Fejer I Lascuna I Acuzar I Gamboa

Arc - 2101
 Intertwined with the architecture of the broader Indian Subcontinent.

 With the beginning of the Indus civilization around the middle of the 3rd
millennium BC, for the first time in the area which encompasses today's Pakistan an
advanced urban culture developed with large structural facilities, some of which
survive to this day.

This was followed by the Gandhara style of Buddhist Architecture that borrowed
elements from Ancient Greece. These remnants are visible in the Gandhara capital
of Taxila.
 Officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a
country in South Asia.

 It has a 1,046-kilometre (650-mile) coastline

along the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman in the
south,
bordered by India to the east,
Afghanistan to the west, Iran to the southwest,
and
China to the northeast.

 It is separated narrowly from Tajikistan by

Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor in the north, and
also shares a maritime border with Oman.
Pakistan has four seasons:
 a cool, dry winter from December through
February

 a hot, dry spring from March through May

 the summer rainy season, or southwest

monsoon period, from June through September

 and the retreating monsoon period of October

and November. Rainfall can vary radically from year
to year, and successive patterns of flooding and
drought are also not uncommon
* The onset and duration of these seasons vary somewhat according to
location.
 Pre-Islamic, Islamic, Colonial, and Post-colonial
Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, and Kot Diji are among the pre-Islamic settlements that are now tourist attractions.

 have a uniform, appropriate structure with broad roads as well as well thought out sanitary and drainage
facilities.

 The majority of the discovered brick constructions are public buildings such as bath houses and workshops.

 Wood and loam served as construction materials.

 Inhabitants lived in windowless baked brick houses built around a central courtyard

 Cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (the “City of the Dead”) had a citadel, where the public and religious
buildings were located, large pools for ritual bathing, granaries for the storage of food, and a complex system of
covered drains and sewers.
 With the rise of Buddhism outstanding architectural monuments were again developed, which
have lasted into the present.

 The Persian and Greek influence led to the development of the Greco-Buddhist style, starting
from the 1st century AD.

 The high point of this era was reached with the culmination of the Gandhara style.

 Important remnants of Buddhist construction are stupas and other buildings with clearly
recognizable Greek statues and style elements like support columns which, beside ruins from other
epochs, are found in the Gandhara capital Taxila in the extreme north of the Punjab.
A particularly beautiful example of Buddhist architecture is the
ruins of the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi in the northwest
province.
Examples of Gandharan Architecture:
 During Pre Islamic era in Pakistan, there was a prominent population of Hindus,
especially in provinces in Punjab and Sindh.
 The Nagarparkar Jain Temples are located in the region around Nagarparkar, in Pakistan's
southern Sindh province.
They were built in Maru-Gurhaja style in 12th century AD to the 15th century - a period when Jain
architectural expression was at its zenith.
 The arrival of Islam in today's Pakistan - first in Sindh - during the 8th century CE meant a sudden
end of Buddhist architecture.

 The earliest example of a mosque from the days of infancy of Islam in South Asia is the Mihrab lose
mosque of Banbhore, from the year 727, the first Muslim place of worship in South Asia.

 Under the Delhi Sultan, the Persian-centralasiatic style ascended over Arab influences.
The most important characteristic of this style is the Iwan, walled on three sides, with one end entirely
open.

 Further characteristics are wide prayer halls, round domes with mosaics and geometrical samples
and the use of painted tiles.
 Mughal Architecture first developed and flourished during the reign of Akbar
the Great (1556–1605), where it was known for its extensive use of red sandstone
as a building material.

During the Mughal era, design elements of Islamic-Persian architecture were

fused with and often produced playful forms of the Hindustani art. Lahore,
occasional residence of Mughal rulers, exhibits a multiplicity of important buildings
from the empire, among them are the:
 During the British Raj, European architectural styles such
as baroque, gothic and neoclassical became more predominant.

 A new style of architecture known as Indo-Saracenic revival style

developed, from a mixture of European and Indo-Islamic components.

