CHAPTER 5:

MQ#.1
1. explain why mental retardation is a complex developmental disability.

Mental retardation is a complex developmental disability because it involves

multiple factors that can affect a person's cognitive, social, and emotional
functioning. These factors can include genetic, environmental, and medical
influences that can interact in complex ways. Additionally, mental retardation
can manifest differently in different individuals, making it difficult to identify
and treat. As a result, mental retardation requires a multidisciplinary approach
that involves assessment, diagnosis, and treatment from a variety of
professionals, including physicians, psychologists, educators, and social
workers.

2. define mental retardation and explain the four factors and five
assumptions in the definition;

Mental retardation, also known as intellectual disability, is a condition

characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive
behavior skills. It is diagnosed before the age of 18 and is defined by the
American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) as "substantial
limitations in present functioning, existing concurrently with related
limitations in two or more of the following adaptive skills areas:
communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-
direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure, and work."

There are four criteria in the AAMR definition that are important in
understanding mental retardation:

1. Substantial limitations in present functioning: This refers to difficulties

in performing everyday activities related to taking care of oneself, doing
ordinary tasks at home and work related to the other adaptive skills
areas. The areas of difficulty include academic work if the person goes
to school.
 2. Significantly sub-average intellectual functioning: This means that the
person has significantly below average intelligence, as measured by an
IQ score of approximately 70 or below based on the results of individual
intelligence tests.
3. Related limitations in adaptive skills: This means that the person has
difficulty in performing tasks related to communication, self-care, home
living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety,
functional academics, leisure, and work.
4. Manifestation before age 18: Mental retardation is diagnosed before
the age of 18.

In addition to these criteria, there are also five essential assumptions

in using the AAMR definition:
1. Contextualized to the community: The existence of limitations in
adaptive skills occurs within the context of community environments
typical of the individual's age peers and is indexed to the person's
individualized needs for supports.
2. Valid assessment considers diversity: Valid assessment considers
cultural and linguistic diversity, as well as differences in communication,
sensory, motor, and behavioral factors.
3. Coexistence with strengths: Specific adaptive limitations often coexist
with strengths in other adaptive skills or other personal capabilities.
4. Purpose of describing limitations: The purpose of describing
limitations is to identify needed supports, services, and interventions.
5. Potential for improvement: With appropriate supports over a
sustained period, the life-functioning of the person with mental
retardation will generally improve.

3. enumerate and discuss the classification of mental retardation;

The classification of mental retardation has evolved over time, and different
systems have been used to categorize individuals with intellectual disabilities.
Traditionally, sub-categories have been based on IQ ranges, and the previous
AAMR classification system included four levels of mental retardation: mild,
moderate, severe, and profound.
 • The mild level of mental retardation is characterized by IQ scores
ranging from 55 to 70. Individuals in this category may have some
difficulties with academic and social skills, but they can usually function
independently with appropriate support and guidance.

• The moderate level of mental retardation is characterized by IQ

scores ranging from 40 to 54. Individuals in this category may have
significant delays in academic and social skills, and they may require
more support and guidance to function independently.

• The severe level of mental retardation is characterized by IQ scores

ranging from 25 to 39. Individuals in this category have more
significant delays in academic and social skills, and they may require
extensive support and guidance to function in everyday life.

• The profound level of mental retardation is characterized by IQ

scores below 25. Individuals in this category have significant
impairments in intellectual functioning and may require pervasive
supports to function in everyday life.

……………………………………………….
MQ#.2
4. identify and explain the causes of mental retardation during the phases
of prenatal development, the birth process, infancy and early childhood;

The causes of mental retardation can occur during various phases of

development, including prenatal development, the birth process, infancy, and
early childhood. Prenatal causes can include genetic factors, maternal
infections, and exposure to drugs or alcohol. The birth process can also result
in mental retardation, such as in cases of oxygen deprivation or traumatic
brain injury. In infancy and early childhood, factors such as malnutrition,
infections, and environmental toxins can contribute to mental retardation.

5. name and describe the assessment procedures to screen and assess

children with mental retardation;
The assessment procedures to screen and assess children with mental
retardation typically involve a multi-faceted approach to gather information
about the child's cognitive and adaptive skills, medical history, and current
level of functioning. These procedures include:

• Teacher nomination: The classroom teacher identifies children who

may need special education based on their learning and behavior
attributes.
• Checklist: A checklist of the learning and behavior characteristics of
children with special education needs is used to determine if the child
exhibits half or more than half of the characteristics.
• Diagnostic assessment: A thorough assessment of the child's condition
is critical to consider eligibility for special education services and to plan
the educational and other services the child and family may need. This
involves an intensive observation and evaluation of the child's cognitive
and adaptive skills, analysis of medical history, and other circumstances
related to causative factors.
• Informal and standardized tests: A variety of tests, including
intelligence tests, achievement tests, and adaptive behavior
assessments, are used to assess the child's functioning.
• Home visits: Visiting the child's home environment can provide
valuable information about the child's living situation and family
support.
• Interviews: Interviews with parents, teachers, and other significant
individuals in the child's environment can provide additional
information about the child's behavior, abilities, and needs.
• Observations: Observations of the child in various settings, such as the
classroom, playground, and home, can provide insight into the child's
behavior and functioning.

6. enumerate and describe the educational approaches in teaching

children and youth with mental retardation; and
Educational approaches in teaching children and youth with mental
retardation can vary depending on the severity of the disability and the
individual needs of the student. These approaches may include individualized
education plans (IEPs), specialized teaching methods, assistive technology,
and therapy services such as speech or occupational therapy. Inclusion in
regular education classrooms may also be possible with appropriate support
and accommodations.

7. appreciate the fact that special education enables children with mental
retardation to develop their skills and potential. retardation to develop
their skills and potential.

Special education plays an important role in enabling children with mental

retardation to develop their skills and potential. By providing individualized
instruction and support, special education can help students with mental
retardation achieve academic and social success. Additionally, special
education can help prepare students for independent living and employment
opportunities as they transition into adulthood.

……………………………………………….
CHAPTER 5:
MQ#.3
1. Explain the four elements in the 1992 AAMR definition of mental
retardation.

The 1992 AAMR (American Association on Mental Retardation) definition of

mental retardation includes four elements.

• The first element is "substantial limitations in present functioning,"

which means that the person has difficulty in performing everyday
activities related to adaptive skills areas, such as communication, self-
care, social skills, and more.
• The second element is "significantly sub-average intellectual
functioning," which means that the person has an IQ score below 70-75,
based on individual intelligence tests.
 • The third element is "onset before age 18," which means that the
person's limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive skills areas
began during childhood or adolescence.
• The fourth element is "related limitations in two or more adaptive skills
areas," which means that the person has difficulties in multiple areas of
adaptive functioning.

2. What makes mental retardation a complex, rather than a simple,

developmental disability?

Mental retardation is a complex developmental disability because it affects

multiple aspects of a person's functioning, including intellectual ability,
adaptive skills, and social and emotional development. Additionally, the
severity of mental retardation can vary greatly from person to person, making
it difficult to define and diagnose.

3. List the labels used in the past to describe children with mental
retardation. Why are these terms not used anymore today?

In the past, children with mental retardation were often labeled with
derogatory terms such as "idiot," "imbecile," and "moron." These terms are
no longer used today because they are considered offensive and stigmatizing.
Instead, the term "intellectual disability" is now commonly used.

4. What are the classifications of mental retardation? In what ways are they
different from each other?

The classifications of mental retardation vary depending on the system used,

but they generally involve categorizing individuals into different levels of
severity based on their IQ scores and adaptive behavior. Some systems also
consider the underlying cause of the mental retardation. The different
classifications are often used to guide treatment and educational
interventions.

5. Enumerate and describe the causes of mental retardation.

There are many potential causes of mental retardation, including genetic

conditions, prenatal exposure to toxins or infections, birth complications, and
environmental factors such as malnutrition or trauma. In some cases, the
cause of mental retardation is unknown. It is important to note that mental
retardation is not caused by emotional or behavioral problems, and that
individuals with mental retardation are not inherently violent or dangerous.
……………………………………………....
CHAPTER 6:
MQ#4.
1. The concepts on the learning process and the different stages that a
student undergoes when efficient teaching and effective learning take
place;

The learning process involves several stages that a student undergoes during
efficient teaching and effective learning. The stages are attention, which
involves focusing on the task at hand; encoding, which involves processing and
transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory; storage,
which involves maintaining information in memory over time; retrieval, which
involves accessing stored information and bringing it back to consciousness;
and transfer, which involves applying learned information and skills to new
situations.

2. Explain the concepts on mental ability and the measurement of

intellectual functioning,

Mental ability refers to an individual's cognitive capacity, which includes skills

such as memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and language. Intellectual
functioning is the measurement of an individual's mental ability and can be
measured using standardized tests of intelligence, such as IQ tests. These tests
typically assess several domains of mental ability and provide a score that
reflects an individual's cognitive functioning relative to others of the same age
and background.

3. Define the term learning disabilities; explain the criteria in determining

the presence of learning disabilities;

Learning disabilities are a group of disorders that affect a person's ability to

acquire, use, or process information effectively, particularly in the areas of
reading, writing, mathematics, and other academic skills. These difficulties are
not due to intellectual or sensory impairments, emotional disturbance, or lack
of opportunities to learn, and can significantly impact a person's academic and
social functioning.

The three criteria in determining the presence of learning disabilities are

as follows:
 • Severe discrepancy between the child's potential and actual
achievement: This criterion requires evidence of a significant
discrepancy between a child's general mental ability and their academic
achievement, typically measured through standardized achievement
tests. The discrepancy score should be two or greater in one or more
areas of academic skills, such as reading comprehension or
mathematics calculation.
• Exclusion or absence of mental retardation, sensory impairment, and
other disabilities: This criterion requires ruling out other potential
explanations for a child's academic difficulties, such as intellectual or
sensory impairments, emotional disturbance, or lack of opportunities
to learn.
• Need for special education services: This criterion requires that the
child requires unique and specialized instructional strategies and
services beyond what is typically provided in a regular classroom setting
to remediate their academic deficiencies. Effective instruction at an
appropriate curricular level should lead to normal progress for the child.

