Soil Chemistry properties, like holding onto water and nutrients

that plants need to grow.

Topic Learning Outcomes
• Identify the common chemical
components of soil.
• Differentiate different soil minerals and
their significance.
• Solve problems involving ions and
charges present in soils.
• Relate soil chemistry to engineering
systems.
Elemental Composition
Chemical Composition
Major mineral group of soils
1. Inorganic Matter: aluminosilicates +
metals oxides
One of the things that soil is made of is called
inorganic matter. Inorganic matter is a fancy
name for things that are not alive and were
never alive. There are two types of inorganic
matter that are really important in soil:
aluminosilicates and metal oxides.
Aluminosilicates are a type of rock that is made
up of two things called aluminum and silicon.
Metal oxides are another type of rock that is
made up of metal atoms and oxygen atoms.
These two things are really important because
they help give soil some of its important
2. Organic Matter: plant materials
Soil is the stuff on the ground where plants grow.
One of the things that soil is made of is called
organic matter. Organic matter is made up of
things that used to be alive, like plants and
animals.
When plants die, their parts like leaves and
stems break down and become a part of the soil.
This is called plant material. It's really important
because it helps give soil some of its important
properties, like holding onto water and nutrients
that plants need to grow.
When you see things like fallen leaves or twigs
on the ground, they're starting to become part of
the soil's organic matter. The more organic
matter there is in the soil, the healthier it is for
plants to grow in.
3. Solutes: water + contaminants
One of the things that's really important for
plants to grow is water. Water is a type of liquid
that plants use to help them grow and stay
healthy. When it rains, some of the water gets
absorbed into the soil. This water can have other
things mixed in with it, like nutrients that plants
need to grow, or things that can be harmful to
plants, called contaminants. Contaminants are
things like chemicals or pollutants that can be
found in the soil. They can come from things like
factories or cars, and they're not good for plants
to grow in.
4. Gas: atmospheric gases
One of the things that soil contains is gas, which
is a type of matter that we can't see or touch.
One important type of gas in the soil is called
atmospheric gases, which are the same gases
that are in the air around us. Plants need these
gases, like oxygen and carbon dioxide, to grow
properly.
Contribute to the control of adsoroption,
transformation, and release of vital nutrients.
Aluminosilicates
Composed primarily of aluminum, silicon, and
oxygen formed from volcanic materials.
1. Primary minerals – formed during lava
crystallization.
Primary aluminosilicate minerals are formed
when lava cools and hardens into rock. It's kind
of like when you make ice cubes by freezing
water - the lava turns into a solid rock, and the
aluminosilicate minerals are formed in the
process.
2. Secondary minerals – altered minerals
due to weathering.
Secondary aluminosilicate minerals are formed
later on, after the primary minerals have been
sitting around for a while and have been
exposed to things like wind and rain. This is
called weathering. The weathering process
changes the primary minerals into new
minerals, which are called secondary minerals.
Metal oxides
Composed primarily of oxides of iron and
manganese in various oxidation states.
1. Fe - 2+, 3+
2. Mn – 2+, 3+, 4+
Charges are pH- dependent
Metal oxides are a type of material that are
made up of two things: metal and oxygen. The
specific metals that make up metal oxides are
iron and manganese, which are found in
different forms depending on how much oxygen
they have.
Iron can have two different forms: one with a
charge of 2+ and another with a charge of 3+.
Manganese can have three different forms: one
with a charge of 2+, another with a charge of 3+,
and a third with a charge of 4+.
The charges of the iron and manganese depend
on something called pH, which is a measure of
how acidic or basic a solution is. When the pH
changes, the charges of the iron and
manganese can change too.
Organic Matter: Groups
Soils organic matter (SOM) from dead
organisms are made of two major groups.
Organic matter is a type of material that comes
from dead plants and animals. When these
plants and animals die, their bodies break down
into two main groups of things: non-nitrogenous
and nitrogenous.
1. Non-nitrogenous – carbohydrates
- Cellulose, hemicellulose, & lignin –
structural components turn to organic
acids, alcohol, and CO2.
The non-nitrogenous group is made up of things
like carbohydrates, which are types of sugars
that give energy to living things. There are three
main types of carbohydrates that make up the
non-nitrogenous group: cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin. These are all things
that give plants their structure and help them
stand up tall. When these things break down,
they turn into other things like organic acids,
alcohol, and carbon dioxide, which are all
important for things like soil health and plant
growth.
2. Nitrogenous – protein derived
- Amino acids
The nitrogenous group is made up of something
called protein. Protein is a type of nutrient that
gives our bodies energy and helps our muscles
grow. Amino acids are the building blocks of
protein, kind of like how Lego blocks are used to
build things. When plants and animals break
down, the nitrogenous group turns into amino
acids, which are really important for things like
building strong muscles and keeping our bodies
healthy.
Organic Matter: Humic substances
Resulting from decomposition, humic
complexes are synthesized.
Humic substances are a type of material that
comes from dead plants and animals. When
these plants and animals break down, they
create something called humic complexes.
These complexes have some special properties
that are important for things like soil health and
plant growth.
Humic substances properties:
1. Polyfunctionality- due to broad range of
functional groups.
- Methane (alkane)
- Aromatics
- Alcohol
- Acids
This means that they have a lot of different
parts, kind of like a Swiss Army Knife. Some of
these parts include methane, which is a type of
gas, aromatics, which are compounds that give
things like spices their smell, and acids, which
are like the opposite of bases (which you might
have learned about in science class).
2. Hydrophilicity- due to formation of
hydrogen bonds.
This means that they like to stick to water, kind
of like how a magnet likes to stick to metal. They
do this by forming something called hydrogen
bonds, which are like little bridges that hold
things together.
3. Molecular negative charge- due to
proton dissociation from various
functional groups.
This means that they have a bunch of negatively
charged parts that are floating around. This is
important because it helps them stick to things
like nutrients and minerals in the soil, which
helps plants absorb them better.
4. Structural lability- changing quality due
to molecules responsive to soil
conditions (e.g. pH, electrolyte
composition)
This means that they can change their shape
and properties depending on things like the pH
(which is a measure of how acidic or basic
something is) and the electrolyte composition
(which is a fancy way of saying how much salt
is in something) of the soil. This is important
because it helps the humic substances work
better in different soil conditions.
Surface Charge
• The reactions between organic
substances and ions from minerals on
the surface results to soil surface
charges.
• Both clay and organic matter’s net
negative charge attracts positive
particles (e.g., Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+)
which are vital soil nutrients.
Soil is made up of tiny particles called minerals
and organic matter. These particles have a
special property called surface charge. This
means that they have a little bit of electricity on
their surface that attracts certain types of
particles.
The surface charge of the soil particles is usually
negative. This means that they are like magnets
that attract positive particles. Some examples of
positive particles that the soil can attract are
sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium
(Mg2+), and calcium (Ca2+). These positive
particles are really important for plants to grow
well.
The reason that the soil attracts these positive
particles is because of the way that the minerals
and organic matter react with each other. When
they react, they create a negative charge on the
surface of the soil particles. This negative
charge acts like a magnet, pulling in the positive
particles that the plants need to grow.
Soil Cation Exchange Capacity
CEC measures the ability of the soil to hold,
retain, or supply nutrients.

