UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND LEGAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY

COURSE TITLE: LEARNING DISABILITIES

COURSE CODE: BPS 412

LECTURER: DR. FELIX KWAME KUMEDZRO

INDEX NUMBERS

BARDEN SAMUEL EF/BPS/19/0155

KUMASSAH KATHERINE KAFUI EF/BPS/19/0138

WINIFRED KYEREMAA EF/BPS/19/0140

MAAME EFUA AMOWIE ARHIN EF/BPS/19/0114

ASSIGNMENT
A SEVEN YEAR OLD CHILD HAS BEEN DIAGNOSED OF
HAVING LEARNING DISABILITY IN MATHEMATICS. IN NOT
MORE THAN 1000 WORDS, EXPLAIN THE POSSIBLE CAUSES
OF THE DISABILITY AND DEMOSTRTE ANY TWO
STRATEGIES YOU WILL RECOMMEND TO BE USED TO
HELP THE CHILD OVERCOME HIS/HER CONDITION

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 ANSWER

MATHEMATICS
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that Includes numbers, formulas, related
structures, shapes and spaces, and quantities and their changes. These topics are
represented in modern mathematics with theory, algebra, geometry, and analysis,
respectively. The mathematical activity involves properties of abstract objects and
pure reason to prove them. These objects consist of either abstraction from nature or
modern mathematics entities that are stipulated to have properties called axioms. 

DYSCALCULIA
Dyscalculia is a disability resulting in difficulty learning or comprehending
arithmetic, such as difficulty understanding numbers, learning how to manipulate
numbers, performing mathematical calculations, and learning facts in mathematics.
Dyscalculia is associated with dysfunction in the region around the frontal lobe.
Dyscalculia affects academic achievement, social relationships, and the lifestyle of
individuals. Terms related to dyscalculia are developmental dyscalculia, math
disability, mathematical disability, mathematical learning disability, math difficulties,
a disorder in mathematics, numeracy deficit, math anxiety, and so on. The prevalence
of dyscalculia ranges between 3 and 6% of the population. In 2015 it was established
that 11% of children with dyscalculia also have ADHD. Dyscalculia can occur due to
some types of brain injury, in which case the term acalculia is used instead of
dyscalculia which is the innate, genetic, or developmental origin. A theory that
explains why there is mathematics difficulty is Piaget's Cognitive Development
Theory 

Cognitive Development Theory

From the Piagetian perspective, cognitive growth involves changes in the actual
systems of thought. Piaget has attempted to represent those systems in terms of
mathematical logic and set theory (Lawton, Saunders, & Muhs, 1980). Piaget’s work
on children’s quantitative development has provided Mathematics educators with
crucial insights into how children learn mathematical concepts and ideas (Ojose,
2008). Understanding cognitive development can help educators to work with
children to support them in learning optimally (Newcombe, 2013). Poor academic
achievement during the early school years is highly associated with the cognitive
ability of the pupils (Nordin, Ahmad, Nayan, Yahya, Abdullah, Rahman, et al., 2012).
 
Four Developmental Stages Of Cognitive Development Theory

L. Sensorimotor; Development of eye-hand coordination schemes and object

permanence.
2. Preoperational; Growth of symbolic thought, as evidenced by increased use of
language.
3. Concrete Operational; Children can perform basic operations such as
classifications, and serial ordering of concrete objects. 
4. Formal Operational; Development of the ability to think abstractly and
metacognitively as well as reason hypothetically.

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In short, Cognitive Development Theory proposes that there are four stages of
cognitive development stages, namely; (1) Sensorimotor; (2) Preoperational; (3)
Concrete operational; and (4) Formal operations.
Every pupil has differences in cognitive development. 
 

POSSIBLE CAUSES OF DYSCALCULIA (MATHEMATICS DIFFICULTY)

The cause of dyscalculia is an area that has posed a challenge to many researchers; it
is still not clear and largely unknown (Hunt & Marshall, 2002, Leon; 1994). Kirk,
Gallagher, and Anastasiow (2000, p. 223) point out that ‘no one has discovered a
single cause of learning disabilities. As a result, research activities to identify the
causes of learning disabilities are ongoing since the answer will help in finding the
solution to the condition(s). It is postulated that two main factors internal (or
biological) and external (or environmental) are likely causes (Hunt & Marshall,
2000). In other words, not only within-child but also factors outside the child such as
the home, school, and the community have the potential to cause dyscalculia. 

1. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS AS A POSSIBLE CAUSE(S) OF DYSCALCULIA

A. Brain damage or neurological disorders

As aforementioned, it's believed that brain damage has some linkage or association
with learning disabilities. Though the evidence is not fully established, the idea
continues to draw much attention, interest, and research. In the view of Lerner 
(2000, p. 10) all learning was regarded as originating "within the brain" and any form
of learning difficulty was attributed to central nervous system dysfunction.

B. Maturational or developmental lag 

Another theory in neurology equally regarded as a possible cause of learning

disability is Maturational or developmental lag (Kaplan, 1996). In this theory,
however, there is an absence of brain dysfunction. Learning disability occurs because
biological capacities have not yet developed to enable the child to perform academic
skills in speaking, reading, spelling, reasoning, thinking, written expression, and
handwriting or doing mathematics. All brain functions do not mature at the same rate.
Children with mathematics difficulties also display some motor difficulties. In the
case of mathematics, for example, a delay in fine motor skill development may make
it difficult, if not impossible, for a child of school age to engage proficiently in
mathematics.