4. Define Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder; explain the syndromes

in the areas of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity;

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental

disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and
impulsivity. Inattention symptoms may include difficulty sustaining attention,
forgetfulness, and distractibility. Hyperactivity symptoms may include
fidgeting, restlessness, and excessive talking. Impulsivity symptoms may
include acting without thinking, interrupting others, and taking risks. The
severity and manifestation of symptoms can vary among individuals.

5. explain the causes or etiology of learning disabilities;

The causes or etiology of learning disabilities are not fully understood and can
involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurological factors.
Some possible causes or risk factors include prenatal or perinatal
complications, exposure to toxins or infections, brain injury or trauma, and
genetic or epigenetic factors that affect brain development or function. Early
identification and intervention are important to provide appropriate support
for individuals with learning disabilities.

……………………………………………….
MQ#5.
1. What are the major concepts in the NJCLD definition of learning
disabilities? Explain each of them.

major concepts in the NJCLD (National Joint Committee on Learning

Disabilities) definition of learning disabilities are:

• Disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved

in understanding or using spoken or written language.
• Manifested in imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell,
or do mathematical calculations.
• Not due to sensory impairment, motor disability, intellectual disability,
emotional disturbance, or environmental, cultural, or economic
disadvantage.
• The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury,
minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.

2. In what way or ways is learning disabilities different from mental

retardation?

Learning disabilities and mental retardation (intellectual disability) are

different conditions. Learning disabilities refer to difficulties in specific
academic skills, such as reading, writing, and math, while mental retardation
is a more generalized intellectual impairment that affects multiple areas of
functioning.

3. Enumerate the learning and behavior characteristics of students with

learning disabilities.

• Difficulties with reading, including phonological skills and grapheme-

phoneme correspondence, resulting in dyslexia.
• Severe problems with written language, including handwriting, spelling,
composition, and lack of fluency, planning, organizing, drafting, and
editing skills.
• Problems with spoken language, including syntax, grammar, semantics,
and phonology, resulting in developmental aphasia.
•
 • Difficulties with pragmatics or social uses of language, such as carrying
on a conversation, engaging in mutual give-and-take, and making
relevant comments.
• Mathematics difficulties, which are second only to deficiencies in
reading, language, and spelling.
• Difficulty with academic achievement, leading to failure and retention
in grade levels, with progressively decreasing achievement as grade
levels increase.
• Consistent behavior problems, including inattention, impulsivity, and
hyperactivity, both at school, home, and in the community.
• Low social acceptance, although some individuals may be popular.

4. What are the causes of learning disabilities? Explain each of them.

The causes of learning disabilities are generally attributed to genetic and

environmental factors, both of which can contribute to the development of
these conditions.

• Genetic Factors: Genetic factors refer to the characteristics that are

inherited through the genes, chromosomes, and DNA. Studies have
shown that learning disabilities tend to run in families, and heredity is a
possible cause. For instance, if one parent has a learning disability, their
child is more likely to develop the same or similar disability. Research
on identical or monozygotic twins has shown that when one twin has a
learning disability, the other twin is more likely to also have the same
disability.
• Environmental Factors: Environmental factors can also contribute to
the development of learning disabilities. These factors include prenatal
exposure to alcohol or drugs, premature birth, low birth weight,
infections during pregnancy, and trauma during childbirth. Children
who experience neglect or abuse, a lack of proper nutrition, or exposure
to toxins such as lead or mercury can also be at risk for developing
learning disabilities.
5. What are the assessment procedures for learning disabilities? Explain
each of them.

Assessment procedures for learning disabilities involve a battery of tests to

identify students who may have learning disabilities. The following are the
different types of tests used for assessing learning disabilities:

• Norm-referenced tests: These tests measure how well a student is

performing in comparison to other students of the same age or grade
level. Examples of norm-referenced tests are the National Achievement
Test, Regional Assessment Test, and School-based Achievement Test.
• Process tests: These tests assess a student's cognitive processing
abilities, such as visual perception, auditory perception, and visual-
motor coordination. Examples of process tests are the Illinois Test of
Psycholinguistic Abilities and the Marianne Frostig Developmental Test
of Visual Perception.
• Criterion-referenced tests: These tests assess a student's mastery of
specific skills or knowledge. The skills already learned are identified as
well as those that have yet to be mastered. An example of a criterion-
referenced test is the BRIGANCE Diagnostic Inventory of Basic Skills.
• Informal reading inventories: These tests are used to determine a
student's reading ability. They consist of a series of progressively more
difficult sentences and paragraphs for oral reading. The student's
mistakes in reading skills are recorded, particularly in pronunciation,
comprehension, and other areas of difficulty.
• Direct daily measurement: This assessment procedure involves the
teacher observing and recording a student's progress in learning a
particular skill. For example, in a mathematics lesson, the teacher
observes and records the correct rate or number of facts stated or
written correctly per minute, the error rate or how many times the
student gives wrong responses, and the percentage of correct answers.