Soil Orders
Name of Order Characteristics
(derivative
Where Ib is any base cation present in the soil words)
(e.g., Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+) and Ia is the total Entisol (recent) Neglible differentiation of
acidic cation (e.g., H+, NH4+) horizons in all climates.
Vertisol (invert) Clay-rich soils. Hydrates
when wet; cracks when
dry.
Inceptisol Soils with slight horizon
(beginning) development.
Example 1 Aridisol (dry) Dry soils; salt, gypsum, or
carbonate accumulation.
Calculate the calcium saturation of soil Mollisol (soft) Temperature grasslands
containing calcium, magnesium, sodium, and soils; organic rich dark
potassium whose concentrations are 2000, 240, surface.
100, and 20 ppm, respectively. The acidic cation Alfisol (Al + Fe) Clay-enriched; under
from various acidic compounds is measured to deciduous forests.
be 4.8 meq/100 g soil. Spodosol Humid forest soils; iron
(wood) and organic matter rich.
Ultisol (last) Humid temperature –
tropical old soils; red to
yellow clay-enriched.
Oxisol (oxide) Tropical – subtropical; old,
intensity weathered.
Histosol Bog soils; sontain high
(tissue) amount of organic matters
and peat.
Andisol From volcanic ejecta;
(modified from contain allophanes and
Ando) humic complexes.
Gelisol (freeze) Contains permafrost; not
highly fertiles; present in
very cold regoins.
Soil pH You can think of sand like the little pieces of
gravel you might find on a beach.
The combination of complex compounds in soil
contribute to its pH.
• Contains both H+ and OH-
• High OH-; slightly basic
• High rainfall pH range: 5-7
• Dry region pH range: 6.5-9
The pH of soil is influenced by a lot of different
things, but one of the main factors is the
presence of compounds that contain hydrogen
ions (H+) or hydroxide ions (OH-). If there are a
lot of hydroxide ions in the soil, then the soil will
be more basic. If there are a lot of hydrogen
ions, then the soil will be more acidic.
Interestingly, the pH of soil can also be
influenced by how much rain a region gets. If an
area gets a lot of rain, the soil tends to be more Example
acidic, with a pH range between 5 and 7. But if
an area is very dry, then the soil tends to be 50% Sand, 10% Clay, 40% Silt – Loam
more basic, with a pH range between 6.5 and 9. 80% Sand, 5% Clay, 15% Silt – Loamy Sand
Soil Triangle 25% Clay, 60% Silt, 15% Sand – Silt Loam
The soil triangle is a tool that helps us
understand what kinds of particles are in soil.
• CLAY- Fine-grained minerals
Clay particles are very small and smooth. They
come from minerals that have been broken
down over time. You can think of clay like tiny
grains of dust, but they are much smaller and
stickier.
• SILT- Dust-like sediment materials
formed by ice, water and wind.
Silt particles are a bit bigger than clay particles,
but still quite small. They are formed from
things like ice, water, and wind. You can think
of silt as tiny grains of sand, but much
smoother.
• SAND- Granules formed from
disintegrated rocks.
Sand particles are the biggest of the three
types. They are formed from rocks that have
been broken down into small, granular pieces.
Water Chemistry
Topic Learning Outcomes
• Discuss the hydrologic cycle.
• Discuss the polar nature of water.
• Solve problems related to concentration
(parts per million and parts per billion)
and chemical precipitation.
• Discuss and explain the importance of
dissolved oxygen as water quality
parameter.
• Discuss the possible contaminants that
can be found in bodies of water and
explain the source of these
contaminants.
Hydrologic Cycle (Water Cycle)
• The hydrologic cycle or water cycle
collects, purifies, and distributes the
earth’s fixed supply of water.
Hydrologic cycle is the process by which water
moves around the Earth. Water is really
important for life, and we need it to drink, grow
crops, and for many other things. The hydrologic
cycle starts with the water on the Earth's
surface, like in oceans, lakes, and rivers.
When the sun shines down on the Earth, it heats
up the surface, and some of the water on the
surface turns into vapor, which is like steam.
This process is called evaporation. The vapor
rises up into the air, and as it gets higher and
higher, it cools down and turns back into tiny
droplets of water, which we call clouds. This
process is called condensation.
When the clouds get really full of water droplets,
they get heavy and it starts to rain, snow or hail.
This process is called precipitation. When the
water falls back down to the Earth, it might go
back into a river, lake or ocean, or it might soak
into the ground, which helps plants grow.
The hydrologic cycle is important because it
helps to make sure there is enough water for all
the living things on Earth.
• Surface water – water on the surface of
the earth that is exposed to the
atmosphere.
Surface water refers to all the water we can see
on the Earth's surface, like rivers, lakes, ponds,
and oceans. It's the water that we can touch,
swim in, or even sail on. This water is exposed
to the atmosphere, which means it can
evaporate (turn into water vapor) and form
clouds, or it can fall back down to the surface as
precipitation (like rain or snow). The surface
water is an important part of the hydrologic
cycle, which is the process by which water
moves around the Earth, changes form, and
gets recycled.
Hydrologic Cycle
1. Evaporation
• Incoming solar radiation moves
water at the surface into the
atmosphere through evaporation.
 2. Transpiration
• evaporation of water from plants
Transpiration is when water from plants
evaporates into the air. When plants take in
water through their roots, some of that water
goes out of tiny holes on their leaves called
stomata. This water then turns into vapor and
goes into the air.
• Evapotranspiration –
combination of evaporation and
transpiration
Evapotranspiration is just a fancy word for the