 Among the more prominent works are seen in the cities of Karachi and
Lahore.
After Independence, the architecture of Pakistan is a blend of historic Islamic and various modern styles.
 Afghanistan is a landlocked country in Asia, rich in architectural heritage and natural
beauty.
 Within the contemporary country borders, the architecture remains virtually intact from
1834.
As the connection between the three major cultural and geographic centres of:
 In Afghanistan, the climate is usually arid continental, with cold and relatively rainy winters (and a
rainy peak in spring) and hot and sunny summers. However, there are substantial differences
depending on area and altitude: the south is desert, many areas are rather cold because of altitude,
and the far east is relatively rainy even in summer, since it is partly affected by the Indian monsoon.
 The country's architecture and architectural relics reflect the complexity of Afghan
history, with influences spanning from Greek to Persian to Indian to Chinese and
European in recent centuries. There is evidence of early Buddhist, Zoroastrian, and
Islamic inspiration, as well as a variety of religious influences across time.
Some of the major historic towns show traces of foundations with a mud brick structure and towers at
regular intervals dating back to this period.
 In the center of these structures, there is Citadel,
which shows that these establishments were both
operating as administrative centers and as market areas.
From those beginnings, this style of defensive building
has expanded throughout most of Central Asia.
A bastion or bulwark is a building which projected
outside of the fortification's curtain wall, most typically
angled, and placed at fort's corners. This completely
completed bastion consists of two faces and two sides, and
the curtain wall and its surrounding bastions can be
protected by fire from the flanks.
 Afghanistan has a diverse cultural heritage that spans over 5,000 years and incorporates elements from numerous
cultures, particularly Iran (Persia) and India. Even Greek culture can be traced back to the Hellenistic period.

The Hellenistic influences increased previously existing Although the temples retain their classical Iranian form,
links to the West, following the invasion of Alexander the the decorations and designs of the structures show Greek
Great in the 4th century BC and the subsequent motifs, the most important manifestation of Western art
domination of his Seleucid generals of the region. being sculptures.
With the creation of the agora or the city square, the Greeks had also impacted town layout,
with this legacy evolving under the subsequent administration of Timurid rule.
 A new element was introduced to the eclectic nature of architecture of Afghanistan by
the entrance of the originally nomadic Kushans from Central Asia. The creation of the
Kushan Empire rekindled the traditions of the world and encouraged the expansion of
Buddhism into Afghanistan.

 With the Kushan empire, political and dynastic centers have been built and one such
dynastic center in Afghanistan at Surkh Kotal was founded in Afghanistan at the peak of
Buddhism.
 called Sar-i Chashma  fire worship symbols and exist alongside Buddhist
 an ancient archaeological site located south of architectural features.
the Bactria region about 18 km north of the capital
of the Baghlan province of Afghanistan capital, Puli
Khumri.
  The main feature of Buddhistic communities was
artificial cave buildings, where the caves were
employed as sanctuaries and as the chambers of
 indications of Western influence while Iranian
Buddhist monks.
influences may also exist within the concept of a
 became the capital of Buddhism in the 4th
monumental dynastic centre.
century AD.
 An early Buddhist key architectural form.
 developed from the original earthen mounds
built in north-eastern India following the death of
Buddha, with the role of the structure progressing
from a commemorative reliquary to a place of
worship itself.
 This happened around the 3rd century A.D. when
Emperor Ashoka opened the original stupas with the
purpose of using relics to diffuse the religion and the
propagation of the construction
 Around the 8th century AD, the initial expansion of Islam to Afghanistan took
place, followed by Saffarids and then Samanids at AD in 961. After that period,
Afghanistan was founded under the Ghaznavid Empire and succeeded the
Ghorides until 1219 as a center of Islamic civilization.
 an important Islamic building that raised the structure of
holy men as alternate focal points for the obligatory
pilgrimage to the city, due to the large distance between
Afghanistan and Mecca.
 domed square chamber or a conical cupola atop a tower
 In the shrine of ‘Ali (Hazrat Ali Mazar) - the fourth Sunni
correctly led Caliph, which is still a major pilgrimage site for
Afghanistan's Sunni Muslim people.
  is the direction towards the Kaaba in the Sacred
 Another key impact of Islamic rule on the Mosque in Mecca, which is used by Muslims in
architecture in Afghanistan various religious contexts, particularly the direction of
 A mosque must face Mecca, or qibla. prayer for the salah.
 65-metre
 one of two surviving monuments
in Afghanistan from this period
 The two minarets are often cited as the most
exceptional examples of this Islamic architectural
tradition.
 With Genghis Khan's invasion of Afghanistan in 1219, the Ghorid empire was
overthrown.
 causing widespread destruction "leaving Afghanistan in ruins"
 Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid
Empire in and around modern-day Afghanistan,
Iran and Central Asia
 becoming the first ruler of the Timurid dynasty
 also considered a great patron of art and architecture
 Timur is also accredited with initiating the rebuilding of
some of the regions culturally significant urban centres
ruined by the Mongol conquest.
 Reliance on the dome and iwan for the basis
of structural design continued, with some
evolutions.
 Mosques rarely varied from the pre-Mongol
design consisting of four iwans and a dome
chamber forming the main prayer hall.
 one of the most important monuments
of Samarkand.
 emphasis throughout on giganticism and the
conspicuous.
There has probably never been a period in the history of world architecture when colour and form achieve such a perfect balance
of design and meaning as they did under the Timurids during the reign of Shah Rukh.

