9: Vertical Alignment).
Figure 10-1i shows a lack of phasing of horizontal and vertical curves. In this case, the vertical alignment has
been allowed to be more curvilinear than the horizontal alignment.
10.4. The Economic Penalty due to phasing
The phasing of vertical curves restricts their movement and fitting to the ground so that the designer is
prevented from obtaining the lowest cost design. Therefore, phasing is usually bought at the cost of extra
earthworks and the designer must decide at what point it becomes uneconomic. He will normally accept
curves that have to be phased for reasons of safety. In cases when the advantage due to phasing is
aesthetic, the designer will have to balance the costs of trail alignments against their elegance

11. Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram
11.1. Introduction
Earthwork represents in the plans includes grading, mass haul diagram and cross-sections. Earthwork
quantifies excavation and embankment, quantities unavailable for embankment and other details related to
the construction of a road to design the subgrade elevation considering the following items:
• Coordinate with the geotechnical while developing the grading summary. Incorporate
recommendations from the geotechnical report including shrinkage, swelling, topsoil stripping depth,
•
and backfill materials anticipated to be available from on-site excavation.
•
Coordinate with surveys to obtain the appropriate level of accuracy in topographic survey.
Coordinate with Construction to better understand constructability issues related to earthworks.
The careful attentions to limiting earthwork quantities through the preparation of a mass haul diagram are
essential elements in providing the best-combined horizontal, vertical, and cross-sectional design. Before
undertaking detailed earthwork calculation,
Key terms associated with this process, as listed in Definitions, include:
¾ Borrow- material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening cuts, flattening back
slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the right-of-way, or from selected borrow
pits as may be noted on the plans
¾ Waste- material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the embankment
¾ Free Haul- the maximum distance through which excavated material may be transported without the
added cost above the unit bid price
¾ Overhaul- excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free haul distance
¾ Economic Limit of Haul- distance through which it is more economical to haul excavated material than
to waste and borrow
The steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the development of the optimal mass haul
diagram are:
¾ End area calculations

¾ Earthwork calculations
¾ Preparation of mass haul diagram
¾ Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram
These steps are presented in the following text. Of note is the fact that most current highway design computer
programs will produce the mass haul diagram as part of the output when typical sections and horizontal and
vertical alignments are inputs. A final stage of geometric design is then usually to make adjustments to the
alignments in the interests of balancing or minimizing the earthwork quantities
11.2. End Area Calculations
End area calculations are usually made by one of the following methods:
1. Planimeter Method - The original ground line and template section (cross section) must be plotted
on grid paper. Centerline profile grade must first be calculated for each cross section station to
determine the centerline reference of each template plot. Areas of cut and fill quantities are
calculated using a planimeter, converted to square meters, and tabulated for each section.

2. Electronic Computer Method - This method is widely used due to its versatility and speed of
calculations. The end area calculation on modern computer programs is an integral part of the
alignment design program and shown on output listings along with the geometric of each section.
11.3. Calculating Earthwork
There are several ways of calculating earthwork but the most common is the "average end area" method. This
method consists of averaging the cut and fill quantities of adjacent stations and multiplying by the distance
between stations to produce cubic meters of excavation and embankment between the two stations. This
procedure is followed when manual methods are used. Projects designed by computer will be tabulated on
the mass plot listing and these calculations are integral parts of the alignment design program.
Compaction factors of excavated material must be determined or estimated in order to determine earthwork
quantities of excavation and embankment. When common material is excavated from natural ground and
compacted in an embankment, it loses volume. When solid rock is broken up and compacted in an
embankment, it usually swells. Although adjustment factors can be applied to either embankment or
excavation quantities, it is general practice to apply the compaction factor to the excavation so that a
compaction factor of –25 percent would result in 100 cubic meters of excavation required for an embankment
of 75 cubic meters. Likewise, a 10 percent swell factor would result in 100 cubic meters of rock excavation
required for an embankment of 110 cubic meters.
Compaction factors should be determined or estimated for each project taking into consideration the various
types of soils and depth of proposed cuts and fills.
The designer should avoid using one factor for the entire project as these results in incorrect distribution of
earthwork quantities. Cuts through rock should be classified using parameters, such as swell, associated with
the particular rock, and not as a common value for all types of excavation.
Sometimes the use of stripping factors or pre-rolling factors of the natural ground prior to placing
embankments are employed. This is done by assuming that the natural ground will be stripped or compacted
to a certain depth, such as 75 – 100 millimeters, thus increasing the volume of the required embankment to be
placed on the natural ground. This assumption may prove satisfactory on projects following virgin country
having fairly uniform type of soil, however, problems develop on projects that follow an existing road as only
those areas beyond the toe of slopes of the existing roadway will compact the estimated depth. This manual
does not recommend the use of natural ground or stripping factors on projects. Instead it is recommended that
if the designer considers this volume to be significant, it is recommended to increase the compaction factors
from say –20 percent to –25 percent. Accumulation totals of cut and fill can now be calculated as follows:
Total accumulated cut is the total of adjusted cuts (excavation volume x adjustment factor) added
from station to station.
Total accumulated fill is the sum of the embankments from station to station (no adjustment).
The mass ordinate can now be calculated by taking the algebraic sum of adjusted excavation and
unadjusted embankment from station to station, using "+" for excavation and "-" for embankment.
11.4. Mass Haul Diagram
A well-detailed Mass Haul Diagram will provide sufficient information for the estimation of total haul. The Mass
Haul Diagram should depict a visual representation of the cut and fill material on the project as well as
indicate the cumulative balance of material available to construct the project to subgrade at a given location.
The mass haul diagram is a curve in which the abscissas represent the stations of the survey and the
ordinates represent the algebraic sum of excavation and embankment quantities from some point of beginning
on the profile. The plot can be to any scale, depending on the quantities involved. Project designed by

computer will list, tabulate, and plot all of the data shown above including a mass haul diagram and balance
points.
The mass haul diagram shows excavation (adjusted) and embankment quantities from some point of
beginning on the profile, considering cut volumes positive and fill volumes negative. At the beginning of the
curve the ordinate is zero, and ordinates are calculated continuously from the initial station to the end of the
project.
The mass haul diagram can be used to determine:
¾ Proper distribution of excavated material

¾ Amount and location of waste
¾ Amount and location of borrow
¾ Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
¾ Direction of haul.
Figure 11-1 shows a mass haul diagram curve with an accompanying profile of existing ground line and grade
line.
The double line in the profile and the mass haul diagram indicate areas of excavation. Arrows indicate
direction of haul. Note in the mass haul diagram that the material moves from the rising line to the falling line.
Note that properties of mass haul diagrams are as follows:
a) An upward slope on the mass curve indicates excavation, and conversely, a downward slope
indicates embankment. The steeper the slope of the mass curve, the greater the cubic meters of
excavation or embankment.
b) The maximum ordinate of the mass curve occurs at the point where excavation ends and
embankment starts. Similarly, the minimum ordinate occurs at the point where embankment ends and
excavation starts.
c) Cut and fill quantities between the points at which any horizontal line cuts off a loop of the mass curve
will exactly balance. Such horizontal lines are called balance lines and the points at which these lines
intersect the mass curve are called balance points.
d) Areas below the balance line indicate that hauling of excavation to embankment is from right to left,
whereas areas above the balance line indicate that the haul is from left to right.
e) The area between a balance line and its corresponding loop of the mass curve is a measure of haul
(product of the volume and distance in station-meters).
f) The ordinate at any station represents the accumulated amount of surplus or deficit of material at the
station. It does not indicate the amount of cut or fill volume at that station.
11.5. Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram
The designer should carefully assess the project before start of design and set certain guidelines for balancing
the earthwork. A determination should be made as to the maximum haul distance or distance between
balance points, whether tight balances will be used or whether it will be more economical to excavate to spoil
in some areas and obtain borrow material in others.
Listed below are a few considerations in determining the best earthwork design:
a) Right-of-way restrictions may necessitate importing borrow material for the required embankments.

b) Where large quantities of inferior or deleterious material are encountered in the excavation, it will be
necessary to waste this material, which is unsuitable for use as embankment.
c) Special conditions through deep cuts, such as sloughing, sight distance requirements, or sand drift
conditions may require very flat back slopes resulting in large amounts of excavation and no large
embankments within a reasonable haul distance. This situation will require that some excavated
material will be wasted.
d) The need to carry the road level considerably above the existing ground for extended distances
through flood plain areas will generally require borrow excavation.
After the designer has analyzed all of the above factors and determined how he proposes to balance the
earthwork, he is ready to start calculations as previously outlined.
In order to obtain a better perspective of the work the project should be broken down to sections not to exceed
5 kilometers in length. This allows the designer to work with smaller sections, solving the individual problems
of each section involving drainage, grades, erosion control, and earthwork distribution. Figure 11-2 shows
three situations where the balance line can be at the top, bottom or at the center of the mass curve. Note that
Case 3 where the balance line is located at the center of the mass curve is not necessarily the ideal situation
in all cases. The profile grade should be studied along with the mass haul diagram to determine where it will
be more economical to haul towards back stations (Case 1), towards forward stations (Case 2), or to haul
equally towards back and forward stations (Case 3).
Free haul is defined as the maximum distance through which excavated material may be transported without
added cost above the unit bid price. Prior to the use of high-speed pneumatic-tired earth moving equipment,
free haul distances were limited to approx. 1000 meters, but distances of up to 2000 meters are not
uncommon now. Special conditions on a project may require longer hauls, where restrictions do not allow
excavation or borrow in the immediate area. Some contracts do not provide for separate payment for haul
and/or overhaul, but make this work incidental to the excavation item. Haul and overhaul figures shall be
made available to prospective bidders to assist them in determining their excavation bid price. A note on the
mass haul diagram, in the plans, or in the specifications shall state that the contractor may be required to haul
material a specified distance, or within balance points shown on the plans, without additional compensation.
The economical limit of haul is defined as the distance through which it is more economical to haul excavated material than to waste and borrow. The
following formula is presented as a guide to assist the designer in determining the economic limit of haul:
E.L.H. = F.H. distance + Unit Price of Borrow
Unit Price of Overhaul

Where:
E.L.H = Economic limit of haul
F.H. = Free haul distance

Figure 11-2: Location of Balance Line on Mass Haul Diagram

Example: Assume F.H. Distance = 15 stations (1500 meters)
Borrow U.P. = ETB 8.00/m3
Overhaul U.P.= ETB 5.00/100/meter/m3
E.L.H = 15 + 80
E.L.H = 15 + 16 = 31 stations
The designer can make some quick estimates to determine whether to use long haul distances, to borrow or
waste, or whether a redesign to shorten balance distances is required.
Overhaul is the product of volume times distance and is represented on the mass haul diagram as the area
between the zero balance line and the curve of the mass after eliminating all free haul. When the mass is
computed using adjusted cut (adjusted for swell), it is necessary to correct overhaul volume to unadjusted
excavation by applying the proper correction factor.
In Figure 11-3 the shaded areas show overhaul in the mass haul diagram.
Waste and borrow should be avoided on most types of projects by hauling suitable material within economical
limits of haul. These terms are defined as follows:
a) Waste is material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the embankments.
It must be pointed out that this material is not necessarily wasted as the word implies, but can
be used in widening embankments, flattening slopes or filling ditches or depressions for erosion
control.
b) Borrow is material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening cuts,
flattening cut back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the right-of-way,
or from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans. Borrow areas should be carefully
selected after consideration of the suitability of the material; economic haul; access to the pits,
including cost of access roads; drainage problems; and impact on the environment including
timber production, fish life, watershed, soil erosion and all multiple land uses present and future.

Figure 11-3: Overhaul in the Mass Haul Diagram

Figure 11-1: Relationship of Profile Grade and Haul to Mass Haul Diagram

12. At Grade Junctions/ Intersections
12.1. Introduction
A junction, or intersection, is the general area where two or more roads join. A disproportionate amount of
traffic accidents occur at junctions, and thus from a traffic safety aspect junctions require attention and careful
design. Good junction design should allow transition from one route to another or through movement on the
main route and intersecting route with minimum delay and maximum safety. To accomplish this, the layout
and operation of the junction should be obvious to the driver, with good visibility between conflicting
movements.
Differing junction types will be appropriate under different circumstances depending on traffic flows, speeds,
and site limitations. Types of junctions include:
(a) T-Junctions
(b) Cross-Junctions
(c) Roundabouts
(d) Grade Separation
This chapter describes the design for all at-grade junctions. A checklist for junction design is presented in
Figure 12-12 at the end of the chapter. (Please take note that this Figure 12-12 and some other figures shown
are typical for a left hand drive vehicle and it should be reversed for right hand drive vehicle which is
applicable for Timor-Leste traffic condition.)
12.2. Design Requirements
The design of junctions must take account of the following basic requirements:
(a) Safety
(b) Operational comfort
(c) Capacity
(d) Economy
A junction is considered safe when it is visible, comprehensible, and maneuverable. These three requirements
can generally be met by complying with the following guidelines.
12.2.1. Visibility
The junction should be sited so that the major road approaches are readily visible. The angle of skew of the
junction should be no more than 20 degree from perpendicular.
12.2.2. Comprehension
• The right of way should follow naturally and logically from the junction layout.
• The types of junctions used throughout the whole road network should be similar.
• The use of road signs is necessary. Road markings and other road furniture may also be
required.