combination of evaporation and transpiration.
So it's basically all the water that is evaporating
into the air from both the surface of the earth and
from plants. This water then goes into the
atmosphere where it can form clouds and
eventually fall back down to earth as
precipitation (like rain, snow, or hail).
3. Condensation
• Condensing of water vapor
4. Precipitation
• Forms of moisture originating in
the atmosphere and falling to the
ground
• Rain
Hydrologic Cycle
Surface Runoff
• Water is flowing over the land surface.
Surface runoff is when water that falls on the
ground, like from rain or melting snow, starts to
move downhill and flow over the surface of the
land. This happens because the ground can
only absorb so much water, and when it
becomes saturated, any additional water flows
over the surface. The water will follow the
natural contours of the land, and it can
eventually flow into rivers, lakes, or other bodies
of water. This is an important part of the water
cycle because it helps to replenish our
freshwater resources and supports many forms
of life.
Percolation / Infiltration
• Water seeps into the ground and
becomes groundwater.
Percolation or infiltration is like when you pour
water on the ground, and instead of the water
just staying on top, it slowly soaks into the
ground. It's like how a sponge absorbs water. So
when rain falls or when we water our plants,
some of the water goes into the ground and
becomes groundwater, which is like an
underground storage of water. This
groundwater can then be used by plants or
collected in wells for people to drink.
The Polar Nature of Water
• Water is a polar solvent due to the
unequal distribution of negative charge
which creates partially charged "poles" at
the ends of each O-H bond.
• The O end acts a slightly negative pole,
and the H end acts as a slightly positive
pole.
• Water separates the ions by replacing
that attraction with one between the
water molecules and the ions.
 • Water also dissolves many covalent
compounds that contain polar O-H
bonds, which can interact with those of
water.
Water is a special liquid that is able to dissolve
many different substances. This is because
water has a special structure that makes it a
polar solvent. The reason for this is that each
water molecule is made up of two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom. The oxygen atom
is slightly more negative than the hydrogen
atoms, which makes one end of the molecule
slightly negative, and the other end slightly
positive.
This means that when water comes into contact
with other substances, it can interact with them
in different ways. For example, if water
encounters a substance with a positive charge,
like a sodium ion, the slightly negative end of the
water molecule will be attracted to the positive
charge, forming a bond. This bond replaces the
attraction between the sodium ion and other
ions nearby.
Water is also able to dissolve many other
substances that contain polar O-H bonds, like
sugar or salt. This is because the slightly
positive and negative ends of the water
molecule can interact with the polar bonds in
these substances, breaking them apart and
allowing them to dissolve in the water.
Solvation and Hydration
• Solvation – the process in which an ion
or a molecule is surrounded by solvent
molecules arranged in specific manner.
Solvation is a process where tiny particles called
molecules, which make up liquids like water,
surround and hold onto other tiny particles like
salt or sugar. It's like when you use a spoon to
scoop some sugar and put it into your cup of
water. The sugar dissolves in the water because
the water molecules surround the sugar
molecules and hold onto them. That's what we
call solvation!
• Hydration – the process in which an ion
is surrounded by water molecules
arranged in specific manner.
When something dissolves in water, it means
that the water molecules surround and grab
onto the tiny particles of the substance. This
process is called "solvation."
When an ion dissolves in water, the water
molecules form a special arrangement around it,
which is called "hydration." It's like the ion is
getting a hug from the water molecules! The way
the water molecules arrange themselves
depends on the type of ion, and it's what makes
water such a good solvent for so many different
things.
Solubility
• A measure of the maximum amount of
solute that can dissolve in a given
amount of solvent to form a stable
solution.
Parts Per Million (ppm)
General Formula for Parts Per Million
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of
solvent
Note: the unit of numerator must be the same
with unit of the denominator
Parts Per Million (ppm)
For VERY DILUTE AQUEOUS SOLUTION
• Water is the solvent.
• Amount of solute <<< amount of solvent
• Density of solution ≈ Density of water
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑝𝑝𝑚 =
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Parts Per Billion (ppb) Conversion of mg/L to mol/L
General Formula for Parts Per billion Using this formula
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑝𝑝𝑏 = × 109 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛
= (𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦)(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)(1000)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of Rearrange the equation
solvent 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Note: the unit of numerator must be the same 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛
(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)(1000)
with unit of the denominator
If solution or sample is very diluted (Amount of
Parts Per Billion (ppb)
solute <<< amount of solvent)
For VERY DILUTE AQUEOUS SOLUTION 𝑝𝑝𝑚
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
• Water is the solvent. (𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)(1000)