— J.D. Hoag, Islamic Architecture, London 1987

CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION

Today Afghanistan is not a landscape littered with stylistic artefacts, but a true context of complexity, conflict and chaos. The
ruins of medieval monuments lie side by side with buildings inspired by western stylistic features informed by modernism,
postmodernism and deconstructivism.

— Theodore Sawruk, University of Hartford

 decades of war and destruction ensued in Afghanistan

 impacted architecture both through the destruction of historical buildings as well as the degradation of architectural education
and engineering programs in the country's universities.

Today Afghanistan is not a landscape littered with stylistic artefacts, but a true context of complexity, conflict and chaos. The
ruins of medieval monuments lie side by side with buildings inspired by western stylistic features informed by modernism,
postmodernism and deconstructivism.
Herat Citadel, also known as Qala Ikhtyaruddin, was
built during the reign of Alexander the Great in 330
B.C. It has served as a headquarters for many
empires and has been destroyed and rebuilt
numerous times over the centuries.
The minaret is thought to have been built to commemorate
the Ghurid dynasty's victory over Prithviraj Chauhan. The
circular minaret is supported by an octagonal base. The tile
decoration includes Kufic and nakshi calligraphy, geometric
patterns, and Quranic verses.
The Shrine of Khwaja Abdulla is the final resting place of
Sufi saint Khwaja Abdulla Ansari. It was built in 1428 A.D. In the city of Herat, the Grand Mosque of Herat is also
in the village of Gazur Gah, Herat, Afghanistan. Timurid referred to as the Jummah Mosque that was constructed
architectural features can be found in the structure. by the Ghurids in the 15th century.
 In northern Afghanistan's Balkh region is located the Blue The Bagh-e-Babur is a historical park in Kabul's capital.
Mosque, known as the Hazrat Ali shrine established in the The garden is 11.5 hectares wide and structured in the
15th century. It is located in the heat of the surrounding city east-west orientation on 15 terraces along a central axe.
regions. The mosque welcomes the guests with a sense of The garden was built about 1528 and is the ultimate resting
peace and serenity. place of emperor Babur, the first Mughal.
 Durrani Ahmedshah was the Durrani dynasty's founder. In
Kandhar, next to the temple of the cloak is his grave built in the
XIXth century. There are several additional tombs surrounding
the mausoleum. A symbol of old Afghan Islamic architecture is
the octogonal mausoleum. The dome is covered with greenish,
sky-blue tiles with minars.
Taimur Shah Durrani tomb is one of Kabul's most
important remaining monuments. In the 19th century, the
mosque was built. The grave is a construction that is
octagonal. Above the crypt in which the grave lies is a
central square, with four two-height iwans on the main
elevations encircled by an octagonal structure.
 The mosque was built in Kabul during Amanullah Khan's rule
in the 1920's. The mosque is named for an Arab commander
in the seventh century, who fought combat. His burial site
located next to Shah do shamhira. The mosque is a two story
yellow edifice with a unique design - an Italian ornate stucco,
frequently referred to as a 'Afghan baroque.'
The Palace of Darul Aman was built in Kabul in 1927. In the
1920s, King Amanullah Khan began building the palace
with the aim of modernizing Afghanistan. The palace is U-
shaped, 3-story edifice with 150 bedrooms. The design of a
33 m (108 feet) high palace was designed by French
architects A.Godard and M.Godard and German architects.
Houses in the northern and western parts of the country are made from either mud bricks or concrete,
traditional sedentary settlements often have consisted of fortified villages of stone and mud-brick
known as qalʿahs (“fortresses”).
Sri Lanka, formerly known as Ceylon, an island
country in South Asia.