12.2.3. Maneuverability
• All traffic lanes should be of adequate width and radius for the appropriate vehicle turning
characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turn radii shall be 15 meters minimum.
• The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings.
The operation of the junction depends principally upon the frequency of gaps that naturally occur between
vehicles in the main road flow. These gaps should be of sufficient duration to permit vehicles from the minor
road to merge with, or cross, the major road flow. In consequence junctions are limited in capacity, but this
capacity may be optimized by, for example, canalization or the separation of maneuvers.
12.3. Selection of Junction Type
The choice of a junction type requires knowledge of traffic demand, intersection performance and accident
prediction. It is often difficult to determine the best intersection type of any particular situation, taking into
account capacity, delay, safety and physical layout factors. Several alternatives may be possible at a junction.
A guide for the selection of junction type based on different combinations of traffic flows is presented in Figure
12-1. For the lower volume junctions, the applicable junction type vs. traffic flow is presented in further detail
in Figure 12-2. Basic advantages and disadvantages of different junction types, including grade separation,
are as follows:
(a) Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction). For low flows. Can cause long delays. Requires
sufficient stopping sight distance. Delays can be improved by signal installation.
(b) Roundabouts. For low to medium flows. Minimal delays at lower flows. Shown to be safer than
priority junctions. Requires attention to pedestrian movements and accommodation of slow-
moving traffic.
(c) Grade-Separation. For high flows. Results in minimal delays. Expensive.
Subsequent text gives further information on each junction type.
12.4. T-Junctions
The basic junction layout for rural roads is the T-junction with the major road traffic having priority over the
minor road traffic. Applications of T-junctions include staggered T-junction, which caters to cross-traffic.
Staggered T-junctions are often the result of a realignment of the minor route to improve the angle of the skew
of the crossing, as shown in Figure 12-3. Where such staggered T-junctions are used, the left-right stagger is
preferred to the right-left stagger (see Figure 12-3). The reason for this is that, in the latter case, a crossing
vehicle must re-enter the minor road by making a left turn on the major roadway. In such cases, the inclusion
of a left-turning lane between the staggers should be considered. The minimum distance between the T-
junctions is shown in Table 12-1.

Figure 12-1: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows
Figure 12-2: T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road Traffic Flows

12.4.1. Figure 12-3: Staggered X-Junctions
12.5. Cross Junctions
A cross junction has four legs and is present where two highways cross each other. Overall principles of
design, island arrangements, use of turning lanes, and other parameters are similar to those used in T-
junctions.
Experience in some countries has shown that converting crossroads into roundabouts can reduce accident
costs by more than 80 percent.
Where more complex junction layouts involving the intersection of four or more roads are encountered, these
should be simplified by redesign to two junctions, or a roundabout should be used.
Having selected the basic junction layout, it is necessary to adapt this basic layout in accordance with the
following principles to ensure that a safe, economic and geometrically satisfactory design will be produced.
12.6. Distance between adjoining junctions
Level of service and driver perception is affected by the spacing of junctions. In certain cases, it may be
necessary to limit the junctions for reasons of safety and serviceability. Table 12-1 gives a guide to the
minimum spacing for each road design standard, and should be used for the design of new roads or when
reviewing junction layouts.
Table 12-1: Access Control
DESIGN STANDARD MINIMUM SPACING OF
JUNCTION (M)
R1/U1 500
R2/U2 300
R3U3-R4U4 100
R5U5- R6U6 20
Note: Classifications and spacing are for the major elements of the junction

12.7. Visibility Play
At all junctions, adequate visibility splay must be provided. For conditions where the minor road yields to the
major road traffic, drivers of vehicles on the major road must be able to see traffic on the minor road, and vice-
versa, as indicated in yield conditions in Figure 12-4 and Table 12-2. For conditions where the minor road
stops before proceeding to the major road, drivers must have a sight distance for stop conditions as indicated
in Figure 12-5 and Table 12-3. If the minor road approach is on a curve, the stopping sight distance for the
minor road design speed must be maintained, and a Stop Ahead sign must be employed
Figure 12-4: Visibility Splay for “Yield” Conditions
Table 12-2: Visibility Splay for “Yield” Conditions
Junction Design speed (km/h) 40 50 60 70 80 90
Approach Length, LA (m) 110 135 160 185 225 260

Figure 12-5: Visibility Splay for “Stop” Conditions
Table 12-3: Visibility Splay for “Stop” Conditions
Junction Design speed (km/h) 40 50 60 70 80 90
Stop Length, LS (m) 120 145 185 230 315 400
12.8. Turning Lanes
Left and right turning lanes are of particular value on the higher speed and volume roads when a vehicle
slowing down to turn and leave the major road may impede following vehicles
12.8.1. Right Turn Lane
Right turn lanes, comprising a taper section and deceleration lane, shall be provided for all national and
district roads R1, and R2 junctions, and for other road standards meeting any of the following conditions:
On four or more lane roads and divided highways

When the major road design speed is 90 km/hr or greater, and the present year AADT on the
major road is greater than 1500 AADT
When the present year AADT of the right-turning traffic is greater than 750 AADT
A detail of the layout for the Right Turn Lane is given in Figure 12-6. The length of the right turn lane including
the taper, measured as shown in the figure, is related to design speed as indicated in Table 12-4. The width of
the major approach lane shall be the same as the width of the traffic lanes.

Figure 12-6: Layout for Right Turn Lane
Table 12-4: Length of Right Turn Lane (For left hand drive vehicle)
Design Speed of Major Road Diverging Section Deceleration Section Total Length (L)
(km/h) Length (LC) m Length (LD) m
70 or less 30 30 60
80 40 50 90
90 50 70 120
12.8.2. Left Turn Lanes
Warrants are the same as for a right-turning lane. A separate lane for left turning traffic (traffic turning left from
the major road into the minor road) shall be provided for all trunk and link road junctions. Warrants for
inclusion of left turn lanes for other road standards are under any of the following conditions:
¾ On four or more lane roads and divided highways

¾ When the major road design speed is 90 km/hr or greater, and the present year AADT on the
major road is greater than 1500 AADT
¾ When the present year AADT of the left-turning traffic is greater than 750 AADT
A left turn lane will consist of a taper section, a deceleration section and a storage section. The minimum
lengths for taper sections are as for right turn lanes. A detail of the layout for a Left Turn Lane for a single
carriageway is given in Figure 12-7; the configuration for dual carriageways is shown in Figure 12-8. The
length of the left turn lane including the taper, measured as shown in the figure, is related to design speed as
indicated in Table 12-5. The length of the storage section is as indicated in Table 12-6.

Note: Where:
Lc = Length of diverging section
Central reservation to be formed by road markings LD = length of deceleration section
LS = Length of storage section
WL = width of through traffic lanes
Figure 12-7: Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Single Carriageway (For left hand drive vehicle)
Notes: Where:
Lc = Length of diverging section
Edges of central reserve may be curbed in LD = length of deceleration section
vicinity of junction. If raised curbs are used then LS = Length of storage section
they must be set back 0.25m from lane edges. WL = width of through carriageway
WC = width dependent upon width of central
reserve
CR = Normal central reserve width
Figure 12-8: Layout for Left-Turn Lane: Dual Carriageway (For left hand drive vehicle)
Table 12-5: Length of Left-Turn Lane
Design Speed of Major Road Diverging Section Deceleration Section Length

(km/h) Length (LC) m (LD) m
40 30 30
50 30 50
60 30 60

70 30 70
85 40 85
100 50 100
120 60 120
Table 12-6: Lengths of Storage Sections for Left-Turn Lanes
Left-Turning Traffic (AADT) Length of Storage Section (LS) m
0-1500 20
1500-3000 40
>3000 60
Provision of left turn lanes can be made for both the major and minor road. On single roadway roads where a
left turn lane is to be provided, a painted central reserve shall always be used.
In order to accommodate a left turn lane on a single roadway road the roadway has to be widened to provide
the required width. The widening shall be designed so that the through lanes are given smooth and optically
pleasing alignments. The width of the through lanes at the junction shall be the same as the approach lanes.
The widening shall be provided by the deviation of both through lanes from the centerline. This shall be
achieved by introducing a taper of 100-meter length at the beginning and ending of the widening
12.9. Traffic Islands
A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes for the control of vehicle movements and which may
also be used as a pedestrian refuge. Traffic islands may take the form of an area delineated by barrier curbs
or a pavement area marked by paint or a combination of these.
Traffic islands may be included in the design of junctions for one or more of the following purposes:
¾ Separation of conflicts
¾ Control of angle of conflict
¾ Reduction of excessive pavement areas
¾ Regulation of traffic and indication of proper use of junction
¾ Arrangements to favor a predominant turning movement
¾ Protection of pedestrians
¾ Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
¾ Location of traffic signs
Islands are either elongated or triangular in shape and are situated in areas not normally used as vehicle
paths, the dimensions depending upon the particular junction or bus stop layout.

The layout of an island is determined by the edges of the through traffic lanes, turning vehicles and the lateral
clearance to the island sides. Island curbs should be offset a minimum of 0.3 meters from the edge of through
traffic lanes even if they are mountable. A sample of a junction including divisional traffic islands is given in the
Standard Detail Drawings.
12.10. Private Access
A private access is defined as the intersection of an unclassified road with a classified road. An access shall
have entry and exit radii of 6 meters or greater, depending upon the turning characteristics of the expected
traffic. The minimum width shall be 3m. A typical access is show in Figure 12-9; dotted lines show possible
edge of corresponding shoulders. The location of the access must satisfy the visibility requirement for "stop
conditions" given in Figure 12-4. A drainage pipe shall be placed as required. The access shall be constructed
back to the right-of-way line, with a taper to match the existing access.
Figure 12-9: Typical Access
12.11. Roundabouts
A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which is controlled by markings
and signs. Priority is given to traffic already in the roundabout. Roundabouts provide high capacity and
minimal delay. Roundabouts have a good safety record.
12.11.1. Use of Roundabouts
Near built-up areas and in village centers where the through road may be crossed by local roads carrying
heavy traffic, the use of roundabouts may be considered.
The following factors influence the choice of selecting a roundabout over some other form of intersection
control:

12.11.2. Safety
Roundabouts should not be introduced on rural roads where the design speeds of adjacent sections are 90
km/h or greater. For design speeds approaching this value, consideration should be given to the use of
rumble strips and warning signs at the approaches to warn the driver to anticipate the roundabout.
12.11.3. Traffic Flow
High proportions of turning movements favor roundabouts. Roundabouts should generally be used if the minor
road flow is greater than one third of the major road flow. Roundabouts are also an advantage where peak
flows are 50 percent greater than the average flows. The roundabout depicted in Figure 12-10 and in the
Standard Detail Drawings is acceptable for traffic volumes of up to 15,000. This is based on empirical
regression theory, rather than gap-acceptance theory.
12.11.4. Site Conditions
Roundabouts generally take up more land than fully canalized junctions do. The additional land acquisition
costs for roundabouts should be balanced against the increased capacity offered.
12.11.5. Driver Conditions
12.11.6. Roundabouts regularize traffic flow and should reduce accidents as well as increase capacity
12.11.7. The General Layout
The general layout of a roundabout should provide for the following (see Figure 12-12):
•
•
Adequate entry widths
•
Adequate circulation space compatible with entry widths
Central islands of diameter sufficient only to give drivers guidance on the maneuvers
•
expected.
Deflection of the traffic to the right on entry to promote movement and ensure low traffic
•
speeds.
•
A simple and clear layout
•
Suitable visibility at any entry of each adjacent entry
Entry and exit deflection angles and central island radius should prevent through speeds in
excess of 50 km/h. This is accomplished by maximizing the difference between the shortest
tracks a driver can take through the roundabout, vs. the straight-line distance from an entry to
the opposite exit. No vehicle path should allow a vehicle to traverse the roundabout at a
radius greater than 100 meters (see Figure 12-11).
A standard design for the layout of a roundabout suitable for use in villages is given in the Standard Detail
Drawings.

Figure 12-10: Roundabout Layout
Figure 12-11: Vehicle Path through Roundabout

Figure 12-12: Roundabout Dimensions

13. Safety and Miscellaneous Design Items
13.1. Introduction
Road user safety has economic consequences in terms of property damage and loss of earnings or
production resulting from physical injury, in addition to the motional consequences of pain, suffering and
death. Safety and economy are the foundations on which competent design rests. Inadequate consideration
of either will automatically result in inadequate design. A checklist of engineering design features that affect
road safety is given in Figure 14-1.
Miscellaneous design items in this chapter include safety rest areas and scenic overlooks, bus lay-byes and
parking bays, parking lanes, public utilities, railway grade crossings, safety barriers, and emergency escape
ramps.
13.2. Safety Rest Areas and Sce ic Overlooks
Safety rest areas and scenic overlooks are desirable elements of the complete highway development and are
provided for the safety and convenience of the highway user.
A safety rest area is a roadside area with parking facilities separated from the roadway, provided for the
motorist to stop and rest for short periods. The rest area shall provide the user with an opportunity to halt in an
atmosphere that affords a distinct change from the monotony of driving.
A scenic overlook is a roadside area provided for motorists to park their vehicles, beyond the shoulder,
primarily for viewing the scenery or for taking photographs in safety. The attraction of such a facility depends
upon the presence of scenic and historical points of interest. The facilities shall be designed so as to avoid
marring the landscape.
Site selection for safety rest areas and scenic overlooks should consider the scenic quality of the area,
accessibility, and adaptability to development. Site plans should be developed that should include proper and
safe location of entrances and exits, road signs and markings, acceleration and deceleration lanes as
required, and parking areas for cars and trucks. They may also include certain types of rest facilities
(benches, tables, shelters, drinking fountains, restrooms).
Where such facilities are specified, the average distance between rest areas shall be 15- 25 km. As far as
possible, locations for such facilities shall be avoided where adjacent roadway gradients are in excess of 4%.
13.3. Bus Lay-Byes and Parking Bays
Rural Bus lay-byes serve to remove buses from the traffic lanes. Parking bays are provided for taxis and other
vehicles to stop outside of the roadway. The location and design of lay-byes should provide ready access in
the safest and most efficient manner possible. Providing lay-byes clear of the lanes for through traffic can
considerably reduced the interference between buses, taxis and other traffic.
To be fully effective, lay-byes should incorporate
¾ A deceleration lane or taper to permit easy entrance to the loading area

¾ A standing space sufficiently long to accommodate the maximum number of vehicles
expected to occupy the space at one time
¾ A merging lane to enable easy reentry into the through-traffic lanes.