• Amount of solute <<< amount of solvent

• Density of solution ≈ Density of water %mass solute and ppm
µ𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑝𝑝𝑏 = %𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = × 100
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛
Conversion of ppm to ppb 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 %𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛 100
1 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 1000 𝑝𝑝𝑏
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛
Parts Per Million (ppm) and Parts Per Billion %𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
(ppb) in Soil Composition 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106
100
𝑚𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑝𝑝𝑚 =
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
%mass solute and ppm
µ𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑝𝑝𝑏 = %𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106
100
%mass to ppm
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = (%𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)(104 )
Conversion of mol/L to mg/L ppm to %mass
𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 1000 𝑚𝑔
′
𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑛
=(
𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛
)(
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
)(
1 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
) %𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = (𝑝𝑝𝑚)(10−4 )

𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= (𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦)(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)(1000)
𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙 ′ 𝑛
If solution or sample is very diluted (Amount of
solute <<< amount of solvent)
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = (𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦)(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)(1000)
Example 1 Therefore, we can say that ppm and mg/L have
the same value if we have a small amount of
A 1 kg sample of soil is analyzed for the
solute or pollutant compared to the amount of
chemical solvent trichloroethylene (TCE). The
the sample or solution.
analysis indicates that the sample contains 5.0
mg of TCE. What is the TCE concentration in
ppm?
Example 3
Mass of TCE in mg = 5.0 𝑚𝑔
The concentration of Fe is 15 ppm. What is the
Mass of soil sample in mg = concentration of Fe in molarity? Molar mass of
1000 𝑔 1000 𝑚𝑔 Fe = 55.85 g/mol.
1 𝑘𝑔 ( )( ) = 1 × 106 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
1 𝑘𝑔 1𝑔
𝑝𝑝𝑚
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106 (𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)(1000)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
15 𝑝𝑝𝑚
5.0 𝑚𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑔
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106 (55.85 ) (1000)
1 × 106 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 5 𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝑇𝐶𝐸 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 2.686 × 10−4 𝑀 𝐹𝑒