Basic Information:
CAPITAL: COLOMBO
LOCATION: It lies in the Indian Ocean,
southwest of the Bay of Bengal, and southeast of
the Arabian Sea; it is separated from the Indian
subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk
Strait.
TYPE OF GOVERNMENT: Semi-presidential
representative democratic republic
Relief

 A roughly triangular mountainous area known as

the Central Highlands occupies the south-central
region of Sri Lanka and is the heart of the country.

 Geologically, the island of Sri Lanka is considered a

southerly extension of peninsular India (the Deccan),
with which it shares a continental shelf and some of its
basic lithologic and geomorphic characteristics. Hard,
crystalline rock formations, such as granite, gneisses,
khondalite (a type of metamorphic rock), and quartzite,
make up about nine-tenths of the island’s surface and
subsurface.
Drainage

The surface drainage of Sri Lanka is made up of about 100 “rivers,” most of which are mere wet-season
rivulets. Twelve major rivers account for about 75 percent of the mean annual river discharge of the country, with
those that flow entirely through the Wet Zone (the highlands and the southwestern part of the country; see below)
carrying about half the total discharge. Except for the 208-mile-long Mahaweli River, all major rivers flow radially
from the Central Highlands to the sea.
Soils

 Variations of soil within Sri Lanka reflect the effects of climate, lithology, and terrain on the soil-forming
processes. The climatic influences are reflected in the dominance of red yellow podzolic soils (leached
lateritic soils) in the Wet Zone and of reddish brown earth (nonlateritic loamy soils) in the Dry Zone.

Climate

 Sri Lanka's climate is tropical and consists of distinct wet and dry seasons.
 Rainfall is the conspicuous factor in the seasonal and diurnal variations of the climate of Sri Lanka. Most
parts of the country receive an average annual rainfall of more than 50 inches (1,270 mm).

Plant and animal life

 Sri Lanka’s natural vegetation covers about one-third of the total land area.
 In the Wet Zone, tropical wet evergreen forest dominates in the lowlands, and submontane and montane
evergreen forests prevail in the highlands.
Language and religion
Among the principal ethnic groups, language and religion
determine identity. While the mother tongue of the Sinhalese is
Sinhala—an Indo-Aryan language—the Tamils speak the
Dravidian language of Tamil. Again, while more than 90 percent
of the Sinhalese are Buddhists, both Sri Lankan and Indian
Tamils are overwhelmingly Hindu. The Muslims—adherents of
Islam—usually speak Tamil. Christianity draws its followers
(about 7 percent of the population) from among the Sinhalese,
Tamil, and Burgher communities in its driest parts.
Economy
The economy that evolved in Sri Lanka under British
rule consisted of a modern sector, whose main
component was plantation agriculture, and a traditional
sector comprising subsistence agriculture. Manufacturing
was an insignificant segment of the economy. Banking
and commerce were, for the most part, ancillary to
plantation agriculture.
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

 Rice production is the most important economic activity of Sri Lanka’s peasantry.
 Forestry and fishing are relatively insignificant components of the economy. Fishing, however, is an
important occupation for the people living along the coastal fringe.

Trade

 Changes in the relative importance of plantation products among the exports and of food commodities
among the imports. This, however, has not reduced the adverse balance in foreign trade from which the
economy continues to suffer.
 The architecture of ancient Sri Lanka displays a rich diversity, varying in form
and architectural style from the Anuradhapura Kingdom (377 BC – 1017) through the
Kingdom of Kandy (1469 – 1815).