The deceleration lane should be tapered at an angle flat enough to encourage the bus or taxi operator to pull
completely clear of the through lane. A taper of 5:1, longitudinal to transverse, is a desirable minimum.
A loading area should provide 15 meters of length for each bus. The width should be at least 3.5 meters and
preferably 4.0 meters. The merging or reentry taper may be somewhat more abrupt than the deceleration
taper but, preferably, should not be sharper than 3:1.
The total length of lay-byes for a two-bus loading area of minimum design should be as shown in Figure 14-2
and in the Standard Detail Drawings. These lengths of lay-byes expedite bus maneuvers, encourage full
compliance on the part of bus and taxi drivers, and lessen interference with through traffic. Sufficient footpath
shall be provided at the bus lay-by.
The standard detail drawings show a bus turnout at a mid-block location. They also depict a parking bay (see
also Figure 14-2).
Figure 14-1: Engineering Design Features Affecting Road Safety

Figure 14-2: Bus Lay-Byes and Parking Bays
Locating bus lay-byes and parking bays on the near side of junctions is to be discouraged. Where possible,
bus turnouts should be positioned subsequent to junctions. This location minimizes congestion and delays at
the junction. It is preferable that they are located at least 75m past an intersection.
13.4. Parking Lanes
Parking lanes differ from parking bays in that they allow for parking of vehicles rather than buses and taxis.
They should be provided at all congested business and shopping areas. The parking lane width for parallel
parking is 3m, which may be reduced to 2.5m where available space is limited. Where additional parking
capacity is desired and sufficient carriageway width is available, angle parking may be adopted.
13.5. Public Utilities
13.5.1. General
All highway improvements, whether upgraded within the existing right-of-way or entirely on new right-of-way,
generally entail adjustment of utility facilities. The costs of utility adjustment vary considerably depending on
the location of project. Utilities include:
1) Sanitary sewers
2) Water supply lines
3) Overhead and underground power and communications lines
4) Drainage and irrigation lines
The following factors should be considered in the location and design of utility installations.

Utility lines should be located to minimize need for later adjustment, to accommodate future highway
improvements, and to permit servicing such lines with minimum interference to traffic.
Longitudinal installation should be located on a uniform alignment as near as practicable to the right-of-way
line so as to provide a safe environment for traffic operation and preserve space for future highway or street
improvements of other utility installations.
To the extent feasible and practicable, utility line crossings of the highway should cross on a line generally
normal to the highway alignment. Those utility crossings those are more likely to require future servicing
should be encased or installed in tunnels to permit servicing without disrupting the traffic flow.
The horizontal and vertical location of utility lines within the highway right-of-way limits should conform to the
clear roadside policies and specific conditions for the particular section involved. Safety of the traveling public
should be a prime consideration in the location and design of utility facilities on highway rights-of-way.
Sometimes attachment of utility facilities to highway structures, such as bridges, is a practical arrangement
and may be authorized. Electric and Telephone Cables and water main placing in one trench should be done
according to Figure 14.3 unless otherwise stated by the concerned institutions.
All utility installations on, over, or under highway right-of-way and attached structures should be of durable
materials designed for long service-life expectancy, relatively free from routine servicing and maintenance,
and meet or exceed the requirements of the applicable industry codes or specifications.
On new construction in road locations no utility should be situated under any part of the road, except where it
must cross the highway.
Utility poles and other aboveground utility appurtenances that would constitute hazards to errant vehicles
should not be permitted within the highway clear zone. The only exceptions permitted would be where the
appurtenance is breakaway or could be installed behind a traffic barrier erected to protect errant vehicles from
some other hazard. The clear zone dimension that is to be maintained for a specific functional classification is
found in Chapter 6: Cross Section Elements
13.5.2. Electric Light and Power Authority
The placement of light poles, power poles, wires, and underground cables, as per the Secretariat of Electricity
guidelines, is given in the Appendix D.
13.5.3. Water and Sewerage Authority
The placement of water and sewerage pipes, as per the Secretariat of Water and Urbanization, is given in the
Appendix D.
13.5.4. Telecommunications Authority
The placement of telecommunications cables, as per the Secretariat of Transport, Equipments and
Communications, is given in the Appendix D.

Figure 14-3 Utilities placement detail
13.6. Safety Barries
Many accidents on high-speed roads involve vehicles leaving the road and coming into collision with
hazardous obstacles such as trees, bridge supports, or simply rolling down a high embankment. Similarly, a
vehicle leaving a lane on a dual carriageway runs the risk of collision with an oncoming vehicle. Barriers may
also protect roadside facilities from vehicle impact. The risk of these types of accidents can be reduced by the
use of safety barriers (guardrails). The purpose of the barrier is to absorb or deflect the impact with as little
severity as possible.
Safety barriers should be placed sufficiently far from the carriageway edge so as not to cause a hazard to
vehicles, nor to reduce the effective width of the carriageway.
There is no standardization of the configuration of safety barriers at present. A description of each type of
guardrail and a brief discussion of the positive and negative elements of each type follows.
13.6.1. Jersey Barriers
Of the guardrail types available, the Jersey barrier is the configuration classified as the safest. Constructed of
concrete, this rigid barrier has the best chance of preventing the vehicle from proceeding beyond the barrier.
It also has the best chance of avoiding vehicle and occupant injury if impacted, as the profile allows the
vehicle to ride up the barrier. However, the following problems have been noted:
¾ Jersey barriers must be continuous, as an opening, in addition to providing no protection, is in itself a

hazard.
¾ The beginning and end of the barriers usually include no transition sections, and thus represent a
hazard when hit head-on

13.6.2. Grouted Rock Guardrail
This rigid barrier makes economic sense in that it employs materials available locally in its construction, and
also serves as a means of labor-intensive employment. However, the rail tends to be of a wider configuration
than the others, and therefore requires a larger construction width. As it is of solid and substantial
construction, it also represents a hazard of itself. This could be mitigated by the inclusion of end sections, and
by the employment of a cross-section more closely approximating to that of a Jersey barrier.
13.6.3. Steel Rail Guardrail
This is perhaps the most common worldwide configuration of guardrail. This flexible barrier allows energy
absorption by the barrier, leading to less severe accidents. Using a steel rail supported by wood or concrete
posts, its configuration is shown in Figure 14-6. Special attention should be paid to the end sections, which
should not be blunt. The safest configuration is for the end section to be buried into the side slope
13.6.4. Steel Rail Guardrail
This type of guardrail consists of two strands of cables fed through concrete posts. These guardrails are the
least desirable configuration due to two factors:
¾ If the cable is snapped due to an impact, the entire length of guardrail becomes ineffective. By
comparison, if a steel rail configuration is hit, only one segment is ineffective.
¾ It appears that in some cases the cable is lost due to theft, whether for use in towing a vehicle or for
some other reason
13.6.5. Suggestions Regarding Placement of Barriers
The routine employment of barriers is called into question for several reasons:
¾ In addition to the construction cost of the guardrail itself, there are other related costs. These include
the need to construct a wider roadway width to provide a platform for the construction of the
guardrail. This is necessary particularly in mountainous terrain and in rock cuts, and adds more to
the construction costs than the cost of the guardrail itself.
¾ Traffic volumes are light on low-standard roads. It is likely that, in light of these volumes, if the
placement of guardrails were quantified using a cost/benefit analysis, the indication is that they would
not be cost effective.
¾ Where mountainous terrain with steep side slopes is encountered, the conscientious driver will
automatically adjust his behavior to compensate for the safety hazards anticipated associated with
the terrain, minimizing the need for the guidance provided by the guardrail.
¾ Guidelines rather than standards usually govern the placement or non-placement of guardrails. Thus
they are not an essential requirement for the road construction.
¾ The above factors can create problems with liability. Liability is minimized when guardrail placement
is not a requirement. Conversely, if guardrails are placed but not maintained, the chances of a finding
of liability are much greater.
The conclusion reached from consideration of the above is that guardrails should not routinely be constructed
where long and steep side slopes are encountered. However, a compromise in the interest of safety is to
provide delineators at all such sections.

Conversely, short sections of guardrail should be employed on the approaches to all bridges. Without these,
an errant driver can impact on the blunt end of the bridge rail, or proceed down the steep side slope into the
river. Guardrails should be used at all four corners of the bridges, and should be of a parabolic end section
configuration such that the guardrail begins a distance from the edge of the lane. The end treatment should
not be blunt, but should be buried into the ground. Decreasing the spacing of the guardrail posts to provide a
transition from the deformable rail section to the solid bridge railing should strengthen the section closest to
the bridge railing. The end of the last rail should be doweled into the face of the bridge rail.
Where guardrails are employed, they should include reflectors to aid in the guidance of vehicles at night.
Safety barriers, or guardrails, are a compromise between the conflicting demands of construction costs and
safety, and are themselves a hazard. To be warranted guardrails should be a lesser hazard than that which
they are intended to replace.
On existing roads an important warrant for guardrail installation is an adverse accident history. Another
warrant for the installation of guardrails is to install these where the driver cannot anticipate the danger
associated with the roadway segment.
In the case of proposed roads, it is necessary to consider whether an accident would be more likely with or
without guardrails, and whether the outcome of such an accident is likely to be more serious without
guardrails than with them. In certain areas where guardrails may be of benefit, for instance in mountainous
terrain, it is often the case that the additional width requirement for such installation cannot be achieved
without significant earthwork costs, often comprising rock materials
Another factor is that where guardrails are employed they need to be maintained. The responsible authority
cannot be held liable for not installing guardrails, but could be held liable for an accident due to an un-
maintained portion of guardrail.
Guardrails are only mandated at approaches to narrow bridges, being those of a width of 7.32 meters or
narrower. A standard guardrail detail is shown in Figure 14-6.
Figure 14-6: Guardrail

14. Pavement Markings
14.1. General Principles
Road markings and delineations are used to regulate traffic and guide road users. They may be used either
alone or to supplement other traffic control devices.
All road markings and delineation, like other traffic control devices should be uniform in design, position and
application so that they may be recognized and understood immediately by all road users.
Markings and delineators no longer applicable which may create confusion in the mind of the motorist shall
be removed or obliterated as soon as practicable. Other markings and delineations required by road
conditions or restrictions should be remove or obliterated when those conditions cease to exist or the
restrictions are withdrawn.
Markings which must be visible at night shall be reflectorized unless ambient illumination assures adequate
visibility. All markings on highways shall be reflectorized. Even on well lighted town and streets it is generally
desirable markings which must be visible at night be reflectorized.
In addition to reflectorized lines the use of road studs may be considered for roads with poor alignment or at
dangerous situations, for e.g. at important junctions and intersections.
Pavement markings have definite limitations. They may not be clearly visible when wet, and may not be very
durable when subjected to heavy traffic. Therefore they require frequent maintenance. Their effect on skid
resistance requires care in the choice of materials to be used. Finally they cannot be applied to unsealed
roads
14.2. Materials
Road pavements may be marked by one or more of the following materials:
a) Paint
b) Thermoplastics
c) Preformed tapes
14.2.1. Paint (Reflectorized and Non Reflectorized)
Only road line paints conforming to M.S. 164: 1973, tested and approved by SIRIM shall be used. Paint is
best used in situations and on roads where the markings are not subjected to heavy traffic wear.
14.2.2. Thermoplastics (Reflectorized and Non – Reflectorized)
Thermoplastics used shall be of the hot-applied thermoplastics material conforming to B.S 3262 or the
equivalence. This material is applied hot and sets on laying. It has good durability and is recommended to
be used in heavily travelled urban areas and in main highways with high traffic densities. All road centre lines
shall be in thermoplastics
14.2.3. Preformed Tape
Markings in this material take the form of plastic sheet attached to the carriageway surface by means of an
adhesive. The markings must be patterned or embossed in order secure satisfactory resistance to skidding. It
can be used as temporary markings because it can be removed easily even after an extended time period.