Example 2 Example 4

One liter of water is analyzed and found to The concentration of nickel is 8.52x10-4 M. What
contain 5.0 mg of TCE. What is the TCE is the concentration of nickel in mg/L? Molar
concentration in mg/L and ppm? (Density of mass of nickel = 58.69 g/mol.
water is 1 g/mL) 𝑚𝑔 𝑁𝑖
= (𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦)(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)(1000)
𝐿
Solution: Amount of TCE << amount of water.
The solution is very dilute. Volume of solution is 𝑚𝑔 𝑁𝑖 𝑔
= (8.52 × 10−4 𝑀) (58.69 ) (1000)
equal to volume of water. 𝐿 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝒎𝒈 𝑻𝑪𝑬 𝟓. 𝟎 𝒎𝒈 𝒎𝒈 𝒎𝒈 𝑵𝒊 𝒎𝒈
= = 𝟓. 𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒
′
𝑳 𝒔𝒐𝒍 𝒏 𝟏. 𝟎 𝑳 𝑳 𝑳 𝑳
For ppm, convert one liter of water to mg of
water Example 5
1000 𝑚𝐿 1 𝑔 1000 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂 = 1.0 𝐿 ( )( )( ) Convert 560 ppm of methylene blue (MB)
1𝐿 𝑚𝐿 1𝑔 solution into %mass of methylene blue.
= 1 × 106 𝑚𝑔
%𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 = (𝑝𝑝𝑚)(10−4 )
the mass of sample or solution is the same as
the mass of water %𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 = (560)(10−4 )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 %𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 0.056%
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
5.0 𝑚𝑔
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106
1 × 106 𝑚𝑔
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 5.0 𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝑇𝐶𝐸
Water Pollution Purification of Water
• Any condition caused by human activity • Adsorption
adversely affects the quality of a stream,
- It's like a sponge that can soak up the dirt
lake, ocean or source of groundwater.
and pollutants in the water.
• The presence of any harmful chemical or
• Membrane Filtration / Reverse
other constituent present in
Osmosis
concentration above the naturally
occurring background level. - It's like a strainer that can catch the tiny
particles in the water so they can't pass
through.
Water Quality Parameter: Dissolved Oxygen
• Chemical Precipitation
(DO)
- It's like when we add a special chemical
Dissolved Oxygen: It is the oxygen-content
to the dirty water that makes the
of water.
pollutants stick together and form bigger
• Biological decomposition of organic particles that we can then remove easily.
matter uses up the dissolved oxygen.
• Water deficient in DO is likely to be
Chemical Precipitation
polluted with organic matter.
• It is a process in which soluble species
Significance:
are precipitated out of solution as solid.
• Measure of the impact of oxidizable
• Common precipitates include hydroxide,
wastes in water
carbonate, and sulfide minerals.
• Lack of DO affects fish and aquatic life
• Chemical precipitation is found to be
• For determining biochemical oxygen effective for the treatment of toxic metals
demand of wastewaters / heavy metals due to its economy and
efficiency, however it produces much
Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen
sludge (waste solids) with water content.
present in water that can be used by living things
like fish and plants. When things like leaves or • The theory of solubility is used in the
waste materials enter the water, bacteria eat chemical precipitation
them and use up the oxygen in the water, which
Chemical precipitation is a process that helps
is not good for the living things in the water. If
remove harmful things from water by turning
the water has very little oxygen, it is a sign that
them into solid particles that can be removed
the water may be polluted with harmful things.
easily. This is done by adding certain chemicals
We can measure the amount of dissolved
that can react with the harmful things in the
oxygen in the water to know how much waste is
water and make them turn into solid particles
in it and how it affects the living things in the
that sink to the bottom. This way, the water
water.
becomes cleaner and safer to use. However,
this process also produces waste solids, which
are not good for the environment.

Types of Precipitation Method
• Hydroxide Precipitation
• Sulfide Precipitation
Solubility Product Constant (Ksp)
• Solubility of slightly soluble compounds
• Equilibrium exists between solid solute
and aqueous ions.
Equilibrium Equation:
𝐴𝑚 𝐵𝑛(𝑠) ↔ 𝑚𝐴+𝑛 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑛𝐵 −𝑚 (𝑎𝑞)
Ksp expression is
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [𝐴+𝑛 ]𝑚 [𝐵 −𝑚 ]𝑛
[𝑪𝒂+𝟐 ] = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑴 𝑪𝒂+𝟐
Example 7
What is the required pH to reduce a high
concentration of dissolved Mg+2 to 43 mg/L?
The Ksp for the following reaction is 10−11.16 . The
molar mass of Mg or Mg+2 is 24.3 g/mol.
𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑠) ↔ 𝑀𝑔+2 + 2𝑂𝐻 −
Solution: Convert the concentration of Mg+2
which is 43 mg/L to mol/L or M. Write the Ksp
expression and use it to get [OH-] in order to
determine the pH.
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [𝑀𝑔+2 ][𝑂𝐻 − ]2
𝑚𝑔 𝑀𝑔+2
𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙′ 𝑛 43
[𝑀𝑔+2 ] = = = 1.769 × 10−3 𝑀
(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)(1000) (24.3)(1000)

[𝐴+𝑛 ] = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 Ksp expression is

[𝐵 −𝑚 ] = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [𝑀𝑔+2 ][𝑂𝐻 − ]2

𝐾𝑠𝑝
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = √
Example 6 [𝑀𝑔+2 ]

What is the concentration of Ca+2 (in M) in a

wastewater if its pH is raised to 12.6? The Ksp 10−11.16
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = √ = 6.254 × 10−5 𝑀
for the following reaction is 6.3 × 10−6 1.769 × 10−3
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑠) ↔ 𝐶𝑎+2 + 2𝑂𝐻 − [𝑂𝐻 − ] = 6.254 × 10−5 𝑀
Solution: Write the Ksp expression and Remember the formula for the pH of base solution
determine the concentration of OH- using the
given pH. Calculate the Ca+2 using the 𝑝𝐻 = 14 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔⁡[𝑂𝐻 − ]
expression. 𝑝𝐻 = 14 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔[6.254 × 10−5 𝑀]
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [𝐶𝑎+2 ][𝑂𝐻 − ]2 𝑝𝐻 = 9.796
Remember the formula for OH- for base solution At this pH, any magnesium in excess of 1.769 ×
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = 10(𝑝𝐻−14) = 10(12.6−14) 10−3 𝑀 will precipitate as Mg(OH)2(s) because the
solubility of Mg+2 will be exceeded.
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = 10−1.4 𝑀 = 0.0398 𝑀
Use the Ksp expression
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [𝐶𝑎+2 ][𝑂𝐻 − ]2

𝐾𝑠𝑝 6.3 × 10−6

[𝐶𝑎+2 ] = =
[𝑂𝐻 − ]2 [10−1.4 ]2
Chemistry of Atmosphere

Topic Learning Outcomes

• Discuss the different layers of the
atmosphere.
• Explain the different types of air
pollutants.
• Solve problems involving gas
concentrations.