 Sinhalese architecture also displays many ancient North Indian influences.

 Buddhism had a significant influence on Sri Lankan architecture.

1. JETAVANARAMAYA

The Jetavanarama stupa or Jetavanaramaya is a stupa,

or Buddhist reliquary monument, located in the ruins of
Jetavana monastery

Height: 122 meters (400 ft) and was the world's tallest
stupa
Built by: King Mahasena of Anuradhapura (273–301). He
initiated the construction of the stupa:  His son Maghavanna
I completed the construction of the stupa and was
renovated by Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa.
STUPA (a dome-shaped structure erected as a Buddhist
shrine)
Ruwanweli Maha Seya (Mahathupa)

The Ruwanweli Maha Seya, also known as the

Mahathupa (the Great Thupa) is a stupa (a
hemispherical structure containing relics) in
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Two quarts or one Drona
of the Buddha's relics are enshrined in the stupa,
making it the largest collection of his relics
anywhere

Height: 103 m.
Built by: Sinhalese King Dutugemunu in c. 140 B.C
It is also known as Swarnamali Seya, Suvarnamali
Mahaceti (in Pali) and Rathnamali Seya.
 (5 BUILDING TYPES)

1. CAVE TEMPLES
 The earliest evidence of rudimentary cave temples is found in Mihintala.
Unique features:
Golden Temple of Dambulla(interior)
 Use of a drip ledge (kataraya) carved along the top edge of the rock ceiling which stopped rainwater running
into the cave.
 With time doors, windows and walls of brick or stone were added.
 The roof and walls were plastered white and finished with decorative paintings, these are evident in the
cave temples of Dambulla.
 Cave complexes of Dambulla, Situlpahuwa, Mulkirigala are significant cave temples which demonstrate
rudimentary architectural developments of the island.
 The Gal vihara, Polonnaruwa and the cave temples of Dambulla were initially constructed as cave temples,
later on the cave temples were converted to image houses.
Golden Temple of Dambulla (Interior) Golden Temple of Dambulla Sithulpawwa Rajamaha Viharaya

Mulkirigala Raja
Maha Vihara

Gal Vihara
FIVE CAVES INSIDE THE TEMPLE OF DAMBULLA

1. Cave of the Divine King (Deva Raja Viharaya) - The visitor to the Temple of Dambulla through the
gateway first comes across Cave No. l, called Dev-Raja-viharaya. It is believed that this cave is so-
called, because the god Sakka (King of Gods) gave the finishing touches to the principal image of this
cave.

2. Cave of the Great Kings (Maha Raja Viharaya) - by far the largest and the most impressive one
amongst the cares in this place

3. Great New Monastery (Maha Alut Viharaya) - separated from Cave No.2 by a wall of masonry. This is
said to have been used as a storeroom before the eighteenth century.

4. Western Temple (Paschima Viharaya) - It is about fifty-four feet long and twenty-seven wide; and its
shelving roof, which dips rapidly inwards, is about twenty-seven feet high.

5. NOWHERE TO BE FOUND ( Cannot find the last cave)

2. DAGOBAS OR STUPAS

 The dagobas or stupas of Sri Lanka are significant to the architectural and engineering development in the island,
stupas designed and constructed in Sri Lanka are the largest brick structures known to the pre-modern world.

 Jetavanaramaya was also the third tallest building in the ancient world, Abhayagiri Dagaba (370 ft) and
Ruwanwelisaya (300 ft) were also significant constructions of the ancient world.

 The construction of stupas were considered acts of great merit, the purpose of stupas were mainly to enshrine
relics of Buddha.
ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION OF ABHAYAGIRI DAGABA
3. VATADAGE
 The vatadage is considered to be one of ancient Sri
Lanka's most prolific architectural creations; this design
represented a changing perspective of stupa design
independently within the island.
 The vatadage roof was of a sophisticated design unique
to ancient Sri Lanka, it is a three-tiered conical roof,
spanning a height of 12–15 m, without a centre post, and
supported by pillars of diminishing height. The weight was
taken by a ring beam supported on the inner row of stone
columns, the radiating rafters met in a cartwheel-like
design.
VANTADAGE,
POLONNARUWA
4. MEDITATION HOUSES
 The meditation houses found in the forest monasteries in
Ritigala and Arankele are unique to Sri Lanka, each house
consist of two raised platforms, linked to each other by a
monolithic stone bridge. The outer platform is open to the sky,
larger and higher than the inner platform. These meditation
houses achieved a very high degree of perfection in their
architecture, the design combined square and rectangular
shapes and yet maintained symmetry, indicating the architects'
sophisticated knowledge of geometry indicating the architects'
sophisticated A resting place knowledge of geometry.
RITIGALA RESTING PLACE THUMPAMARAYA
5. VAULTED ROOF SHRINE

 The brick shrine with vaulted roof, as seen at Thuparama (first Buddhist temple that was constructed),
Lankatilaka and Tivanka Pilimage, is also considered unique to Sri Lanka. The Thuparama is almost intact
today and gives an idea of the manner in which the vaulted roof was created. The principles of the true arch
were known to the ancient Sri Lankans, but the horizontal arch was considered a safer method of construction.

LANKATILAKA TIVANKA PILIMAGE

SKYSCRAPERS

Lovamahapaya - situated between Ruwanweliseya and Sri Mahabodiya in the ancient city of Anuradhapura, Sri
Lanka. It is also known as the Brazen Palace or Lohaprasadaya because the roof was covered with bronze tiles.

- It had an exposed wooden frame supported on stone pillars. It was plastered in white, with shining copper roof tiles
and a pinnacle at its apex. It had lightning conductors or chumbakam made of amber and tourmaline. Its rafters were
made of talipot palm. It rose to a height of 162 feet (49 m) and had approximately 179,316 square feet (16,659 m2) of
floor space. It could seat 9000 monks.

- The dominant element in these buildings, was the tiled roof supported by timber beams and rafters. The roofs were
tiled, from as early as the 3rd century BCE, with red, white, yellow, turquoise and brown tiles. There were also tiles
made of bronze.
PALACES
1. Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa
- Vijayabahu I (born Prince Keerthi) (ruled 1055–1110) was a
medieval king of Sri Lanka. Born to a royal bloodline, he grew
up at a time when, part of the country was occupied by
invaders from the Chola Kingdom or Empire of Southern
India. He assumed rulership of the Ruhuna principality in the
southern parts of the country in 1055.
- in the inner city at Anuradhapura
2. Nissanka Malla of Polonnaruwa
- also known as Keerti Nissanka and Kalinga Lokesvara was
a king of Polonnaruwa (Sri Lanka) who ruled the country from
1187 to 1196.
- He is known for his architectural constructions such as the
Nissanka Lata Mandapaya, Hatadage and Rankot Vihara, as
well as for the refurbishment of old temples and irrigation
tanks.

STATUE OF NISSANKA
MALLA IN
DAMBULLA CAVE TEMPLE

A STONE INSCRIPTION OF VIJAYABAHU OF

POLONNARUWA
3. Parakramabahu I 4. Sugala

- The king of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa from 1153 to - Queen Sugala of Ruhuna , also refer to as Sugala Devi, was an
1186. He oversaw the expansion and beautification of his early monarch of the Kingdom of Ruhuna in the Southern region
capital, constructed extensive irrigation systems, of Sri Lanka.
reorganised the country's army, reformed Buddhist - The Kingdom of Ruhuna was a Sub kingdom loyal to the King of
practices, encouraged the arts and undertook military Anuradhapura. She was the first queen of the Kingdom of
campaigns in South India and Burma. Ruhuna, and she was claimed to have taken the throne of the
- in Polonnaruwa Ruhuna while King Parakramabahu I ruled entire island from
Polonnaruwa.
- in the Uva province

THE STATUE OF POLONNARUWA TRADITIONALLY

HELD TO BE OF PARAKRAMABAHU THE GREAT
ROCK PLACES

There was a palace on top of Sigiriya rock as well. The outlines, layout and several detailed features of this
Sky Palace are still visible. There was an upper palace that ran parallel to the lower one, but at a much higher
elevation. It had a viewing gallery. The innermost royal abode, which was originally a storeyed structure, had a
magnificent 360 degree view of the city gardens and countryside below. There was a series of successive
courtyards, chambers, and terraces connected by stairs and paved pathways.

