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Figures (10)
and CONCAT concatenates the individually calculated aggregations of each node.
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Fig. 2. Structure of the Python DEXPI-2-graph converter
The computational graph shown in Fig. 7 visualizes how it is possible to obtain
information of a component based on its neighborhood through the neural networks
AGGREGATE(k=1) and AGGREGATE(k=2). If the neighborhood components of the vessel are
known, it is possible to predict the class of the vessel or to analyze in a
consistency check how probable it is that a vessel is located at exactly this
position in the graph.
Fig. 7. Example of the neighborhood aggregation of a GNN using a P&ID.
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IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., 33 (2020), pp. 1807-1818, 10.1109/TKDE.2019.2951398
The results for all models show deviations among each other. The accuracy for the
training for all models is between 75.4% (sum-MLP) and 87.3% (sum) while the
accuracy for the test data varies between 74.5% (sum-MLP) and 81.5% (sum). It is
striking that the gap between the test and training accuracies for the sum
aggregation as well as the attention aggregation is larger than for the remaining
aggregation functions, at about 6 percentage points. Additionally, the results show
that simpler aggregation algorithms such as sum and arithmetic mean achieve higher
training accuracies than the more complex aggregations using attention, set pooling
or sum-MLP. It is hypothesized that this is due to the fact that all neighborhood
information is equally important in predicting the component class. For this
reason, learning the individual P&ID components works particularly well when the
neighborhood information is aggregated with the same weight, i.e., equally
important. This is especially true for the sum or mean.
Sequential node prediction using recurrent neural networks
D. Bahdanau, K. Cho, Y. Bengio
Author links open overlay panelJonas Oeing a, Wolfgang Welscher b, Niclas Krink b,
Lars Jansen a, Fabian Henke a, Norbert Kockmann a
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Outline
Turau and Weyer, 2015
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Fig 8
Recommended articles
Khosla et al., 2020
Fig 4
Fig 1
x
DEXPI is a machine-readable P&ID exchange format under development by the DEXPI
Initiative. The initiative consists of owner operators, engineering, procurement &
construction companies, software vendors and research institutions. The latest data
model and the associated DEXPI specification 1.3 (Theißen and Wiedau, 2021) were
published in 2021. Within the specification, different international standards for
the description of engineering relevant data for P&IDs are combined (e.g. ISO 15926
(International Organization for Standardization, 2013), ISO 10628 (International
Organization for Standardization, 2012a), IEC 62424 (International Electrotechnical
Commission, 2016), ISO 10209 (International Organization for Standardization,
2012b). In particular, these include plant breakout structures, instrumentation,
properties of equipment and components, and piping topology. The DEXPI information
model is already offered by some manufacturers and is exchangeable via a Proteus
XML schema (Proteus XML, 2017). At the same time, DEXPI provides the possibility to
be used as a platform for digital plant data in process industry (Wiedau et al.,
2019), which can significantly reduce the development time of chemical and
biotechnological production plants. Additionally, interoperability increases due to
the continuous integration of DEXPI into existing engineering software (Fillinger
et al., 2017). The uniform and machine-readable format as well as the increasing
acceptance of the DEXPI format in the process industry improve the potential for
the application in the field of data science and allow the application of
artificial intelligence (Wiedau et al., 2021).
node2vec
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Deep Learning with Applications Using Python
Thermal control of coke furnace by data-driven approach
Chollet, 2020
Fig. 5. Workflow of an RNN-based model for predicting subsequent equipment in
P&IDs.
K.P. Murphy
Deep Learning with Keras: Implementing Deep Learning Models and Neural Networks
With the Power of Python
Fig 10
Graph neural networks: a review of methods and applications
Hochreiter and Schmidhuber, 1997
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(1)
Fig. 3. P&ID topology representing GraphML structure used for further training.