Atmosphere
• Envelope of gas that surrounds the
Earth.
• Complex mixture of gases and
suspended particles
• Layers of the Atmosphere
- Troposphere
- Stratosphere
- Mesosphere
- Thermosphere
The atmosphere is like a giant blanket of air that
surrounds the Earth. It's made up of different
gases and tiny particles that are always moving
around. The atmosphere is divided into four
layers, like a layer cake. The first layer is called
the troposphere, where we live and where all the
weather happens. The second layer is called the
stratosphere, where the ozone layer is and
where airplanes fly. The third layer is called the
mesosphere, where meteors burn up when they
enter the atmosphere. The last layer is called
the thermosphere, where the air is very thin and
it's very hot because it's close to the sun.
Layers of Atmosphere
Troposphere
• Humans live in the troposphere, and
nearly all weather occurs in this lowest
layer.
• Dry Air – 78 mol% N2, 21 mol% O2, 1.0
mol% (Argon and other gases).
• Greenhouse gases (GHG) and other
pollutants can be found in troposphere.
The troposphere is like a big blanket of air that
surrounds the Earth, and it's where we live and
breathe. It's the lowest layer of the atmosphere,
and it's where most of our weather happens.
The air in the troposphere is made up of mostly
two gases: nitrogen and oxygen. But there are
also other gases that can be found there, like
argon and greenhouse gases. Sometimes,
pollutants can also be found in the troposphere,
which can be harmful to us and the environment.
Stratosphere
• Commercial passenger jets fly in the
lower stratosphere, partly because this
less-turbulent layer provides a smoother
ride.
• “Ozone layer” – the part of the
stratosphere where ozone has its
maximum concentration (8-10 ppm).
• The ozone layer protects the Earth from
much of the short-waved radiation.
• CFC (Chlorofluorocarbon) – destroys the
ozone layer. Chlorine in CFC is the major
contributor in the destruction of ozone
layer.
The stratosphere is a layer of air that is above
the troposphere, where we live. Airplanes fly in
this layer because it is less bumpy. The
stratosphere also has something called the
ozone layer, which is like a protective shield for
the Earth. It helps to block harmful rays from the
sun. But there is a chemical called CFC that can
harm the ozone layer and make it weaker, which
is bad for the Earth.
Mesosphere
• The coldest temperatures in Earth's
atmosphere, about -90°C (-130°F), are
found near the top of this layer.
• Most meteors are burned in the
mesosphere.
The mesosphere is a layer of the Earth's
atmosphere that is very high up. It is really cold
up there, even colder than your freezer at home!
It is so cold that when things like rocks from
space (called meteors) fall into the atmosphere,
they get super hot and burn up before they
reach the ground. It's kind of like when you burn
a marshmallow over a campfire - the outside
gets really hot and crispy, but the inside stays
cool.
Thermosphere
• Other term for ionosphere
• very low density, low pressure
• contains the Aurora Borealis and Aurora
Australis when atoms and ions are
formed when high-energy short-wave
solar radiation is absorbed.
• Aurora Borealis at Abisko National Park,
near Kiruna, Sweden (Photo from New
York Times)
The thermosphere is like the outermost layer of
the atmosphere, far away from where we live.
It's a place where there's hardly any air or
pressure, and it's really hot because it's exposed
to the sun's energy. This layer also has
something really cool called the Aurora Borealis,
which is also known as the Northern Lights. It's
a beautiful light show that happens when
particles from the sun interact with the gases in
the thermosphere. So, it's kind of like a very
high-up and very cool party happening in the
sky!
Air Pollution
• It is one of the most diffuse and hard to
control environmental issues.
• Two Main Sources of Air Pollution
• Transportation
• Production of energy (electricity)
• Combustion of petroleum produces CO,
CO2, NOx (NO, and NO2), along with
unburned molecules from petroleum.
• Burning of coal for electricity produces
CO, CO2, SOx (oxides of sulfur such as
SO2 and SO3), etc.
Air pollution is when there are dirty things in the
air that we breathe. There are two main ways
that air gets dirty. One is from things like cars,
trucks, and buses that burn gasoline and
release dirty things into the air. The other is from
making electricity using things like coal, which
also releases dirty things into the air. These dirty
things include chemicals like carbon monoxide,
sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, which can
be harmful to people and the environment.
Air Pollutants
• Primary Air Pollutants → emitted directly
into air from polluting source.
Primary air pollutants are things that are
released directly into the air from a source, like
factories or cars. Some examples of primary
pollutants are exhaust from cars, smoke from
factories, and dust from construction sites.
• Secondary Air Pollutants → when
primary pollutants combine with other
substances in air and creates something
more hazardous (acid rain and smog).
Secondary air pollutants are created when
primary pollutants mix with other things in the
air, like sunlight or moisture. Some examples of
secondary pollutants are acid rain, which is
formed when pollutants mix with rain, and smog,
which is a mix of pollutants and fog.
Major Air Pollutants
Oxides of Carbon
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) - comes
from burning of fossil fuels and biomass.
CO2 is released when we burn things like fossil
fuels or wood. It's not usually harmful to breathe,
but too much of it can trap heat in the
atmosphere and cause global warming.
• Carbon monoxide (CO) - due to
incomplete combustion. It reduces the
ability of blood to carry oxygen. CO