SIGIRIYA OR SINHAGIRI
THE SKY PALACE
POOL DESIGN

1. Kuttam Pokuna - One of the best specimen of

bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair NELUM POKUNA
“LOTUS POND”
of pools known as Kuttam Pokuna (Twin
Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the
Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura.

ATH POKUNA

KULUDIYA POKUNA
“BLACK WATER POOL”
AUDIENCE HALLS
Polonnaruwa also has the remains of two magnificent
audience halls. They are the public audience halls of
Parakramabahu and council chamber of Nissanka Malla.
Parakramabahu's council chamber was a three-tiered
oblong structure built on a broad terrace, facing north, and
consisted of an entrance provided with two flights of steps,
having a gangway in between at ground level. The pillars in
the council halls at Polonnaruwa are square at the bottom,
octagonal in the middle and square again at the top.
AUDIENCE HALL, POLONNARUWA
HOSPITALS
Some idea of hospital architecture can be inferred from
the monastic hospitals at Mihintale and Polonnaruwa. There
was an inner and outer court and the rectangular inner court
had a series of cells, toilets and bath, with an exit at one
end. One cell had a medicinal bath. Alahena had long
dormitories instead of cells. The outer court accommodated
a refectory, a hot water bath, storerooms and dispensary. A
wall cordoned off the hospitals. The provision of two open
courts in addition to windows ensured maximum ventilation
and free circulation of air within the building itself.
HOSPITALS IN
MIHINTALE AND
POLONNARUWA
HOUSES

A house dated to 450 BCE, built of warichchi (wattle and daub) has been discovered near Kirindi oya. In
medieval times, the rich had large houses built of stone, mortar and lime, with tiled roofs and whitewashed
walls. There were rooms and apartments with doors and windows. The windows had fanlights. The doors had
keys, locks, and hinges. The houses had compounds or courtyards and balconies. There were separate rooms
for pounding paddy, a storeroom or atuva for paddy, and sheds for keeping chariots. Latrines are also
mentioned. All houses however had small kitchens.

WATTLE AND DAUB FANLIGHT WINDOW

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

1. Architects - There were architects to attend to the built environment. A cave

inscription refers to a "city architect". Ashley de Vos points out that this would
require sophisticated instruments even today. Lifting and placing of slender stone
slabs, twenty feet long, would have needed knowledge of structural mechanics. De
Vos also suggests that Sri Lanka may have had the first pre-fabricated buildings in
the world. Some sections of the monastic buildings were prepared separately and AR. ASHLEY DE VOS
then fitted together. VANTADAGE
2. Artistry - There was artistry in addition to technical finesse. This is illustrated in TEMPLE ,
the elegantly executed stone pillars dating from the 8th century. They are in POLONNARUWA
various designs. The lotus-stalk pillars of the Nissanka Latha Mandapaya are WITH FINE
unique in South Asian architecture. Lime mortar was used in brickwork only when EXAMPLES OF
there was a structural risk such as a vault or an arch. CARVINGS
3. Water - There were island pavilions surrounded by water called Sitala Maligawa.
There were ponds with lotuses. Sigiriya had an octagonal pond. Polonnaruwa had
one resembling the coils of a serpent and another like an open lotus. Kuttam
Pokuna in Anuradhapura had a graduated series of ponds going from shallow to
deep. Essential facilities were not forgotten: the Nandana Gardens had a large
gleaming bathroom.
4. Air Cooling – There was an air cooling method in the ancient period. A dried
buffalo skin was fixed above the roof of the building. Water dripped onto it from
several pipes, creating the effect of rain and sending in a cooling breeze. Pictures
on walls were changed according to the season; cooling pictures for the hot
season and warming pictures for the cool season.

5. Building Materials – Corbelled and circular brick arches, vaults and domes were DRIED BUFFALO SKINS
constructed. Rock faces were used as supporting walls for buildings. The
vatadage in Polonnaruwa had walls that were constructed of stone to the height
of the upper storey.

CIRCULAR BRICK ARCHES CORBELLED

6. Timber

- It was primarily timber architecture, with mud or masonry walls. There were sophisticated wooden
buildings from the 3rd century. Sigiriya had an elaborate gatehouse made of timber and brick masonry with
multiple tiled roofs. The massive timber doorposts remaining today indicate this.
- The timber carried the load. Frames were made out of whole trunks of trees. The gatehouse at the
eastern entrance to Anuradhapura built in the 4th century BC used whole trees.
- Large windows, minimum walls and minimalistic furniture are characteristics of Sri Lankan modern
architecture. Renowned Sri Lankan architect Geoffrey Bawa has had a major influence on modern Sri
Lanka by introducing this open concept that also reflects a local aesthetic influence.
 The arrival of Islam in Pakistan led to a smooth transition to the predominantly Islamic
Architecture. Pakistan is the treasure house of Isamic Architecture. Lahore, the cultural hub of
Pakistan is situated along the bank of Ravi River. The city has witness the rise and fall of many
dynasties like Ghaznawis (1021 – 1186 AD), Ghoris (1186 – 1202 AD) and Slaves (1206 –
1524 AD) before the arrival of Munghal Dynasty (1524 – 1764 AD).

 Pakistani architecture has four recognized periods: pre-Islamic, Islamic, colonial, and post-
colonial. With the beginning of the Indus civilisation around the middle of the 3rd millennium
BCE, an advanced urban culture developed for the first time in the region, with large buildings,
some of which survive to this day.
 Some of the most important examples of architecture in Pakistan are the nation’s mosques,
many of which are decorated with geometric patterns covering the floors, walls, and
surrounding the doorways. Pakistan’s ancient architecture is dominated by tombs and religious
shrines.

One of the most important periods in architecture in Pakistan was the Mughal Dynasty which
began in the 1500s. The Lahore Fort, where the emperor made daily appearances, was
constructed during this period, when Lahore was the capital city. Shish Mahal, the hall of
mirrors, uses thousands of tiny mirrors to create patterns decorating the
walls. Shalimar gardens, outside Lahore, surround a palace, and contain over 400 fountains
and large square pools.
 The architecture in Afghanistan is greatly influence by the diverse events in Afghan history.
Ranging over time from Greek, Persian to Indian and European in recent centuries. A wide
range of religious influences is reflected over the past decades, with evidences exhibiting Early
Buddhism and Islamic inspiration.

 Afghanistan includes striking architectural remains of all ages including Greek and
Buddhist stupas (shrines and relics) and monasteries, arches, monuments, complicated
Islamic minarets (the tall, slender mosque towers), temples and forts.
 One of the key impact of Islamic Rule on the architecture of Afghanistan was the
introduction of the universal religious building of the mosque, with aspects of the basic
structure dedicated by the religion itself.

 A mosque must face a mecca, or gibla, in the direction of prayer, and contain within the
gibla wall a mihrab or niche for prayer. An ablution area allows for the cleanliness requirement
before prayer and a clean covered floor enables the head to be touched on the ground during
prayer.
 Sri Lanka architecture was deeply influenced by Buddhism, which was introduced to the
island in the third century BCE by the son of Ashoka, Mahinda. Ashoka the great Buddhist
emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, dedicated himself to the propagation of the religion across
Asia. Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any Buddhist nation, and its
culture reflects its religious tradition.

 Three types of structures are typically associated with the religious architecture of
Buddhism: monasteries (vihatas), places to venerate relics (stupas), and shrines or prayer
halls (chaityas or chaityas grihas). The earliest Buddhist architecture found in Sri Lanka are
cave temples. The most famous of these, Dambulla temple complex dates to the first century
BCE.
 The kingdom of Anuradhapura (377 BCE to 1071 CE), named for its capital city, produced
some of the finest ancient Sri Lankan architecture.

 Sri Lankan stupas were among the largest brick structure known to the pre-modern world.
Intended to enshrine relics of the Buddha, they were built in various shapes and often
accompanied by vahalkada or decorative frontispiece.

 Another architectural creation associated with stupas and unique to the ancient Sri Lankan
architecture was the vatadage, a circular Buddhist structure built around small stupas.