ArXiv ID 1412.6980
Fig. 3. P&ID topology representing GraphML structure used for further training
Mathematically, the message passing of an GNN (Eq. (2)) can be described as follows
(Hamilton, 2020):
M. Zaheer, S. Kottur, S. Ravanbakhsh, B. Poczos, R. Salakhutdinov, A. Smola
W.L. Hamilton
Process control equipment (PCE) 547
Fig. 6. Results of the training of following P&ID equipment with different RNN
models.
As a last investigated variant, the graph attention approach (8) is applied, where
additionally for each
The sequential node prediction can be divided into three parts and its workflow is
shown in Fig. 5.
Search ScienceDirect
Cho, K., van Merrienboer, B., Bahdanau, D., Bengio, Y., 2014. On the properties of
neural machine translation: encoder-decoder approaches. arXiv Prepr.
arXiv1409.1259.
Theißen, M., Wiedau, M., 2021. DEXPI - P&ID Specification [WWW Document]. Version
1.3. URL https://dexpi.org/specifications/ (accessed 3.1.22).
AI-based processing of P&IDs
Digital Chemical Engineering
Node class Quantity
Keywords
Fig. 2. Structure of the Python DEXPI-2-graph converter.
C. Zhao, M. Bhushan, V. Venkatasubramanian
Proceedings of the ICLR (2014), p. 2015
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Strubell et al., 2019
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Bidirectional recurrent neural networks
An agent-based environment for operational design
stands for the embedding of a node u at iteration step k. UPDATE and AGGREGATE are
arbitrary, differentiable functions, where the aggregation of the neighborhood N(u)
of node u represents the actual "message" m. The parameter k defines the number of
iterations, at which the message passing proceeds, thus represents the number of
hidden layers of the GNN. Since the aggregation of the neighborhood information
must be independent of the order, it is important that the AGGREGATION is a
permutation-invariant function. Based on the embedding for each iteration step k, a
final embedding for each node u can subsequently be determined using a final layer
(Hamilton, 2020).
The accuracy is calculated by dividing the sum of true positive (TP) and true
negative (TN) by the sum of true positive (TP), true negative (TN), false positive
(FP) and false negative (FN). The computations were done on an Intel® Xeon® W-2155
(3.31 GHz) CPU in combination with 128 GB RAM. The results are shown below in Fig.
6. The training accuracy and validation accuracy are shown. In addition, the
accuracy5 indicates the correctness, with which the real output of the validation
dataset is predicted, when the five most probable outputs are returned. This score
is of particular interest to investigate whether the trained models are suitable
for a suggestion system that can be used, for example, in a drop-down menu to speed
up the drawing process of P&IDs. Furthermore, both the calculated loss and the
training and validation accuracy over 60 epochs as well as the training time needed
to calculate the 60 epochs are given.
Algorithmische Graphentheorie, De Gruyter Studium
Original Article
Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery
and Data Mining, ACM, New York, NY, USA (2016), pp. 855-864,
10.1145/2939672.2939754
Deep Learning and Practice with MindSpore, Cognitive Intelligence and Robotics
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A. Grover, J. Leskovec
W.L. Hamilton, R. Ying, J. Leskovec
number of nodes
message of an aggregated neighborhood of a node in a graph
In the second step, the structure of the node sequences is learned with the aid of
recurrent neural networks (RNN). For this purpose, four different approaches are
used: a simple RNN (Chen, 2021), a Bidirectional RNN (BRNN) (Schuster and Paliwal,
1997), a Gated Recurrent Units (GRU) (Cho et al., 2014) as well as a Long-short-
term memory (LSTM) (Hochreiter and Schmidhuber, 1997). An RNN, as shown in Fig. 5,
has an input layer, a hidden layer, and an output layer. The RNN represents a
replication of a neural network with the same dimensions. For each replication, a
state is transferred to the next layer. In this way it is possible to learn local
relationships in the sequences. Basically, RNNs have a disadvantage that should not
be underestimated. The training of weights by more distant information is
difficult, since their errors explode or diminish during the backpropagation.
(Chen, 2021) To get around this there are further possibilities such as the use of
BRNNs. These take into account future information in addition to previous
information to increase the accuracy (Schuster and Paliwal, 1997). Another option
is the use of GRUs or LSTMs. Both consists of single cells and using cell states
and gates to decide which information will be processed and which forgotten. This
allows to get the behavior of a short-term memory. GRUs consist of a reset and
update gate (Chen, 2021; Cho et al., 2014). A LSTM uses one input, one output, and
one forget gate. The gates control the information flow and decide, which
information is necessary to make a prediction. A kind of short-term memory is
created, which also gives the network its name (Chen, 2021; Hochreiter and
Schmidhuber, 1997). Both the GRU and the LSTM are used in state-of-the-art deep
learning applications. GRUs have fewer tensor operations, which leads to faster
training. For this reason, they are used for modeling in this paper to investigate
which of them leads to better results for predicting P&ID equipment based on
sequential data.
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International Organization for Standardization (2012)
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Keywords
A. Gulli, S. Pal
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Further opportunities are safety assessment and HAZOP studies, where machine-
readable HAZOP scenarios could be mapped to graph-based plant topologies using
search algorithms. Furthermore, in future a possible detection of subgraphs in
P&IDs i.e. functional equipment assemblies could facilitate the mapping between PFD
simulations based on unit operations and P&IDs. This could provide the foundation
for automated generation of PFD simulations from a DEXPI plant topology.
J. Zhou, G. Cui, S. Hu, Z. Zhang, C. Yang, Z. Liu, L. Wang, C. Li, M. Sun
S. Hochreiter, J. Schmidhuber
ENPRO data integration: extending DEXPI towards the asset lifecycle
Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. ScienceDirect® is
a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V.
This research work was supported within the KEEN project (grant number: 01MK20014S)
and has been funded by the Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Action
(BMWK).
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International Organization for Standardization 2012a
Abstract
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Towards a systematic data harmonization to enable AI application in the process
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Cho et al., 2014
NTI Ser., 2 (1968), pp. 12-16
DE GRUYTER, Berlin (2015), 10.1515/9783110417326
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The results show that RNNs are generally able to learn patterns in sequences from
P&ID graphs. It is noticeable that the SimpleRNN provides the best results with a
validation accuracy of 78.36%. In the case, where the equipment is part of the five
most likely predictions, even 95.2% accuracy is achieved. The BRNN reaches an
accuracy of 94.39%, while predicting the five most suitable equipment types. The
LSTM and GRU have slightly lower accuracy, suggesting that the effect of the
diminishing gradient for the short sequences involved does not have a significant
effect on the training. At the same time, it should be noted that training for the
GRU took less than one-third the time of a SimpleRNN model. Given the current small
amount of data, this is not a decisive factor with the current setting. However,
should the training of the models be done in the future on large data sets or
continuously, it is recommended to give more attention to this aspect, as the use
of GRUs or LSTMs can save time and resources (Strubell et al., 2019), which should
be considered with respect to a sustainable process development.
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Introduction
Wiedau et al., 2021
How powerful are graph neural networks?
length of the directed walks
u
To quantify how well GNNs are suited to classify individual pieces of equipment
based on their location in the P&ID topology, the recursive GNN presented in
chapter 3 is trained with the P&ID graphs presented before. For this purpose, the
models were implemented and trained using the Deep Graph Library (version 0.7.2)
with PyTorch framework in Python (version 3.7). The calculations were performed on
an Intel® Xeon® W-2155 (3.31 GHz) CPU in combination with 128 GB RAM. The
aggregation functions listed previously are used in the GNN and compared against
each other. The prediction accuracy is used as an evaluation metric, which was
defined in chapter 3.2. For the examined models, the accuracy is shown below in
Fig. 9.
Yoshinari Hashimoto, Hiroto Kase
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Acknowledgment
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Acknowledgment
b
The design and engineering of piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID) is a very
time-consuming and labor-intensive process. Although P&IDs show common patterns
that could be reused during development, the drawing is usually created manually
and built up from scratch for each process. The aim of this paper is to recognize
these patterns with the help of artificial intelligence (AI) and to make them
available for the development and the drawing process of P&IDs. In order to achieve
this, P&ID data is made accessible for AI applications through the DEXPI format,
which is a machine-readable, manufacturer-independent exchange standard for P&IDs.
It is demonstrated how deep learning models trained with DEXPI P&ID data can
support the engineering as well as drawing of P&IDs and therefore decrease labor
time and costs. This is achieved by assisted prediction of equipment in P&IDs based
on recurrent neural networks as well as consistency checks based on graph neural
networks.
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Murphy, 2012
Batres et al., 1997
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dche.2022.100038
Using artificial intelligence to support the drawing of piping and instrumentation
diagrams using DEXPI standard
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N.K. Manaswi
Machine Learning : A Probabilistic Perspective
Workflow – node prediction
Pumps 69
PHASuite: an automated HAZOP Analysis tool for chemical processes
In addition, there is the possibility of adding a multilayer perceptron (MLP) over
the states to be aggregated, as shown in Eq. (6) for the sum-MLP (Xu et al., 2019).
The idea is that an MLP can transform each state
International Organization for Standardization, 2012b. ISO 10209, technical product
documentation – vocabulary – terms relating to technical drawings, product
definition and related documentation. Geneva.
Citation Indexes:
Proteus XML, 2017. Proteus schema for P&ID exchange [WWW Document]. URL
https://github.com/ProteusXML/proteusxml (accessed 5.18.22).
Improving interoperability of engineering tools - data exchange in plant design
Fig 9
k
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is defined (Bahdanau et al., 2014; Hamilton, 2020). In the context of this work, a
softmax approach (9) is used to calculate the weight factor
E
Introduction
In the following, the different RNN models are used and trained with the in chapter
2.2 generated P&ID graphs according to the presented workflow. The implementation
is done in Python using the keras library (Chollet, 2020). The "Adam" optimizer
(Kingma and Ba, 2014) is used for all trainings and the calculation of the loss is
performed by the "categorical cross entropy" (Murphy, 2012). The prediction
accuracy is used as an evaluation metric and is defined as follows.
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number of edges
Zaheer et al., 2017
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Proceedings of the ICLR (2014), p. 2015
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B. Weisfeiler, A. Leman
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Abstract
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a weight factor
International Organization for Standardization 2013
To make the structure of the P&ID available for further processing, the respective
DEXPI file of the P&ID is converted into a graph using Python. The plant topology
of the P&ID, including parameters relevant for modeling, is stored in a directed
graph in the form of a GraphML file (GraphML Project Group, 2017). A directed
graph, per definition, consists of a set N of nodes and a set E of edges. The edges
are directed, meaning that each edge is defined by ordered pairs of nodes (start
and end node) (Turau and Weyer, 2015). The P&ID to be processed is stored in the
DEXPI format, which is based on a Proteus XML schema (Proteus XML, 2017) and
contains three levels of information relevant for topology extraction. The
Equipment, which contains a listing of the components present in the P&ID. The
PipingNetworkSystem, which describes the piping system and the interconnections
between the various equipment, and the PipingComponents, which contain components
embedded in the piping system, like valves. The classes of equipment and components
are uniquely defined in DEXPI via the EquipmentClass and ComponentClass.
Furthermore, the InstrumentationFunction provides information about process control
equipment (PCE) and their connections. Fig. 2 shows the procedure used to convert
the P&ID via Python.
Chen, 2021
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embedding/feature of a node u
Fillinger et al., 2017
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LEARNING FROM FLOWSHEETS: A GENERATIVE TRANSFORMER MODEL FOR AUTOCOMPLETION OF
FLOWSHEETS
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weight by which the features of nodes influence each other
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Xu et al., 2019
Digital Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, 2022, Article 100010
Weisfeiler and Leman, 1968
L. Chen
M. Wiedau, L. von Wedel, H. Temmen, R. Welke, N. Papakonstantinou
Fig. 5. Workflow of an RNN-based model for predicting subsequent equipment in P&IDs
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AI-based processing of P&IDs