combines with hemoglobin instead of O2.
O is a harmful gas that can be produced when
things are burned. It's dangerous because it can
stop our blood from carrying oxygen around our
body, which can make us feel sick or even lead
to death. We need oxygen to live, so it's
important to avoid breathing in too much CO.
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
• NO2 – Nitrogen dioxide is produced when
air is used to combust fuels. The high
temperature that can exist during
combustion converts the oxygen and
nitrogen to NO, which is then quickly
transformed to NO2.
• N2O, NO
Oxides of nitrogen are chemicals that are
formed when we burn things like gasoline, oil, or
coal. When we burn these things, it gets really
hot and the oxygen and nitrogen in the air
combine to form oxides of nitrogen. The most
common ones are called NO and NO2. These
chemicals can be really bad for our health and
the environment because they can cause smog
and air pollution. They can also contribute to
climate change.
Oxides of Sulfur (SOx) bloodstream. This can cause health problems
like asthma, lung cancer, and heart disease.
• SO2 (sulfur dioxide) - comes largely
from burning of fossil fuel (coal). It is
detectable at concentration of 1 ppm.
Gas Concentrations
• SO3
• Concentration of gas pollutants in air.
When we burn coal, a kind of fuel we use to
• Can be expressed in terms of mole
produce electricity, it releases something called
percent, volume percent, ppmv, and
sulfur dioxide. This is a gas that mixes with the
microgram per cubic meter of air.
air we breathe and can cause problems for our
health and the environment. Sulfur dioxide can Gas concentrations refer to the amount of gas
also react with other gases in the air and form a pollutants in the air we breathe. Scientists and
type of pollution called acid rain, which can harm researchers use different ways to measure and
plants, animals, and even buildings. express the concentration of gases like carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, and others. They might use words
Particulate Matter (PM) - very fine solid or like mole percent, volume percent, ppmv, or
liquid particulates suspended in the atmosphere microgram per cubic meter of air to describe the
are aerosols. It can be dust, smoke, fumes, fly amount of these gases in the air. This helps
ash, etc. them understand how much pollution is in the air
and how it might be affecting our health and the
Particulate matter refers to very tiny solid or
environment.
liquid particles that float in the air around us.
These particles can come from many different Gas Concentration
sources, like dust from construction sites,
• Volume Percent
smoke from fires, and exhaust from cars and
trucks. 𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠
%𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠 = × 100
• PM10 - Particulate Matter with 10 microns 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
(diameter). PM10 will go straight to the gas pollutant normally mixes with air when it is
alveoli sacs. ejected to the atmosphere
Scientists measure these particles based on 𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠
their size, with PM10 referring to particles that %𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠 = × 100
𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟
are 10 microns (or micrometers) in diameter,
and PM2.5 referring to particles that are 2.5 • Mole Percent
microns in diameter. To give you an idea of how 𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠
small these particles are, a human hair is about %𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 = × 100 𝑜𝑟 %𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 = × 100
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟
70 microns thick.
Gas Concentrations
• PM2.5 - Particulate Matter with 2.5
microns (diameter). PM2.5 will go straight • Using Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
to the blood. 𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 = × 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 → =
When we breathe in air that contains PM10 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
particles, they can travel deep into our lungs and mole percent can be calculated using this
settle in our alveoli sacs, which are tiny air sacs formula
that help us breathe. When we breathe in air that
contains PM2.5 particles, they can travel even 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠
%𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 = × 100
deeper into our lungs and even get into our 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Gas Concentrations 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑣 = × 109
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟
• In gases, VOLUME PERCENT = MOLE
PERCENT Note: Pair = Ptotal ; nair = ntotal ; Vair = Vtotal
%𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 = %𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠 Conversion of ppmv to ppbv
❖ Volume Fraction = Mole 1 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 = 1000 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑣
Fraction
𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠
= 3. Microgram of gas pollutant per cubic meter of
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜇𝑔
air (𝑚3 )
❖ therefore mole percent can be
calculated using this formula 𝝁𝒈 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝑷𝑴𝑾
𝟑
= 𝒑𝒑𝒎𝒗 × × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒎 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑹𝑻
𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠
%𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 = × 100 Where:
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Gas Concentrations P = pressure in atm