14.3. Colours
All pavement markings shall be white in color. Yellow paint may be used at:
a) Yellow boxes in the urban areas.

b) kerb markings showing parking prohibitions covered by signs or ordinance.
c) parking bays for taxis, buses and pedestrian crossings.
d) Yellow bars at approaches to roundabouts and crosswalks.
The standard color for yellow markings shall be color No.356 B.S. 381 C.
14.4. Type of Markings
Pavement markings are divided into the following types:
i) Longitudinal lines
ii) Transverse lines
iii) Other markings
14.4.1. Longitudinal Lines
14.4.1.1. General
Longitudinal line shall consist of either an unbroken or a broken line or a combination of both marked in the
direction of travel.
Broken line is used to separate moving vehicles where there is unrestricted visibility and may be crossed at
the discretion of drivers.
Single unbroken line is used where the crossing of the line is to be discouraged or is legally prohibited, e.g.
edge and lane lines. Double unbroken lines or combinations of unbroken and broken lines are used where
crossing of the lines is legally prohibited unless in the latter case where the broken line of the combination as
viewed by a driver is to the left of the unbroken line.
The dimensions of longitudinal lines are shown in Fig. 1. The thickness of the longitudinal lines should be 3
mm to 5 mm when applied by screeding and 1.0 mm to 1.5 mm when sprayed.
14.4.1.2. Centre Line
Centre line is used to designate the centre of the travelled part of a roadway carrying traffic in both directions.
It need not be at the geometrical centre of the pavement as in the case of a pavement- width transition where
an extra uphill traffic lane is provided.
Centre Lines on Rural Roads
The centre line on a 2-lane rural road shall be a broken white line, 100mm wide. The broken line shall consists
of strokes of equal length separated by uniform gaps. The speed of vehicles on the section of road or in the
area in question should be taken into account in determining the length of the strokes and of the gaps
between them.
The standard ratio of gap to stroke of 5 to 3 shall be used. On rural roads use a gap of 7.5m with a 4.5m
stroke. However, on mountainous terrain or with short radius curves, use a 4.5m gap with 2.7m stroke.

On 4-lane undivided rural roads, the centre line shall consists of two unbroken white lines, each 100 mm wide
and separated by a space of 125 mm.
Centre lines shall be provided on all paved 2- lane roadways (including bridges), 5.5m or more in width if
traffic volume is in excess of 400 vehicles (A.A.D.T.) a day. On single lane bridges centre lines shall be
discontinued 30m from each abutment.
Centre Lines on Urban Streets
The centre line on a 2-way urban street having 2 lanes shall be a broken white line, and 100mm wide. For the
more busy city streets a continuous white line, 100mm wide, may be used where it is desirable to discourage
crossing of the line.
The centre lines on a undivided 2-way street with 4 or more lanes shall be a continuous double white lines,
each 100mm wide and separated by a space of 125 mm. In urban areas, the length and spacing of the
strokes should be less than those used for rural areas. The strokes may be reduced to lm with 1.7m gaps. On
certain main urban arteries where traffic moves fast, however, the characteristics of centre line markings may
be the same as for rural areas.
Lane lines
Lane lines are useful in organizing traffic into its proper channels, thereby increasing the efficiency of the use
of the roadway. They should therefore be used:
i) on all rural highways with 4 or more lanes, in addition to the centre lines.
ii) at approaches to important intersections and crosswalks and in dangerous locations, both on
rural highways and city streets.
iii) on one-way streets where maximum efficiency in the utilization of the roadway is desired.
Lane Lines on Rural Roads
They shall be broken white lines, 100mm wide with 4.5m strokes and 7.5m gap. An unbroken line may be
used to accentuate the lane marking in critical areas and more clearly define the traffic lanes where it is
advisable to discourage lane changing, in locations such as interchange areas where unnecessary lane
changing is detrimental to smooth traffic flow.
Lane Lines on Urban Street
On city streets lane lines shall also be broken lines but a gap/stroke length of 1.7m and lm is recommended.
The unbroken line may also be used to discourage lane changing especially at interchange areas. Fig.2
shows general pavement markings in urban street.
14.4.1.3. No passing zones marking
No-passing zones shall be established at vertical and horizontal curves and elsewhere on 2- lane (or 3-lane)
highways, where passing must be prohibited because of dangerously restricted sight distance or other
hazardous conditions. See Fig. 3.
No-passing zones shall be marked by a double continuous white line or a combination of continuous and
broken lines as described in clause 4.1.1 No passing zone markings on road pavements shall be not less than
120m in length. If the actual no-passing distance is less than 120m, the additional length of marking shall be
added at the beginning of the zone, unless the length of road with sight distance below the minimum required
is less than 30m in length then no barrier lines are necessary. Where successive no passing zones are less
than 120m apart, the no-passing markings shall be extended to the two zones.

The no-passing barrier lines should also be used on two-way roadways at pavement width transitions and on
approaches to obstructions. It may also be used on approaches to intersections.
14.4.1.3.1 Warrants for No-passing Zones at Curve
A no-passing zone at a horizontal or vertical curve is warranted where the sight distance as defined below is
less than the minimum necessary for safe passing at the prevailing speed of traffic. Sight distance on a
vertical curve is the distance at which an object 1.2m above the pavement surface can just be seen from
another point 1.2m above the pavement. Similarly the sight distance on a horizontal curve is taken as the
distance measured along the centre line between two points 1.2m above the pavement on a line tangent to
the embankment or other obstruction that cuts the view on the inside of the curve.
A curve shall warrant a no-passing zone and shall be so marked where the sight distance is equal to or less
than that listed below for the prevailing 85 percentile* speed:
85 percentile Min sight

speed (km/h) distance (m)
40 150
50 150
60 180
70 210
80 250
90 305
100 340
110 370
*85 percentile speed is the speed below which 85% of the traffic travel, and above which 15% travel.
The beginning of no-passing zone is that point at which the sight distance first becomes less than that point at
which the sight distance again becomes greater than the minimum specified.
Figures 4 and 5 shows the methods of establishing no overtaking zones on vertical curve.
14.4.1.4. Warning arrows
These warning arrows should only be applicable on rural roads. Drivers must be given warning of their
approach to any arrangement of double lines by three arrows on the carriageway directing them towards the
left hand side of the road.
Approach warning arrows are usually positioned in the centre of the carriageway. The dimensions and
spacing of the arrows is as shown in Fig. 6
14.4.1.5. Climbing Lanes
Climbing lanes are provided at steep grades on roads carrying high traffic volumes containing a significant
proportion of heavy vehicles. The typical treatment of signs and pavement markings is given in Fig.7. An
alternative system is as shown in Fig.8.

14.4.1.6. Pavement Edge Lines
Pavement edge lines should be 150 mm wide. Edge lines are used wherever it is desirable to discourage
travel on road shoulders and to make driving safe and more comfortable, particularly at night, by providing a
continuous guide for drivers. They also act as a guide past object which are close enough to the edge of the
road pavement to constitute a hazard. The edge line of pavement with no marginal strip should be at least 150
mm from pavement edge.
On divided roads where the median is not sufficiently delineated, pavement edge lines may be provided on
the right hand edge of each pavement.
Application of edge lines is as shown in Fig. 9
14.4.1.7. Continuity Lines
A continuity line 200mm wide with lm strokes and lm gaps may be used to indicate the edge of that portion of
a carriageway assigned to through traffic, and where it is intended that the line be crossed by traffic turning at
an intersection, or entering or leaving an auxiliary lane at its start or finish. Examples of continuity lines used
at ramp exits and entrances are shown in Fig.10.
14.4.1.8. Pavement- Width Transitions
A transition line should be provided to guide or deflect vehicles laterally at points which:
i) The width of the carriageway changes a greater or lesser number of lanes.

ii) Traffic has to negotiate median, traffic islands, safety zones, or obstructions on the roadway.
Pavement-width transition lines shall be 200mm wide. Transition lines may be single broken, single unbroken
or double lines in accordance with the situation. They shall be of standard design as for centre lines, lane lines
or barrier lines. The required length of the transition line shall be determined by the following formula:
i) L = 0.15V x W to 0.30V x W for diverging or minor changes.

ii) L = 0.45V x W to 0.6V x W for merging areas. Use the higher value when traffic volumes are high.
where L = Length of transition (m)

V = 85 percentile speed (km/h)
W= Lateral offset (m)
provided that the length of line shall be not less than 60m in rural areas and 30m in urban areas.
14.4.1.9. Turn Line
Turn line may be used within major or complex intersection to indicate the proper course to be followed by
turning vehicles. They shall be broken lines 100mm wide with a stroke of 600am and a gap of 600mm.
14.4.2. Tranverse Lines
14.4.2.1. General
Transverse lines are marked across the road and are generally associated with intersection or junction
controls, or traffic signals.
Transverse lines should be wider than longitudinal lines because of the narrowing which results from the low
angle at which they are viewed.

They shall be of non-skid materials and shall protrude 5 mm above the level of the carriageway.
14.4.2.2. Stop Lines
This shall be unbroken line 300mm wide. They shall extend across the traffic lanes approaching traffic signals
or at STOP sign. It indicates the point behind which vehicles must stop when required. At STOP signs where
visibility is restricted, the driver's line of sight, the need for a pedestrian crossing and the clearance from traffic
in the intersecting roadway should be considered when positioning the STOP line. STOP lines shall generally
be either parallel to the line of the intersecting roadway, or at right angles to vehicles approaching the line.
They shall ordinarily be placed 1.2m in advance of and parallel to the nearest crosswalk line. In the absence
of a marked crosswalk, the stop line should be placed not more than 10m nor less than 1.2m for the nearest
edge of intersecting roadway.
Refer to Figures 11 and 12.
If a stop line is used in conjunction with a Stop Sign, it should normally be placed in line with the stop line.
However, if a Stop Sign cannot be located exactly where vehicles are expected to stop, the Stop Sign line
should be placed at the Stopping point.
14.4.2.3. Holding Lines or Give Way Lines
These lines are marked across the mouth of an intersection when vehicles on the other arms of the
intersection have the priority of way. The holding lines or give way lines are to supplement the give way sign.
They should be placed not more than 10m nor less than 1.2m from the nearest edge of intersecting roadway.
The width of these lines are to be 200mm and marked in a gap/stroke ratio of 300mm gap 300mm strip. The
triangular give way marking can be used to supplement this give way line. Refer to Fig.12
14.4.2.4. Pedestrian Crossing Markings
Pedestrian crossing (Zebra) Markings. This shall consist of a series of strips 600mm wide. The width of the
crosswalk should be from 1.8 to 3.6m wide. The crossing shall normally be at right angles to the road centre
line but it may be angle by not more than 30 degrees where local circumstances require it.
Crosswalk lines at intersections controlled by traffic signals or stop sign can also be of solid white lines of 150
mm wide 1.8 to 3.6m apart. See Fig.13
14.4.3. Other Markings
14.4.3.1. Diagonal and Chevron Markings
Wide diagonal markings as shown in Fig-14 may be applied to areas of pavement which are not intended for
use by moving vehicles. They define splayed island approaches, or obstructions, sealed shoulders, painted
island and medians and areas separating exit ramps from the carriageway. An example is shown in Fig. 15.
14.4.3.2. Message on
14.4.3.2.1. General
Words, numerals and symbols to convey guiding, warning or regulatory message to drivers. They should be
elongated in the direction of traffic movement in order that they may be legible at the maximum distance.
Legibility distance is increased by enlarging the length of characters.

14.4.3.2.2. Words and Numerals
The length of letters and numerals should be not less than 2.4m in urban areas but on high speed roads may
need to be at least twice this length. The dimensional proportions of letters and numerals should be as shown
in Fig. 16.
A message should, if' possible, be confined to one line. If the message consists of more than one word, the
first word should be nearest to the approaching driver. On high speed roads the space between the lines
should be at least four times the height of the character. For low speed, urban situations, the separation
between lines may, if necessary, be from one-half to one times the character height.
Word messages for use on road pavements include the following:
i) Keep Left
ii) Caution
iii) Slow Down
iv) Railway
14.4.3.3. Arrows
Arrows are used to ensure correct lane usage at approaches to intersections, exit ramps and other control
points. Pavement arrows as shown in Fig. 19 are elongated similarly to letters or numerals.
If any lane on the approach to an intersection is to be designated by means of arrows, at least three arrows
should be placed in that lane to increase the probability of recognition. A spacing of 15 to 30m should be used
between repeater arrows according to the size of the arrow, larger arrows being used for higher speed roads.
Refer to Fig. 11.
14.4.3.4. Approaches to Railway Crossing Markings
Pavement markings consisting of a cross, the wording Railway, a no-passing zone marking and stop lines
shall be placed on all approaches to railroad crossings whether with or without gates. This is a means of
attracting the attention of the driver to the proximity of a railway level crossing.
14.4.3.5. Parking Space Limits
The marking of parking space limits on streets encourages more orderly and efficient use of parking spaces,
and tends to prevent encroachment on fire hydrant zones, bus stops, loading zones, approaches to corners,
and clearance spaces for islands.
All lines for parking space shall be solid lines not less than 100mm wide nor more than 150mm wide. Angle
parking is generally not desirable especially on narrow streets. Details of angle parking and parallel parking
spaces is as shown in Fig. 21. An example of markings for bus stops is shown in Fig. 22.
14.4.3.6. Paved Shoulder Markings
Wherever paved-shoulder exist, they should be differentiated from the traffic lanes by a definite contrast in
surface appearance, riding characteristics, and texture. The through traffic lanes and shoulder areas should
be clearly defined at all times, particularly at night or in bad weather when visibility is poor.
When the shoulder-pavement contrast is not sharp enough pavement edge line marking should be provided to
indicate the edge of the traffic lane, in particular where the paved shoulder is not structurally adequate to carry
all traffic. Care should be taken to ensure that the shoulder will not appear as another traffic lane to drivers.

14.4.3.7. Yellow Boxes
These are painted at intersections to indicate a prohibition of parking or waiting. An example is as shown in
Fig. 24.
14.4.3.8. Kerb Markings
Kerbs of medians and traffic island may be painted and reflectorized if added visibility is required.
Kerbs which may be a hazard to through traffic may be painted in black and white segments not exceeding
1.5m in length. All kerbs so treated shall commence and finish with a white segment. White segments may be
reflectorized.
Kerbs at openings in a continuous median island need not be marked unless individual study indicates the
need for this type of marking.
These markings consist of yellow thermoplastic lines 5 mm thick laid across the carriageway. The pattern of
the transverse yellow bar markings for use on the approaches to roundabouts and cross walk is as illustrated
in Fig. 25. The first bar shall be laid at a distance of 35 meters measured back along the centre line of the
carriageway from the give-way line at the roundabout and from the stop line at the cross walk. Successive line
shall then be spaced in accordance with the measurements given in the tables of Fig.
These markings were designed to influence a driver to slow down after a period of sustained speed which
may be acquired by a driver travelling on a highway or high speed roads. Transverse yellow bars should not
be used on curves Transverse Yellow Bars at approaches to roundabouts and cross walks
14.5. Post Mounted Delineators
Post delineators are effective aids for nighttime driving. They are considered to be guide, markings rather than
warning devices and should never be substituted for a proper warning sign. The purpose of delineators is to
outline the edge of the roadway and to indicate the roadway alignment. Post delineators usually consist of
reflector units (glass, plastic, or reflective sheets) mounted on suitable supports. Post mounted delineators are
beneficial for horizontal curves over 5°. It should be pointed out that whilst installation of such delineators or
markers will assist night driving, it may also encourage drivers to increase speed. Unless other safety features
are correspondingly increased, such installation can give drivers a false sense of security. Measures should
be taken to improve the superelevation of the road at the bend
14.5.1. Materials and Design
Post delineators are simply reflector units mounted on suitable supports. Both the reflector units and the
supports should be of types approved by DRBFC. The reflector units may be of the circular corner-cube
prismatic lens type and shall be not less than 75 mm diameter. They can also be made of glass, plastic, or
reflective sheetings. Reflective sheetings should be of rectangular shape 180mm x 50mm and should be of
the high intensity retro-reflective material.
These reflector units must be capable of clearly reflecting light under normal atmospheric conditions from a
distance of 300 meters when illuminated by the upper beam of standard automobile lights. Timber posts
should be of hardwood timber painted with stripes of black and orange. Detail of the delineator posts is as
shown in Fig. 27.
14.5.2. Color and Applications
Delineators on curves shall be of silver or white color placed on the left side of the road and shall be of red
color on the right side of the road, in the direction of travel. On the immediate approaches, in advance and

beyond the curve, the delineators shall be of silver or white colour, used in pairs, one on each side of the road
directly opposite each other. See Fig.28.
Red delineators are also to be used for delineation of roads through construction sites or temporary diversions
where a higher degree of danger exists. They should be used sparingly to command respect and for it to be
more effective. The recommended spacing shall be at 18m interval.
14.5.3. General Requirements of Post Mounted
14.5.3.1. The top of the post mounted delineator should be 1.2m above the ground level
14.5.3.2. The reflector unit should be 50mm from the top of the post
14.5.3.3. Delineators should be placed at a constant distance from the edge of the roadway except that, where
a guardrail or other obstructions intrudes into the space between the pavement edge and the
extension of the line of delineators, the delineators should be in line with or inside the innermost
edge of the obstruction. See Fig. 29.
14.5.3.4.
Spacing should be adjusted on approaches and throughout horizontal curves so that several delineators are
always visible to the driver so that several delineators are always visible to the driver. Table 1 below shows a
suggested spacing on curves.
Spacing for specific, radii not shown may be interpolated from the table. The minimum spacing should be 6 m.
The spacing of the first delineator approaching a curve is 2S, the second 3S and the third 6S but not to
exceed 90 m. This is as shown in Fig.28.
Table 1: Suggested Maximum Spacing for Road Delineators on Horizontal curve
Degree of Curve Radius of Curve Spacing On Curve , S

(Degrees) (Meters) (Meters)
114.6 15 6
38.2 45 9
28.6 60 11
22.9 75 12
19.1 90 15
14.3 125 17
11.5 150 20
9.5 180 21
8.2 215 23
7.2 240 25
6.4 275 26
5.7 300 27

FIG 2: PAVEMENT MARKING ON URBAN STREET

FIG 9 :
TYPICAL APPLICATION ON EDGE LINE

PEDESTRIAN CROSSING MARKINGS

Appendix A
Road Geometric Design Standards Classification of Roads
A. CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF ROADS
The following are the classified roads in Timor-Leste under the classification of national and district level. This classification should always be
updated and the information should be used after getting confirmation from the Directorate of Roads, Bridges and Flood Control.
ANNEX A-1: NATIONAL ROADS – GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ROADS (Km) Width (in m.) GEOMETRY OTHER DATA
(m)
# Link Name Link # District Code Type of Length Cum Road Should (# of) Class Altitude Rainfall Ride Surface
Class Surface Lanes Quality Cond
1 Dili Mota ulun Manatuto (A09Jct) A01-01 Dili/Manatuto N. 1 Paved 58,7 58,7 5.0 1.0 2 4 50 M F G
2 Manatuto Baucau (By pass) A01-02 Manatuto N Baucau 1 paved 57,3 116.0 5.0 1.0 2 5 150 L F G
3 Baucau Lautem A01-03 Baucau 1 Paved 59,8 175,8 4.5 1.0 2 3 150 L F F
(Downtown)
4 Lautem Com A01-04 Lautem 1 paved 20,3 196.1 4.5 1.0 2 3 50 L F F
5 Dili (Taibesi Rd) Aileu A02-01 Dili / Aileu 1 Paved 43,7 43,7 5.0 0.5 2 7 950 M G G
6 Aileu Maubisse A02-02 Aileu 1 paved 25.0 68.7 4.5 0.5 2 7 1,200 M G G
7 Maubisse Aituto (A05 Jct) A02-03 Aileu / Ainaro 1 Paved 31.1 81.8 4.5 0.5 2 5 1,800 H G G
8 Aituto (A05 Jct) Ainaro A02-04 Ainaro 1 paved 26.3 108.1 4.3 0.5 2 7 1,500 H G G
9 Ainaro Cassa A02-05 Ainaro 1 Paved 21.1 129,2 4.5 0.5 2 4 600 M G G
10 Cassa Zumalai A02-06 Suai 1 paved 17.0 146,2 4.5 0.5 2 3 250 M P P
11 Zumalai Suai A02-07 Suai 1 Paved 29.8 176.0 4.3 1.2 2 3 250 L P F
12 Dili (Airport Jct) Tibar A03-01 Dili/ Liquica 1 paved 7.2 7.2 5.8 1.0 2 3 50 L F G
13 Tibar Liquica A03-02 Liquica 1 Paved 20.0 27.2 4.5 1.0 2 3 50 L F G
14 Liqiuca Batugade A03-03 Liquica/Maliana 1 paved 75.9 103.1 4.3 1.0 2 5 50 M F G
15 Batugade Mota Ain A03-04 Maliana 1 Paved 3.3 106,4 4.5 1.0 2 1 50 M F F
16 Batugade Maliana A03-05 Maliana 1 paved 41.3 147,7 4.4 1.0 2 3 50 M F F
17 Tibar Gleno A04-01 Liquica Ermera 1 Paved 33.6 33.6 4.6 0.5 2 6 1,000 L F G
18 Gleno Ermera A04-02 Ermera 1 paved 11.9 45.5 4.5 0.5 2 5 1,000 M G F
19 Aituto(A02 Jct) Betulala A05-01 Ainaro/Same 1 Paved 10.8 10.8 3.6 0.5 2 7 1,200 H VP VP
20 Betulala Same A05-02 Same 1 paved 18.6 29.4 4.0 0.5 2 5 700 H P P
21 Sama Betano A05-03 Same 1 Paved 25.2 54.6 4.4 0.5 2 4 250 H F F
22 Baucau(By pass) Venilale A06-01 Baucau 1 paved 23.9 23.9 4.0 0.5 2 5 800 M F F
23 Venilale Viqueque A06-02 Baucau/Viqueque 1 Paved 33.4 57.3 4.0 0.5 2 7 1,000 M P P
24 Viqueque natarbora A07-01 Viqueque/Manatuto 1 paved 43.0 43.0 3.2 0.5 2 3 100 LI VP F
25 Viqueque Uatucarbau(Jctc8) A08-01 Viqueque 1 Paved 65.0 65.0 3.0 0.5 2 4 200 MI VP VP
26 Uatucarbau(Jctc8) Iliomar A08-02 Viqueque/Lautem 1 Earth 16.3 81.3 3.2 0.0 2 5 100 MI VP VP
27 Ilomar Los palos A08-03 Lautem 1 Paved 45.0 126.3 3.2 0.5 2 5 400 MI VP VP
28 Los Palos Lautem A08-04 Lautem 1 paved 27.91 154.2 4.0 0.5 2 4 10 M F F
29 Manatuto Criba A09-01 Manatuto N. 1 Paved 22.3 22.3 4.6 1.0 2 3 625 MI F P
30 Criba Laclubar Jct A09-02 Manatuto S 1 paved 13.1 35.4 3.5 0.5 2 5 700 MI VP VP
31 Laclubar Jct Mane hat A09-03 Manatuto S 1 Earth 29.7 65.1 3.1 0.5 2 6 600 MI VP VP
Page 1
Appendix A
(m)
32 Mane hat Natarbora A09-04 Manatuto. S 1 paved 15.7 80.8 4.2 0.5 2 5 100 MI P P
33 Gleno(Ermera Jct) Lourba (A12 Jct) A10-01 Ermera/Maliana 1 Paved 76.0 76.0 3.5 0.5 2 7 1,000 M VP P
34 Ermera Maliana A11-01 Ermera/Maliana 1 paved 64.0 64.0 3.5 0.5 2 6 500 MI VP VP
35 Maliana Oeleu A12-01 Maliana 1 paved 15.5 15.5 4.6 0.5 2 6 250 M F F
36 Oeleu Lourba (A10 Jct) A12-02 Maliana 1 paved 9.8 25.3 4.6 0.5 2 7 1,000 M VP VP
37 Lourba(A10 jct) Zumalai A12-03 Maliana/Ainaro/Suai 1 paved 26.1 51.4 3.6 0.5 2 5 750 M VP VP
38 Aiassa (A05-Jct) Hato udo A13-01 Same?Ainaro 1 paved 17.0 17.0 3.5 0.5 2 3 900 M P P
39 Hato Udo Cassa A13-02 Ainaro 1 paved 6.6 23.6 3.5 0.5 2 5 800 M P P
40 Natarbora Alas Jct A14-01 Manatuto S Viqueque 1 paved 37.7 37.7 3.6 1.0 2 4 350 L F G
41 Alas Jct Betano A14-02 Manatuto N 1 paved 8.6 46.3 3.6 1.0 2 4 300 L F G
42 Suai Tilomar A16 Jct A15-01 Suai 1 paved 12.5 12.5 4.3 1.2 2 3 75 L P G
43 Tilomar(A16 Jct) Wemasa Rd Bry A15-02 Suai 1 Paved 14.8 27.3 4.0 1.0 2 3 75 L P G
44 Oeleu (A12 Jct) Fatululik A16-01 Maliana 1 Paved 28.7 28.7 3.6 0.5 2 7 625 M VP VP
45 Fatululik Tilomar A16-02 Suai 1 Earth 48.0 76.7 3.2 0.5 2 6 1,000 MI VP VP
46 Pante Macassar Oesilo A17-01 Oecusi 1 Paved 28.0 28.0 4.0 5.0 2 5 250 MI VP F
47 Pante Macassar Citrana Rd Bry A18-01 Oecusi 1 Paved 45.0 45.0 4.0 0.5 2 4 250 MI VP F
48 Pante Macassar Saketo Rd Bry A19-01 Oecusi 1 Paved 15.0 15.0 4.0 0.5 2 4 250 M VP F
49 Los palos Iliomar(Vialore) C1 Lautem II Paved 57.7 57.7 3.0 0.0 2 6 250 M VP P
50 Fuiloro(trisula Jc Jaco (Via Tutuala) C2 Lautem II Paved 38.3 96.0 3.0 0.0 2 6 250 M VP P
51 Com Trisula C3 Lautem II Paved 15.2 111.2 3.0 0.0 2 5 250 VI VP VP
52 A01 Luro C4 Lautem II Paved 14.2 125.4 3.0 0.0 2 4 250 L VP P
Jct(Buihomao)
53 Luro A08 Jct C4 Lautem II Earth 10.0 135.4 3.0 0.0 2 7 250 M VP VP
54 A07 Jct Lacluta/Dilor C5 Viquque II Paved 12.4 147.4 3.0 0.0 2 7 250 M VP VP
55 Mulia (A01 Jct) Quelicai C6 Baucau II Paved 17.8 165.6 3.0 0.0 2 5 420 L VP P
56 Quelicai Ossu C6 Baucau/Viqueque II Earth 34.9 200.5 3.0 0.0 2 6 535 MI VP VP
57 Uatulari Laisorulai,Via C7 Viqueque II Gravel 34.0 234.5 3.0 0.0 2 4 250 M G G
Abana
58 Laga (A01Jct) Baugia C8 Baucao II Paved 37.6 272.1 3.0 0.0 2 5 450 L VP VP
59 Bagia Uatucarbau(A08Jct) C8 Viquque II Earth 22.1 294.2 3.0 0.0 2 4 250 MI VP VP
60 Vila Biqueli C9 Dili II Gravel 20.0 314.2 3.0 0.0 2 4 250 L P F
61 A02 Jct Km 9.5 C10 Aileo/Ermera II Paved 8.0 322.2 3.0 0.0 2 6 1,000 M VP P
62 Km 9.5 A04 Jct C10 Aileo/Ermera II Paved 9.5 331.7 3.0 0.0 2 4 1.150 M VP VP
63 A02 Jct Lequidoe C11 Aileo II Paved 16.9 348.6 3.0 0.0 2 5 1000 M VP P
64 Lequidoe Aileo C 11 Aileo II Paved 10.9 359.5 3.0 0.0 2 6 1000 MI VP VP
65 A02 Jct Laulara C12 Aileo II Paved 0,4 359,9 3.0 0.0 2 7 400 L VP G
66 Ermera Fatubesi C13 Ermera II Paved 11.4 371.3 3.0 0.0 2 5 250 H P P
67 A02 Jct Remexio C12 Aileo II Paved 4.2 375.5 3.0 0.0 2 7 625 M F P
68 Remexio Laclo C14 Manatutu N II Earth 45.0 420.5 30 0.0 2 7 400 MI VP VP
69 Laclo A01 Jct C14 Manatutu N II Paved 16.6 437.1 3.0 0.0 2 2 250 L VP F
70 A09 Jct Laclubar C15 Manatutu N II Paved 9.6 446.7 3.0 0.0 2 4 1000 M VP P
71 Tokolui (A04 Jct) Bazartete C17 liquica II Earth 27.6 474.3 3.0 0.0 2 5 1000 LI VP VP
72 Aipelo(A03 Jct) Bazartete C17 Liquica II Paved 14.4 488.7 3.0 0.0 2 5 625 L VP P
73 A03 Jct A11 Jct C18 Maliana II Earth 27.0 515.7 3.0 0.0 2 4 250 MI VP VP
74 Bauqia Bassabe C19 Oequse II Paved 27.6 543.3 3.0 0.0 2 6 250 M VP VP
75 Oesilu Tumin C20 Oequse II Gravel 9.0 551.3 3.0 0.0 2 4 250 M P P
Page 2
Appendix A
(m)
76 Suai Fatululik (a16 Jct) C21 Suai II Paved 26.1 577.4 3.0 0.0 2 7 625 M VP P
77 Letefoho(A10Jct) Hatobuilico Jct C22 Ainaro II Earth 18.4 595.8 3.0 0.0 2 4 1,800 MI VP VP
78 Hato Udo Ainaro C23 ainaro II Paved 26.7 622.5 3.0 0.0 2 5 550 M VP VP
79 A02 Jct Hatobulico C 25 Ainaro II Paved 18.3 640.8 3.0 0.0 2 7 1,750 H VP P
80 A02Jct Turiscai C26 Ainaro II Paved 20.4 661.2 3.o 0.0 2 7 1,550 M VP VP
81 Alas Turiscai C27 Same II earth 38.0 699.2 3.0 0.0 2 7 1000 MI VP VP
82 Dotic (A14 Jct) Alas (via fatuberliu) C28 Same II Earth 38.0 699.2 3.0 0.0 2 7 1000 MI VP VP
83 Mane Hat (A09 Soibada C29 Manatuto S II earth 9.5 733.7 3.0 0.0 2 4 600 MI VP VP
Jct)
84 Laclubar Jct Soibada C30 Manatuto S II Paved 23.6 757.3 3.0 0.0 2 5 1.050 M VP VP
85 Wedauberec (A14) Alas C31 same II earth 18.0 775.3 3.0 0.0 2 7 250 M VP VP
86 Lolotoe Jct Beco C32 Suai II Paved 22.8 798.1 3.0 0.0 2 5 750 M F F
Page 3
Appendix C
Road Geometric Design Standards Measuring Sight Distance
B. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
The coefficient of friction as determined by studies is as shown in Figure B-1.
Figure B-1: Skid Resistance for Various Tire and Pavement Conditions
Page 4
Appendix C
C MEASURING AND RECORDING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PLANS
By determining graphically the sight distances on the plans and recording them at frequent intervals, the
designer can appraise the overall layout and effect a more balanced design by minor adjustments in the
plan of profile. Once the horizontal and vertical alignments are tentatively established, the practical
means of examining sight distances along the proposed highway is by direct scaling on the plans.
Methods for scaling sight distances are demonstrated in Figure C-1. The figure also shows a typical
sight distance record that could be shown on the final plans.
Because the view of the highway ahead may change rapidly in a short distance, it is desirable to
measure and record sight distance for both directions of travel at each station. Both horizontal and
vertical sight distances should be measured and the shorter lengths recorded. In the case of two-lane
highways, passing sight distance in addition to stopping sight distance should be measured and
recorded.
Figure C-1: Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans
Horizontal sight distance on the inside of a curve is limited by obstructions such as buildings, hedges,
wooded areas, high ground, or other topographic features. These generally are plotted on the plans.
Horizontal sight is measured with a straightedge, as indicated at the upper left in Figure C-1. The cut
slope obstruction is shown on the worksheets by a line representing the proposed excavation slope at a
point 600 millimeters (approximate average of 1070 millimeters and 150 millimeters) above the road
surface for stopping sight distance and at a point about 1100 millimeters above the road surface for
passing sight distance. The position of this line with respect to the centerline may be scaled from the
Page 5
Appendix C
plotted highway cross sections. Preferably, the stopping sight distance should be measured between
points on the one traffic lane, and passing sight distance from the middle of one lane to the middle of the
other lane. Such refinement on two-lane highways generally is not necessary and measurement to the
centerline or traveled way edge is suitable. Where there are changes of grade coincident with horizontal
curves that have sight-limiting cuts slopes on the inside, the line-of-sight intercepts the slope at a level
either lower or higher than the assumed average height. In measuring sight distance the error in the use
of the assumed 600-or 1100-millimeters height usually can be ignored.
Vertical sight distance may be scaled from a plotted profile by the method illustrated at the right center
of Figure C-1. A transparent strip with parallel edge 1300 millimeters apart and with scratched lines 150
millimeters and 1070 millimeters from the upper edge, in accordance with the vertical scale, is a useful
tool. The 1070-millimeter line is placed on the station from which the vertical sight distance is desired,
and the strip is pivoted about this point until the upper edge is tangent to the profile. The distance
between the initial station and the station on the profile intersected by the 150 millimeters line is the
stopping sight distance. The distance between the initial station and the station on the profile intersected
by the lower edge of the strip is the passing sight distance.
A simple sight distance record is shown in the lower part of Figure C-1. Sight distances in both
directions are indicated by arrows and figures at each station on the plan and profile sheet of the
proposed highway. Sight distance less than 500 m may be scaled to the nearest 10 meters and those
greater than 500 meters to the nearest 50 meters. Sight distances can easily be determined also where
plans and profiles are drawn using computer-aided design and drafting systems (CADD), although such
programs presently do not automatically make this determination.
Sight distance records for two-lane highways may be used to advantage to tentatively determine the
marking of no-passing zones (Ref MUTCD). No-passing zones thus established serve as a guide for
markings when the highway is completed. The zone so determined should be checked and adjusted by
field measurements before actual markings are placed
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Appendix D
Road Geometric Design Standards Procedure for Design
D. PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN

D.1 Introduction
This chapter has been prepared as a guide and checklist for personnel engaged in road design. It is not
intended as a textbook nor should the contents be considered mandatory in the design of all road
projects. It is recognized that while the design procedure is generally the same for any project, there are
many specific issues, which the designer must consider in proceeding with the design of each individual
project
Reference is made in this chapter to the procedures to be followed in the preparation of data for
processing by computer-aided methods. However, whether the designer uses manual or computer
methods, he must always be aware that good engineering judgment must be exercised at all times. A
complete review of all field data, project requirements, economics and applicable specifications must be
considered in order to produce the most technically sound and economic design for each project.
The designer must also be aware of any relevant safety and environmental regulations and incorporate
these features in the design. The chapter ends with the presentation of a checklist for road link design.
D.2 Review of Field Data
Horizontal Alignment-In many instances the designer has little control over the location of the horizontal
alignment due to right-of-way restrictions, previous commitments with local community groups, or other
factors. The following items should be considered:
1. Review topographical data along with horizontal alignment to insure that steep gradients are
avoided where possible.
2. Review topography to insure that alignment does not parallel major drainages, which may result
in channel changes, extra culvert lengths due to skews, etc.
3. Review curve data to insure that degree of curvature meets the allowable maximum for the
required design speed. Also avoid broken curves in alignment or short tangents on switch back
curves that make it impossible to design adequate super elevation transitions.
Projects to be designed by computer-aided methods should have horizontal alignment data submitted
as follows:
1. If the project has been located on photogrammetric manuscripts, the designer need only submit
beginning station and degree of curvature and coordinates of every horizontal P.I.
2. If the project has been located by ground surveys, the designer should submit horizontal
alignment data in notebook form.
The designer will furnish MOI with copies of horizontal alignment listing (HAL), which will list all stations
and coordinates of P.C., P.I. and P.T. of each curve, including curve data.
Terrain Cross Sections - the terrain cross sections (original cross sections) should be reviewed for
accuracy keeping the following points in mind:
1. Check to see that notes are complete and that cross sections extend sufficient distances from
the centerline to accommodate the template and will permit shifting of the alignment, if
necessary, without re-cross sectioning.
2. Check all benchmarks, turning points, H.I.'s etc., to insure that cross section elevations will be
reduced correctly.
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Appendix D
Check to see that stream profiles have been surveyed and so noted in the field notes to distinguish them
from cross sections.
For projects where terrain data is taken directly from aerial photography, the designer will convert the
data for processing. The level of detail from aerial photographs depends on the flying height, cloud
cover and ground vegetation.
Topography Data - Topography data obtained by field ground surveys will generally be collected
electrically for downloading to appropriate computer-aided design software.
Topography data obtained by photogrammetry can be more complete and accurate in that it will include
all planimetric features such as fences, walls, utility poles, and existing improvements, in addition to
elevation contours and spot elevations.
The topography data should be checked for completeness and accuracy against other maps available to
the designer.
Topography data will be of great use to the designer in determining right-of-way restrictions, swamp or
rock locations, and the need for relocating utility lines or other physical features that affect the design.
D.3 Design criteria
Prior to commencing the design, the designer should tabulate all design criteria to be used on the
particular project so that other personnel working on the project will be aware of it. This data will be
obtained through discussions with the MOI Engineer, commitments to local governing bodies, or through
his own analysis of design requirements.
The following items should be tabulated and included in the design file:
1. Design speed.
2. ADT present and future. The ADT should be noted as actual count, listing the date of count or
estimate.
3. A typical section sketch should be prepared showing the proposed geometric section, such as
finished and subgrade widths, ditch dimensions, crown and superelevation, cut and fill slope
selections, etc.
4. The files should show design criteria used in determining drainage requirements, such as 25-
year flood frequency, hydrologic chart, etc.
5. Right-of-way widths should be noted including agreements for construction easement.
6. If a soils profile has been taken, it should be part of the file with cover thickness tabulated. In
some areas, a chemical analysis at culvert locations may be required to determine need for
protective coating of pipes.
7. The designer should note whether the profile grade should roll with the terrain, avoiding high fills
and cuts, or whether grades should be as smooth as possible.
8. All control profile elevations should be noted such as, existing pavements to be matched,
minimum pipe cover requirements, railroad elevations crossings, bridge elevations to be
matched, as well as any other elevation requirements, which may have been agreed to with
abutting property owners.
9. Locations of possible borrow and aggregate pits should be noted.
10. The designer should note the requirements for earthwork balancing such as maximum balance
distance, whether tight balance or borrow and waste designs should be followed and whether
ditches can be widened or slopes flattened to achieve better balanced design.
11. Shrinkage and swell factors should be noted, whether calculated or estimated.
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Appendix D
12. Location of rock outcrops, swamps, springs should be indicated.
13. The need for fencing, gates, cattle guards, cattle passes, curbing, guard rail, etc., should be
noted and criteria used for determining these needs.
14. The need for road approaches, and acceleration, deceleration and passing lanes should be
noted.
15. All available information on base course and surfacing should be noted to determine thickness,
asphalt requirements, need for bituminous seal coats, etc.
16. All other items that may have a bearing on the design should be noted such that all personnel
involved in the design will be aware of criteria and design requirements. The designer should
obtain copies of all correspondence on the project and make it part of the design file.
D.4 Site Trip

It is imperative that the designer makes a field trip to the site and walks the entire alignment reviewing
the topography before start of actual design. At this time he can note special problems and design
considerations discussing these items with the authority or his staff. The designer should take
photographs of special problem areas to enable him to best solve design problems.
After this field trip and discussions, the designer has a much better overall picture of the project and its
requirements and can best determine the extent of construction details to go on the plans. Projects to be
designed for contract work will require more details and explanation on pay quantities than force
account projects.
D.5 Preliminary Design Drawings
During the early stages of design, preferably prior to the field trip, the following preliminary design
drawings or sketches should be prepared:
1. Typical section of roadway showing geometric (sketch is adequate).
2. Drainage plan map showing all drainage areas and stationing were they cross the proposed
road. This drawing need not be to scale.
3. Profile plot of existing centerline ground line. This can be plotted at a scale of usually 1:1000
vertical and 1:10,000 horizontal.
4. Plan plot of alignment. This shows all plan metric features of the terrain - (scale is usually 1:
10,000). Right - of - way lines should be superimposed on this drawing to determine if there will
be any restrictions.
5. Soils profile plot and material pit drawings showing type and depth of material.
6. Stream profiles extending a sufficient distance upstream and downstream to determine pipe
grade and skew angles.
D.6 Preliminary Design Procedure
Up to this time the designer has been primarily engaged in reviewing and assembling field data, setting
design criteria and establishing project requirements with very little design work accomplished. The
following guideline will assist the designer in proceeding with preliminary design:
1. If the Designer is at liberty to change the horizontal alignment he should make the decision
whether the proposed alignment is the most feasible or whether offsetting the alignment could
result in a more economical design. The horizontal alignment should be coordinated with the
profile by studying a continuous stretch of the plan and profile, visualizing the road in three
dimensions to determine if changes are required.
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Appendix D
2. Calculate drainage areas and waterway openings for all pipe culverts, box culverts and bridges.
After determining the waterway openings the pipe sizes should be calculated to determine
control points on the grade line. The Designer need not make the final decision as to exact pipe
size or type of structure (CMP, RCP, or concrete box culvert) at this time, and an approximation
will suffice.
No effort is make in this handbook to describe the methods used to determine drainage structure
requirements since these methods are given in the Drainage and Bridge Manuals-2010. It is
recommended that the Engineer obtain copies of these manuals for drainage structure calculations.
3. Spot culvert locations on the profile plot noting flow line elevations and sizes of pipes. Note
control elevations that must be met such as minimum pipe cover, existing pavement, and bridge
elevations.
4. The first trial grade line can now be drawn on the profile plot. The grade can either be the
finished pavement or the subgrade profile.
The following items should be considered in laying the trial grade:
1. Projects starting at a "T" intersection should begin with a minimal grade for a minimum of 20
meters from the intersection before entering steeper grades in order to provide better sight
distance and to allow stopping and starting of vehicles on near level grades.
2. Vertical P.I.'s should be placed at even stations or plus 50's for ease in calculating grades and
staking. Where possible, V.P.I.'s should be spaced 300 - 500 meters apart and curve lengths
should be determined to provide proper site distance for the design speed. Where possible,
minimum curve lengths of 100 meters should be maintained and extremely long crest vertical
curves should be avoided since many drivers refuse to pass on vertical curves.
3. Avoid placing V.P.I.'s where intersecting side roads will be on crest vertical curves as this
reduces sight distances and creates safety hazards.
D.7 Checklist for Final Road Link Design

A flowchart for the design process is presented in Figure 5-1. Figure D-1 serves as a checklist for
ensuring that all critical elements of the final design have been addressed.
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Appendix D
FIGURE D-1: CHECKLIST FOR FINAL ROAD LINK DESIGN

General

1. Has the design standard been selected?

2. Does the selected standard fit into the environment and road hierarchy?

3. Has the design speed been selected?

4. Does the standard selected provide for the design vehicle(s)?

5. Does the standard selected provide for the traffic volume?
6. Does sufficient right-of-way exist, or can it be obtained?

Cross Sections

7. Are the cross-section widths adequate for the levels of traffic flow predicted?

8. Have cross-sections been widened at sharp horizontal curves?

9. Does the design include adequate shoulders?
10. Has the full carriageway cross-section been continued across culverts and minor bridges up to

30m span?

11. Are side slopes and back slopes adequate?

12. Does the cross section provide for drainage?
13. Have the clear zone requirements been met?

Alignment
14. Are stopping sight distances along the road above the minimum values required for the design

speeds for both horizontal and vertical alignments?
15. Are the radii of horizontal curves, with superelevation where required, above the minimum

values identified for the design speed?

16. Have reverse curves, broken-back curves, and compound curves been avoided?

17. Are isolated curves of sufficient radius?

18. Is superelevation according to standards?

19. Are the vertical curves adequate for the design speeds?

20. Are the gradients below the maximum permissible values?
21. Are the gradients as indicated on cross-sections and longitudinal sections sufficient to avoid

standing water?

22. Does the alignment allow regular overtaking opportunities, including for single lane standards?
23. Have climbing lanes been introduced where necessary to provide adequate and safe

overtaking opportunities?

24. Is road access too open or too restricted?

25. Do the combined geometric design elements produce a consistent and safe alignment?

26. Will the road allow safe driving in darkness?
27. Will the design lead to reduced severity in the event of an accident?

Junctions

28. Does the junction design minimize potential conflicts to the extent possible/practical?

29. Is the type of junction selected appropriate for the conditions present?

30. Do the junction approaches provide adequate visibility?

31. Does the junction cater to the needs of pedestrians and non-motorized vehicles as required?
32. Have turning lanes been considered?
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Appendix D

33. Has lighting been considered?

Provision for Pedestrians
34. Has pedestrian usage been estimated, and have appropriate facilities been provided for
pedestrian and non-motorized safety both along and across the road?

Miscellaneous

35. Has provision been made for the placement of utilities?

36. Have traffic signs, signals, road markings and guideposts been provided?
37. Have centerline and edgeline markings been designed which give adequate guidance/control

for drivers?
38. Has adequate provision been made for the provision of bus lay-byes, and for parked and

stopped vehicles?

39. Are roadway crossings adequately designed?

40. Have guardrails been considered, especially at bridge approaches?

41. Is there any scope for the installation of emergency escape ramps?
42. Have speed limit zones, safety barriers, and emergency escape ramps been considered?

Departures from Standards
43. Are departures from standards necessary? Have these been documented and has proper
action been taken?
Date: ................................ Designer Date: ................ Responsible Engineer

...........................................................................................................................................
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Appendix E
Road Geometric Design Standards Terms/Definitions
E. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Figure E-1 Cross section Elements
Access
Way whereby the owner or occupier of any land has access to a public road, whether
directly or across land lying between his sand and such public road.
At-Grade Junction
Junction where all roadways join or cross at the same level.
Auxiliary Lane
Part of the roadway adjoining the carriageway for parking, speed change, turning, storage
for turning, weaving, truck climbing, and for other purposes supplementary to through
traffic movement.
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

Total yearly traffic volume in both directions divided by the number of days in the year.
Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

Total traffic volume during a given time period in whole days greater than one day and
less than one year divided by the number of days in that time period.
B
Back Slope Area proceeding from ditch bottom to the limit of the earthworks.
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Appendix E
Borrow
Material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening cuts, flattening
cut back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the right-of-way, or
from selected borrow pits as may be noted on the plans.
Bus Lay-Byes
Lay-by reserved for public service vehicles.
C
Camber
Convexity given to the curved cross-section of a roadway or footpath.
Capacity
Maximum practicable traffic flow in given circumstances.
Capping Layer
A layer of selected fill material placed on the topmost embankment layer or the bottom of
excavation.
Carriageway
Part of the roadway including the various traffic lanes and auxiliary lanes but excluding
shoulders.
Centerline
Axis along the middle of the road.
Circular Curve
Usual curve configuration used for horizontal curves.
Clear Zone
Unencumbered roadside recovery area.
Climbing Lane
An auxiliary lane in the upgrade direction for use by slow moving vehicles and to
facilitate overtaking, thereby maintaining capacity and freedom of operation on the
carriageway.
Coefficient of Friction
Ratio of the frictional force on the vehicle and the component of the weight of the vehicle
perpendicular to the frictional force.
Collector Roads
Secondary Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to more important
centers or to higher class roads.
Compound Curve
Curve consisting of two or more arcs of different radii curving in the same direction and
having a common tangent or transition curve where they meet.
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Appendix E
Control of Access
Conditions where the right of owners or occupants of adjoining land or other persons to
access, light, air or view in connection with a road is fully or partially controlled by
public authority.
Crest
Peak formed by the junction of two gradients.
Crest Curve
Convex vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents above the road level.
Critical Slope
Side slope on which a vehicle is likely to overturn.
Cross-Roads
Four-leg junction formed by the intersection of two roads at approximately right angles.
Cross-Section
Vertical section showing the elevation of the existing ground, ground data and
recommended works, usually at right angles to the centerline.
Crown
Highest portion of the cross-section of a cambered roadway.
Curb
Border of stone, concrete or other rigid material formed at the edge of the roadway or
footway.
Cycle Track
Way or part of a road for use only by pedal cycles.
D
Deceleration Lane
An auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle leaving the through traffic stream to reduce speed
without interfering with other traffic.
Deflection Angle
Successive angles from a tangent subtending a chord and used in setting out curves.
Departure from Standards

Deviation from values given in the reference, requiring prior approval of the Ministry of
Infrastructures.
Design Capacity
Maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a lane or a roadway during a given time
period without operating conditions falling below a pre-selected design level.
Design Speed
Design speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to the
design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with
a reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be
Page 8
Appendix E
constrained to minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric

elements.
Design Traffic Volume

Number of vehicles or persons that pass over a given section of a lane or roadway during
a time period of one hour or more.
Design Vehicle
Vehicle whose physical characteristics and proportions are used in setting geometric
design.
Design Volume
Volume determined for use in design, representing traffic expected to use the road.
Diverging
Movement of a vehicle out of a traffic stream.
Divided Road
Road in which there are two physically separated roadways reserved for traveling in
opposite directions.
E
Economical Limit of Haul
Distance through which it is more economical to haul excavated material than to waste
and borrow.
Embankment
That portion of the road prism composed of approved fill material, which lies above the
original ground and is bounded by the side slopes, extending downwards and outwards
from the outer shoulder breakpoints and on which the pavement is constructed.
Escarpment (Terrain)
Steep country inclusive of switchback sections and side hill traverses; transverse terrain
slope > 75 percent.
Eye Height
Assumed height of drivers' eyes above the surface of the roadway used for the purpose of
determining sight distances.
Rural Local Road
Lowest level of road in the network hierarchy with the function of linking traffic to and
from rural areas, either directly to adjacent urban centers, or to the Collector road
network.
Fill
Material which is used for the construction of embankments.
Flat (Terrain)
Flat terrain with largely unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment; transverse terrain
slope up to 5 percent.
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Appendix E
Free Haul
Maximum distance through which excavated material may be transported without added
cost above the unit bid price.
Footpath
Portion of a road reserved exclusively for pedestrians.
G
Geometric (Design) Standards
Guidelines for limiting values of road alignment and cross-section design.
Grade Separated Junction

Junction where two roads cross at different levels and are connected by ramps.
Grade Separation
Crossing of two roads, or a road and a railway at different levels.
Gradient
Rate of rise or fall on any length or road, with respect to the horizontal.
Guardrail
Continuous barrier erected alongside a road to prevent traffic from accidentally leaving
the roadway or from crossing the median.
H
Horizontal Alignment
Direction and course of the road centerline in plan.
Horizontal Clearance
Lateral clearance between the edge of shoulder and obstructions.
Horizontal Curve
Curve in plan.
I
Interchange
Network of roads at the approaches to a junction at different levels that permits traffic
movement from one to the other one or more roadways or roads.
J
Junction (Intersection)
a) Common zone of two or more roads allowing vehicles to pass from one to the other;
b) Meeting of one road with another.
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Appendix E
K
K-value
Ratio of the minimum length of vertical crest curve in meters to the algebraic difference
in percentage gradients adjoining the curve.
L
Lane
Strip of roadway intended to accommodate a single line of moving vehicles.
Lay-by
Part of the road set aside for vehicles to draw out of the traffic lanes for short periods.
Left -Hand Lane

On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the central reserve.
Left Turn Lane

An auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of left-turning vehicles at
junctions.
Level of Service
Qualitative rating of the effectiveness of a road in serving traffic, measured in terms of
operating conditions.
Limited Access Road

Road with right of access only at a limited number of places.
Link Road
National Road linking nationally important centers.
Local Road
Road (or street) primarily for access to adjoining property. It may or may not be a
classified road.
Longitudinal Profile
Outline of a vertical section of the ground, ground data and recommended works along
the centerline.
M
Main Access Road
Primary Road linking provincially important centers to each other or to higher class
roads.
Markers
Post, generally fitted with reflective material or small reflecting studs, but not usually
lighted, erected off the roadway to give warning or guidance to traffic.
Meeting Sight Distance

Distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles traveling in opposite directions on
a two-way road with insufficient width for passing to bring their vehicles to a safe stop
after becoming visible to each other. It is the sum of the stopping sight distances for the
two vehicles plus a short safety distance.
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Appendix E
Median
Area between the two carriageways of a dual carriageway road. It excludes the inside
shoulders.
Merging
Movement of a vehicle or vehicles into a traffic stream.
Mountainous (terrain)
Terrain that is rugged and very hilly with substantial restrictions in both horizontal and
vertical alignment; transverse terrain slope 25-75 percent.
N
Network (Hierarchy)
Classification of roads according to Trunk, Link, Main Access, Collector, and Feeder.
No recoverable Slope
Transversible side slope where the motorist is generally unable o stop or return to the
roadway.
Normal Crossfall
Difference in level measured traversely across the surface of the roadway.
O
Object Height
Assumed height of a notional object on the surface of the roadway used for the purpose of
determining sight distance.
Operating Speed
Highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given road under favorable
weather conditions and under prevailing traffic conditions without at any time exceeding
the safe speed as determined by the design speed on a section-by-section basis.
Overpass
Grade separation where the subject road passes over an intersecting road or railway.
P
Parking Bay
Area provided for taxis and other vehicles to stop outside of the roadway.
Passing Bay
Widened section of an otherwise single lane road where a vehicle may move over to
enable another vehicle to pass.
Passing Sight Distance

Minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that must be available to
enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely and comfortably without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed, should it
come into view after the overtaking maneuver is started.
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Appendix E
Pavement
A multi-layered horizontal structure which is constructed for the purpose of carrying
traffic.
Pavement Layers
The layers of different materials, which comprise the pavement structure.
Pedestrian Crossing
Transverse strip of roadway intended for the use of pedestrians crossing the road. The
crossing may be uncontrolled or controlled.
Pedestrian Refuge
Raised platform or a guarded area so sited in the roadway as to divide the streams of
traffic and to provide a safety area for pedestrians.
R
Ramp
a) Inclined section of roadway over which traffic passes for the primary purpose of
ascending or descending so as to make connections with other roadways;
b) Interconnecting length of road of a traffic interchange or any connection between roads

of different levels, on which vehicles may enter or leave a designated road.
Recoverable Slope
Side slope of limited grade such that a motorist can generally return to the roadway.
Reverse Curve
Composite curve consisting of two arcs or transitions curving in opposite directions.
Right Hand Lane

On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the shoulder.
Right-Turn Lane
Auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of right- turning vehicles at
junctions.
Right-of-Way
Strip of land legally awarded to the Roads Authority, in which the road is or will be
situated and where no other work or construction may take place without permission from
the Roads Authority. The width of the road reserve is measured at right angles to the
centerline.
Road
Way for vehicles and for other types of traffic which may or may not be lawfully usable
by all traffic.
Road Bed
The natural in-situ material on which the embankment or capping layers are to be
constructed.
Road Functional Classification
Classification of roads according to service provided in terms of the road hierarchy.
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Appendix E
Road Prism
The cross sectional area bounded by the original ground level and the sides of slopes in
cuttings and embankments excluding the pavement.
Roadway
Part of the road comprising the carriageway, shoulders and median.
Roadway Width
Measurement at right angle to the centerline incorporating carriageway, shoulders and,
when applicable, median.
Roadside
General term denoting the areas adjoining the outer edges of the shoulders.
Rolling (Terrain)
Terrain with low hills introducing moderate levels of rise and fall with some restrictions
on vertical alignment; traverse terrain slope 5-25 percent.
Roundabout
Road junction designed for movement of traffic in one direction around a central island.
S
Safety Rest Area
Roadside area with parking facilities for the motorist to stop and rest.
Sag Curve
Concave vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents below the road level.
Scenic Overlook
Safety rest area primarily for viewing scenery.
Shoulder
Part of the road outside the carriageway, but at substantially the same level, for
accommodation of stopped vehicles for emergency use, and for lateral support of the
carriageway.
Shoulder Breakpoint
The point on a cross section at which the extended flat planes of the surface of the
shoulder and the outside slope of the fill and pavement intersect.
Side Drain
A longitudinal drain offset from, and parallel to, the carriageway.
Side Slope
Area between the outer edge of shoulder or hinge point and the ditch bottom.
Sight Distance
Distance visible to the driver of a passenger car measured along the normal travel path of
a roadway to the roadway surface or to a specified height above the roadway surface,
when the view is unobstructed by traffic.
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Appendix E
Single Lane Road

Road consisting of a single traffic lane serving both directions, with passing bays.
Speed
Rate of movement of vehicular traffic or of specified components of traffic, expressed in
kilometers per hour (km/h).
Speed Bump
Device for controlling the speed of vehicles, consisting of a bar or recess on the roadway.
Stopping Sight Distance

Distance required by a driver of a vehicle traveling at a given speed, to bring his vehicle
to a stop after an object on the roadway becomes visible. It includes the distance traveled
during the perception and reaction times and the vehicle braking distance.
Superelevation
Inward tilt or transverse inclination given to the cross section of a roadway throughout the
length of a horizontal curve to reduce the effects of centrifugal force on a moving vehicle;
expressed as a percentage.
Superelevation Run-off
Length of road over which superelevation is reduced from its maximum value to zero.
Switchbacks
Sequence of sharp curves at or near minimum radius employed to traverse a mountainous
or escarpment terrain section.
T
T-Junction
Three-leg junction in the general form of a T.
Tangent
Portion of a horizontal alignment of straight geometrics.
Taper
Transition length between a passing place, auxiliary lane or climbing lane and the
standard roadway.
Through Road
Road primarily for through traffic in relation to the area considered, on which vehicular
traffic is usually given priority over the traffic on intersecting roads. It may or may not be
a classified road.
Traffic
Vehicles, pedestrians and animals traveling along a route.
Traffic Capacity
Maximum number of vehicles which has a reasonable expectation of passing over a given
section of a lane or a roadway in one direction or in both directions for a two-lane single
roadway road, during a given time period under prevailing road and traffic conditions.
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Appendix E
Traffic Flow
Number of vehicles or persons that pass a specific point in a stated time, in both
directions unless otherwise stated.
Traffic Lane
Part of a carriageway intended for a single stream of traffic in one direction, which has
normally been demarcated as such by road markings.
Traffic Island
Central or subsidiary area raised or marked on the roadway, generally at a road junction,
shaped and placed so as to direct traffic movement.
Transition Curve
Curve whose radius changes continuously along its length, used for the purpose of
connecting a tangent with a circular arc or two circular areas of different radii.
Transition Length
Length of the transition curve.
Trunk Road
International Trunk Road linking centers of international importance and crossing
international boundaries or terminating at international ports.
Turning Lanes
Lanes which separate turning vehicles from the through traffic lanes.
Typical Cross-Section
Cross-section of a road showing standard dimensional details and features of
construction.
V
Vertical Alignment
Direction of the centerline of a road in profile.
Vertical Curve
Curve on the longitudinal profile of a road, normally parabolic.
W
Waste
Material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the embankments. It
must be pointed out that this material is not necessarily wasted as the word implies, but
can be used in widening embankments, flattening slopes, or filling ditches or depressions
for erosion control.
Weaving
Movement in the same general direction of vehicles within two or more traffic streams
intersecting at a shallow angle so that the vehicles in one stream cross other streams
gradually.
Page 16
Appendix G
Road Geometric Design Standards Plans & Drafting
G PLANS AND DRAFTING

G.1 General
The final plans are the graphic portrayal of the complete highway design. These plans, together with the
specifications, enable the Engineer and the contractor to locate and construct on the ground the
highway facility as visualized by the designer. Plans should be kept as simple as possible yet be
complete enough so that the need not be compelled to try to guess what the designer intended.
Unique drawing numbers must be included on the drawings. The drawings should not contain any
estimated quantities. The minimum size of lettering chosen must be legible after plan reduction.
G.2 Completeness of Plans
The completeness of plans and profiles and level of detail adopted for a given project shall be consistent
with the type of road, and the nature of the work to be undertaken.
Plans for tender and construction purposes shall be produced at 1:2000 scale on A1 size paper, which
may be reduced to A3 size for tender purposes. The plans shall include a title sheet, project location
plan, plan and profile drawings, typical cross sections, structural details, material pits and road furniture
details.
1. Title sheet: The title sheet is a standard form and shall show the road functional classification
number, the project number, and project length and location, with arrows designating the beginning
and ending stations on the route map. Design criteria such as design speed, maximum curvature,
gradient, terrain class, etc., will be tabulated. An index of all drawings will be shown and a title block
for signatures by the Consultant will appear in the lower right hand corner.
2. Typical cross section sheet: This sheet will show the road section or sections with all dimensions,
such as lane, carriageway, and shoulder widths and other details.
3. Plan and Profile sheet: These sheets are standard with the upper half for alignment and the lower
half for profile.
 The alignment in rural areas is normally plotted at a scale of 1:2000 (A3) and will show
centerline in heavy lines and right-of-way lines in lighter lines. Thick marks will be shown on the
centerline every 100 meters, with a heavier tick mark every 5 stations. The alignment will be
clearly defined with stationing, bearings, curve data, and north arrow. Alternatively, the setting-
out data can be presented in a computer file.
 The location of all land lines, forest boundaries, city limits, railroads, present roads, existing
and proposed fences pole lines, channels, ditch structures, bridges, culverts, utility lines, large
trees, improvements within or adjacent to right-of-way, approach roads, right-of-way markers,
and detour roads shall be properly shown to scale.
 Notes will accompany the notations clearly stating the work to be accomplished, such as: to be
removed, to remain in place, work by other, construct, etc.
Page 18
Appendix G
 Description, location and elevation of all benchmarks are generally noted along the profile
portion of the plan and profile sheet.
 The profile is normally plotted at a scale of 1:200 vertical and 1:2000 horizontal (A1) on the
lower half of the plan and profile sheet. The horizontal scale must be the same as the scale
used in the alignment, or plan view.
 The elevation of the ground and proposed grade line should be plotted accurately, noting P.V.I.
station, elevation, length of curve, middle ordinate, beginning and ending of curve and percent
gradient. The grade line should be continuous along parabolic curves and should be the profile
grade (top of finished surface or subgrade) as noted on the typical section.
 All cross drainage structures and bridges shall be noted, including graded ditches, ditch blocks,
grade of special ditches and cross section of ditches and dikes. Existing culverts must be
shown with dashed lines, and new structures must be shown with solid lines.
4. Structure detail sheets. These sheets include bridge details, curb and gutter details, concrete box
culverts, headwalls, drains, underpasses, cattle guards and other special structures. These
drawings should be complete and include location, elevations, dimensions, estimate of quantities,
and applicable specifications, if not covered in the specifications.
5. Material Pits. This drawing will show the location, shape and size of material pits for borrow,
subbase, base course, mineral aggregate for bituminous material and chips, and concrete
aggregates. In addition to the sketch of the pit, the location of test holes and the results of sample
tests should be tabulated. Existing roads to be used or haul roads (length and location) should be
noted.
6. Detail Drawings: These can include junction and driveway details, bus lay-by details, climbing lane
details, guard rail details, striping details, destination sign details, and fencing details, as
appropriate. Standard details are given in the Standard Detail Drawings-2010.
7. Mass Haul Diagram: Earthwork quantities are represented graphically and are tabulated on this
sheet.
G.3 Size of Plans
All drawings should be the standard A1 size and printing should be bold and large to permit legibility
when reduced 1/2 size (to A3 size).
G.4 Uniformity of Plans
The designer should strive to maintain uniformity in preparation of road plans rather than giving them
"his personal touch". Plans prepared using uniform standards are easier to understand by both the
engineer and the contractor and will generally result in fewer disputes or claims.
G.5 Abbreviated Plans
Certain types of construction projects use less intense design than other types. Projects such as
rehabilitation projects usually do not consist of new alignments and may have only spot geometric
improvements. Such projects may require only minor engineering control, and therefore the plans may
Page 19
Appendix G
be abbreviated. For instance, in the above example, no plan and profile sheets need be included except
in areas requiring relocations or substantial grade or curve changes. Plans will be similar to complete
plans except plan and profile sheets will be limited to sections affected by such improvements.
However, sufficient information concerning horizontal and vertical alignment must be shown to enable
the contractor to stake the project.
Page 20

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Ministério das Infraestruturas

Républica Democrática de Timor-Leste

ROAD GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS

ADB TA No. 4942 – TIM Infrastructure Technical Assistance

 ROAD GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS L

Sinclair Knight Merz

Road Geometric Design Standards Page i

Geometric Design Standards Page ii

Road Geometric Design Standards Page iii

Geometric Design Standards Page iv

Road Geometric Design Standards Page v

1.4. Structure of the Manual

Chapter 4 discusses survey requirements.

Road Geometric Design Standards Page 1

Geometric Design Standards Page 2

2.2. Design Standards

2.3. Departures from standards

Road Geometric Design Standards Page 3

Geometric Design Standards Page 4

3.1.1. Problem Identification

 A national or regional development study (e.g. regional spatial plans)

Road Geometric Design Standards Page 5

Figure 3.1: Outline of Stages in Project Cycle

Geometric Design Standards Page 6

3.1.3.1. The Process of Appraisal

Road Geometric Design Standards Page 7

Table 3.1: Outline of expected contents of a feasibility study report

Geometric Design Standards Page 8

Context and objectives Define objectives and the macro-economic context

Locate the project within its geographic, economic and social

Preliminary considerations including assessment of institutional

Geotechnical investigations for route locations, materials,

Engineering design Establishing project costs

Establishing project benefits

Comparative analysis (economic or cost-effectiveness, and

Sensitivity and risk analysis

3.1.3.2. Project Types and Other Considerations

3.1.3.2.1. The need for improvement

3.1.3.2.2. Road types and functions

Road Geometric Design Standards Page 9

3.1.3.2.3. Type of road improvement

3.1.3.2.4. Stage construction

3.1.3.2.5. Network considerations

Geometric Design Standards Page 10

3.1.3.2.7. Uncertainty and risk

3.1.3.2.8. Checklist of the expected outputs

Table 3.2 Outline of expected contents of a feasibility study report

Road Geometric Design Standards Page 11

Existing Road Physical characteristics

Road user costs

Proposed Works Nature of works

Road user costs

Analysis Do-nothing/do-minimum analysis

Analysis of individual options

Multi-criteria analysis (where appropriate)

3.1.5. Commitment and Negotiation

Geometric Design Standards Page 12

3.2. Route Corridor Selection

3.2.1. Desk Study Route Selection

Road Geometric Design Standards Page 13

3.2.2. Preliminary Identification of Potential Route Corridors

3.2.2.1. Project Route Identification

Geometric Design Standards Page 14

ROAD GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS L

A national or regional development study (e.g. regional spatial plans)