C. Genetics 

Extensive studies have been conducted on genetic and human behaviour. It postulated
that learning disabilities are inherited, and parents with learning disabilities are likely
to pass them on to their children (Segal, 1990). Pennington (1995) demonstrated that
some types of learning disabilities have a genetic cause and are thus inherited.
Dyscalculia is known to run in families, suggesting that genetic factors contribute to

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the risk of developing this learning disorder. If one twin has dyscalculia, there is a
58% likelihood that their identical twin and a 39% chance that a non-identical twin
will also be dyscalculic. The link also exists between dyscalculics’ parents and
siblings: around half of all the first-degree family members of a dyscalculics' also
have dyscalculia (mothers, 67%; fathers, 41%; brothers, 53%; sisters, 52%), and 43%
of the second-degree relatives. This prevalence is around tenfold higher than expected
for the general population. However, there are no gender differences (Kadosh &
Walsh, 2007).     

2. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AS POSSIBLE CAUSE(S) OF

MATHEMATICS DIFFICULTIES (DYSCALCULIA)

A. School factors: They include the school structure, teacher factors (such as teacher-
child relationships, teacher expectations, use of pedagogical strategies and
motivation), curricula difficulties, poor administrator expectations, poor school
climates, lack of motivation, inappropriate curricula, inappropriate methods and
materials, and poor teaching. The school structure involves good buildings, proper
seating arrangements, and an administrative setup.

B. Home factors: These include the socioeconomic status of parents, parent-child

relationships, motivation, family interactions, and parental attitudes toward learning.
There is literature to support the fact that parents’ socioeconomic status affects their
children’s educational background. In reviewing the literature on socioeconomic
factors influencing students’ academic performance, Ankomah (2011) cites Akanle
(2007) and Shittu (2004) that home background influences a child’s academic and
educational success. These authors argue strongly that the quality of parents and the
home background of a student predicts the standard and regularity of the satisfaction
and provision of a child’s functional survival and academic needs. Citing Duncan and
Brooks-Gunn (1997), Quick (2003) points out that children who are unable to receive
emotional and cognitive stimulation due to impoverished home backgrounds are more
likely to perform poorly in school than non-poor peers.
C. Community factors. Community factors involve community values. In
communities where opportunities exist for library use, playgrounds and children’s
growth is cherished, and learning is enhanced. In impoverished communities, not
much is gained. It, therefore, appears that both within-child and environmental factors
cause learning disabilities. For this reason, Sugden and Chambers (2005) affirmed the
inseparable relationship existing between the development of the child and the
environment and suggested that any intervention process must consider this.   
 
 
 
 
STRATEGIES FOR OVERCOMING DYSCALCULIA
Many students struggle with math and math anxiety, but for those with dyscalculia, a
math-related learning disability, math classes, and tests present seemingly
insurmountable obstacles that can affect academic success and lower self-esteem.
People with dyscalculia have a dysfunction in the brain’s ability to process number-

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related information. They may have trouble with math operations, memorizing
multiplication tables, and understanding math concepts. In a broader sense, they have
difficulties with sequencing information, budgeting time, and keeping schedules.
Grounding abstract mathematical operations in the physical world can help
dyscalculic students succeed. Here are five strategies for making math concepts from
basic arithmetic to advanced algebra easier to understand and remember.
 
1. CONNECT LESSONS TO REAL LIFE
Math concepts can also be more straightforward for students with dyscalculia to
understand when they connect to real life. Word problems and math activities that
give real-world applications for different math concepts can provide a more concrete
framework for students who struggle with the abstract element of mathematics. Many
teachers are aware that some students prefer some learning styles over others. For
instance, some students are auditory learners, some are visual, and some are
kinesthetic learners. Providing lessons that suit kinesthetic learning styles may be
particularly effective when incorporating real-life concepts into a math lesson.
Teachers might use role-playing games to explain how to calculate percentages by
having students learn about the idea of a tax, for instance. Making a recipe could help
students learn about fractions and ratios. Providing these activities for students with
dyscalculia can take extra planning, though it can have meaningful results. 
 
2. USE VISUAL AIDS OR DRAW THE PROBLEM
One strategy that can make mathematics easier for students with dyscalculia to
understand is visual aids. Visuals can make a big difference for students who find it
challenging to understand what some math concepts are accomplishing. If teaching
students about exponents, for instance, it may be helpful to draw a large square where,
for example, each side is four units long. That way, students can count the total
number of segments in the square (16) to understand the concept of perfect squares.
These visual tricks can make math easy for many students. Similarly, writing out
formulas in a visually consistent way in each lesson can help prevent confusion.
Visual aids can be helpful at all levels of mathematics instruction. For example, for
young students, colourful beads can help students understand counting and concepts
like odd and even numbers.
 
 
 
 

CONCLUSION

In the above write-up, we discussed the nature of dyscalculia (Mathematics

difficulty), theories underpinning dyscalculia, the possible cause(s) of dyscalculia, and
some strategies to help children with this learning disability. 

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 REFERENCE

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Anderson, M. (2017). Binet’s error: developmental change and individual differences

in intelligence are related to different mechanisms. Journal of Intelligence, 5(24), 1-
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Levy L. M., Reis I. L., & Grafman J. (1999). Metabolic abnormalities detected by 1H-
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 Rouselle; Noël (2007). "Basic numerical skills in children with mathematics learning
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