• For Mole Percent or Volume Percent MW = molar mass or molecular weight of a gas
𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠
pollutant
❖ %𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑛 × 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 T = temperature in Kelvin; 𝑻𝑲 = 𝑻°𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠
❖ %𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑃 × 100 𝒂𝒕𝒎 ∙ 𝑳
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟎𝟓
𝒎𝒐𝒍 ∙ 𝑲
𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠
❖ %𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉 × 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

• Two of the most used unit of Example 1

concentration of a pollutant in air are
A carbon dioxide has 0.01-liters of CO2 in 10-
ppmv and microgram per cubic meter
liters of air. Calculate the volume percent and
1. Parts Per Million in terms of Volume mole percent of CO2 in air.
𝜇𝐿 𝑔𝑎𝑠
(ppmv) → unit of ppmv is 𝐿 𝑎𝑖𝑟 Solution: Vol CO2 = 0.01 L ; Vol of air = 10 L
𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 = × 106 %𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = × 100
𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠 0.01 𝐿 𝐶𝑂2
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 = × 106 %𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = × 100 = 0.1%
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 10 𝐿 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 %𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = %𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.1%
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 = × 106
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟
Note: Pair = Ptotal ; nair = ntotal ; Vair = Vtotal
2. Parts Per Billion in terms of Volume
(ppbv)
𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑣 = × 109 ;
𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑣 = × 109 ;
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟
 𝜇𝑔
Example 2 of ? Assume atmospheric pressure and the
𝑚3
A carbon monoxide (CO) has 0.0015 mol in temperature is 28°C.
1000 mol of air at STP. Calculate the Solution:
concentration of CO in air in (a) mol%, (b) vol%,
𝜇𝑔 𝐶𝑂 Given: 100 ppbv SO2 in air
(c) ppmv, and (d) 𝑚3 𝑎𝑖𝑟.
𝑣 1 𝑝𝑝𝑚
Solution: Convert ppbv to ppmv: 100 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑣 (1000 𝑝𝑝𝑏 )=
𝑣
0.1 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣
Given: nCO = 0.0015 mol; nair = 1000 mol
T in K: 𝑇𝐾 = 28 + 273.15 = 301.15 𝐾
(a) Mole Percent of CO in air
0.0015 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂 MW or Molar Mass of SO2 = (32 × 1) +
𝑔
%𝑛𝐶𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = × 100 (16 × 2) = 64
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 1.5 × 10−4 % 𝐶𝑂
Atmospheric Pressure = 1 atm
(b) Volume Percent of CO in air
𝜇𝑔 𝑆𝑂2 𝑃𝑀𝑊
−4 = 𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝑣 × × 1000
%𝑛𝐶𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = %𝑉𝐶𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.5 × 10 % 𝐶𝑂 𝑚3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝑇
Given: nCO = 0.0015 mol; nair = 1000 mol 𝜇𝑔 𝑆𝑂2 (1)(64)
3
= 0.1 × × 1000
𝑚 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (0.08205)(301.15)
(c) ppmv of CO in air
𝜇𝑔 𝑆𝑂2 𝜇𝑔
0.0015 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂 = 259.011
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑉 𝐶𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = × 106 𝑚3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚3
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟
= 1.5 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 𝐶𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
0.0015 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂 Example 4
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑉 𝐶𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = × 106
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 6.5 𝑚𝑔
𝜇𝐿 𝐶𝑂 The concentration of CO2 in air is to be .
𝑚3
= 1.5
𝐿 𝑎𝑖𝑟 What is this concentration in units of ppmv?
Assume atmospheric pressure and the
Given: nCO = 0.0015 mol; nair = 1000 mol
temperature is 298.15 K.
𝜇𝑔 𝐶𝑂
(d) 𝑚3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑇𝑃 Solution:
MW or molar mass of CO = (12 × 1) + Convert
6.5 𝑚𝑔 𝜇𝑔
to 𝑚3 : (use 1 mg = 1000 μg)
𝑔 𝑚3
(16 × 1) = 28
𝑚𝑜𝑙
6.5 𝑚𝑔 1000 𝜇𝑔 6,500 𝜇𝑔
× =
P = 1 atm; T = 273.15 K at STP 𝑚3 1 𝑚𝑔 𝑚3

𝜇𝑔 𝐶𝑂 𝑃𝑀𝑊 MW or Molar Mass of CO2 = (12 × 1) +

= 𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝑣 × × 1000 (16 × 2) = 44
𝑔
𝑚3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝑇 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝜇𝑔 𝐶𝑂 (1)(28) Atmospheric Pressure = 1 atm
= 1.5 × × 1000
𝑚3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (0.08205)(273.15)
𝜇𝑔 𝜇𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 𝑃𝑀𝑊
= 1873.999 3 3
= 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 × × 1000
𝑚 𝑚 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝑇
Example 3 𝜇𝑔 𝐶𝑂2
3 × 𝑅𝑇
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑖𝑟
The concentration of SO2 is measured in air to 𝑃𝑀𝑊 × 1000
be 100 ppbv. What is this concentration in units
 (6500)(0.08205)(298.15) 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑒ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 = 1𝑔
(1)(44)(1000)
= 687,091.2 𝜇𝑔 ×
= 3.613 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1 × 106 𝜇𝑔
𝜇𝐿 𝐶𝑂2 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑒ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 = 3.613
𝐿 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.687 𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑒ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑒

Example 5
Formaldehyde is commonly found in the indoor
air of improperly designed and constructed
buildings. If the concentration of formaldehyde
in a home is 0.7 ppmv and the inside volume is
800 m3 , what is the mass (in grams) of
formaldehyde vapor inside the home? Assume
T = 298 K and P =1 atm. Molar mass of
formaldehyde is 30 g/mol.
Given: 0.7 ppmv; T = 298 K; P = 1 atm; volume
of home = 800 cubic meters.
𝜇𝑔
Solution: Calculate the , then multiply it with
𝑚3
the volume to get the mass in μg, convert μg to
grams (1 𝑔 = 1 × 106 𝜇𝑔).
𝜇𝑔 𝑃𝑀𝑊
3
= 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 × × 1000
𝑚 𝑅𝑇
𝜇𝑔
Calculate first the 𝑚3 of formaldehyde in a room

𝜇𝑔 (1)(30)
= 0.7 × × 1000
𝑚3 (0.08205)(298)
𝜇𝑔
= 858.864 3
𝑚
Get the mass the of formaldehyde in a room with
a volume of 800 cubic meters
𝜇𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 ×
𝑚3
Get the mass of formaldehyde in a room with a
volume of 800 cubic meters
𝜇𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 ×
𝑚3
858.864 𝜇𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 800 𝑚3 ×
𝑚3
= 687,091.2 𝜇𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑒ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑒