International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329

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International Journal of Thermofluids

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/international-journal-of-thermofluids

A critical review on gas turbine cooling performance and failure analysis of

turbine blades
Taspia Shawkat Chowdhury, Fatima Tasneem Mohsin, Morium Mannan Tonni,
Mita Noor Hasan Mita, M Monjurul Ehsan *
Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering (MPE), The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Islamic University of Technology (IUT), Board Bazar,
Gazipur 1704, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper is an overview of one of the most important turbo-machineries, the gas turbine emphasizing the
Gas Turbine thermal performance and the failure analysis. It can be a pathway for further improvement of the performance
Cooling efficiency and efficiency of the gas turbine, and the prevention of gas turbine units’ failures in future by identifying the root
Blade material
causes from previous failure case studies. The turbine performance depends on the cooling efficiency, and thus
Creep failure
the thermal efficiency is affected by the cooling of the gas turbine blades. Different methods and strategies are
Fatigue failure
being highlighted to improve the thermal performance and the cooling efficiency of the gas turbine. Cooling of
the blades enhances the power output and thermal efficiency using the steam injection method. Nearly 60%
efficiency can be achieved by adopting different cooling methods. The selection of the working fluid for gas
turbines is dependent on the cycle, scale, and, application. For example, Supercritical CO2 can be a suitable
working fluid for closed-cycle thermal power plants. However, the optimum selection is subjected to many other
factors like economic, environmental, thermodynamic performance, possible layout, etc. that must be assessed
carefully before installation in any particular field. Fuel selection in the fuel system of a gas turbine facilitates
flexibility. Fuel selection also should be done considering the cycle, scale, and application as well as modes of
operations, efficiency, availability, cost, and exhaust which can affect the environment. For instance, special fuels
can be burnt in GT with large combustors. Besides the commonly used fuels like natural gas and diesel oil, some
alternative fuel sources like C. inophyllum biodiesel, bio-ethanol, and many other fuels are also mentioned to
emphasize the importance of these alternative, environment-friendly, and sustainable fuel sources for the future.
The study of the failure of gas turbines also becomes critical, since the failure of a turbine engine unit comes with
a high amount of economic loss. It also emphasizes the major reasons for failure and effective ways to prevent
them under different working conditions. Several coating methods such as TBC (Thermal Barrier Coatings) and
Aluminide coating can be adopted to resist the failure scenarios caused by oxidation and hot corrosion. Some
modern coating techniques might prevent the fatigue and fretting failures. Deformations of gas turbine blades
resulting from the extreme stress, thermal loads, and vibrational effects are major causes of the failure in gas
turbines and Titanium, Inconel, and Nimonic 80A are regarded to be the most suitable material for blade con­
struction. Here, the importance of blade material selection and ideal material for blades are elaborately discussed
to enhance performance and minimize failure.

1. Introduction enhanced electrical efficiency of power generation, low investment, and

International Energy Agency (IEA) has predicted the total global
energy demand to increase by 1.7% yearly from the year 2000 to 2030
which is about two-thirds of the existing energy demand [1]. Modern
turbomachinery requires to have high specific power outputs and
low pollutants emission, maintenance, and operating costs for sustain­
able fuel use. Independent power suppliers are becoming competitive
since the markets of the power industry for power distribution have been
rising in various countries. The variable power demands are met by
flexible power plants having higher efficiencies to produce

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ehsan@iut-dhaka.edu (M.M. Ehsan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2023.100329

Available online 9 March 2023

2666-2027/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
T.S. Chowdhury et al.
low-to-intermediate power outputs. Consequently, it was proven that
more than half of the ordered fossil fuel power plants incorporated gas
turbines. Due to the availability of inexpensive clean-natural gas, the
demand for gas turbines further increases [2].
This scientific paper combines most of the past and present research
regarding gas turbines and deals with the revolutionary discoveries
about gas turbines along with their limitations. There are numerous
works on how to improve the cooling efficiency and overall thermal
performance of gas turbines. This review article includes the causes,
effects, and prevention of the failure of gas turbine units after reviewing
numerous relevant case studies. Therefore, it has become very crucial to
construct fail-safe gas turbines avoiding the causes and following the
recommendations mentioned in this paper. It also deals with different
studies which have been performed to identify feasible blade materials
and geometrical configurations for optimized performance and mini­
mized chances of failure. This paper will guide researchers to select
suitable working fluids depending on the type of gas turbine. Since the
fuel composition has significant influences on the efficiency and modes
of operation, this study provides a pathway to select optimum fuel for
the desired operation.
1.1. Fundamentals of the working principle of gas turbine
The application of gas turbines for generating power has increased
recently and it seems like it will continue to increase specifically in the
distributed power industry. The power demand is classified into 3 cat­
egories, Peak load (less than 10% utilization), Base load (around 100%
utilization), and intermediate load demand. Gas turbines are advanta­
geous in various ways compared to diesel engines and steam turbines. A
gas turbine mainly operates based on the principle of the Brayton cycle
and is commonly used in power industries for electricity generation due
to its higher grade of waste heat, double fuel capacity, compact size, low
maintenance, minimal pollution, high efficiency, and reasonable oper­
ational costs [3]. Finding ways to improve the performance of different
types of cycles in gas turbines is becoming the major objective day by
day [4]. A gas turbine is an internal combustion engine that continu­
ously harnesses the energy from natural gas and various liquid fuels and
converts them to mechanical energy for both power generation and
propulsion. The applicability of gas turbines widely varies from thermal
power plants to aviation industries and even in domestic industries
depending upon their usage and required output [5]. This paper will
mainly focus on the gas turbines designed for power plants. Fig. 1 de­
picts the contribution of gas turbines to electrical power generation over
Fig. 1. The contribution of gas turbines to electrical power generation over the years. [5].
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International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329
the years.
1.2. Categorization of gas turbine
The three major classifications of gas turbine are portrayed in Fig. 2
namely open, closed and semi closed cycles utilizing a wide range of
gasses as working fluids. Gas turbines are turbomachinery that works on
the principle of Brayton Cycle as shown in Fig. 3. In the open type, air is
mostly used as working fluid and fresh air intake occurs at each cycle.
Closed types on the other hand recirculate the working fluid and utilize
condensers. Gas-turbine systems can be categorized into three types [6]:
Open Brayton Cycle which is mainly implemented when the gas is used
as the driving force is air since at the end of each cycle new supply of air
is required [7,8]. Closed Brayton Cycle where the working gas is recir­
culated after each cycle and regenerators are employed to maximize
efficiency [6,7] and Semi-Closed Brayton Cycle that is modified open
Brayton cycle where the exhaust gas is redirected to a divider rather
than exited in the atmosphere [9].
Usually open cycle gas turbines are used for large scale power gen­
eration, and closed cycle gas turbines are suited for small scale appli­
cations. Combined cycle gas turbines provide great performance in
medium term for large scale power generation applications. However,
combined cycle might be mechanically to complicated for small scale
operations [10].
Gas turbine has 3 types of applications.
Industrial Gas turbines: They could be used in truck mounted
mobile plants or very large complex systems. Large scale turbines in
single cycle produces more power have thermal efficiency of 35–40%.
Microturbines: They are compact turbine generators deriving from
turbocharger technology used in large trucks or aircraft auxiliary power
unit. They produce power in small scale and thermal efficiency range is
(25–35)%.
Aeroengines: These jet engines demand for lower fuel consumption
to lessen the emission of pollutants. Intercooled and recuperated jet
engines might lead to improved performance but they have significant
pressure losses and complexity for installations due to weight and vol­
ume of heat exchangers. According to recent studies, ideal Specific fuel
consumption with respect to thrust can be reduced by 25% [11].
1.3. Scope of the present work
The present work will give the community an overall idea on the
ongoing research and commonly used working fluids and fuels used in
T.S. Chowdhury et al.
Fig. 2. Major classification of gas turbines.
Fig. 3. Simple Brayton cycle configuration.
the fuel system of gas turbines mostly used in electricity generating
power plants. Several cooling configurations have been reviewed and
discussed like vortex cooling, impingement cooling with circular or
rectangular nozzles, middle-double vortex cooling, tangential-double
vortex cooling etc. However, the correlations regarding novel cooling
techniques such as protrusion, swirl cooling and latticework are hardly
observed. Furthermore, the correlations among a wide range of pa­
rameters in these cooling methods should be formulated to predict the
heat transfer and pressure drop in the rotating channel. More practical
endeavors and extensive studies need to be taken to make a complete
compilation or review of the working fluids and fuels considering per­
formance, environmental and economic concerns.
From investigating several case studies regarding failure of gas tur­
bine units, it is also observed that there’s a lack of studies regarding the
2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th stage turbine blades’ failure. There are a few
studies about 2nd stage blade failure. Most of the research highlights the
type and causes of failure, but almost no one suggests a definite solution
to the problems. After extensive research to find solutions to different
types of failure, appropriate recommendations for each case have been
suggested. However, these suggestions might not always come in handy
since there’s no solid basis or proof of their effectiveness. Therefore,
more research and development should be conducted to find the
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International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329
solution and prevention for failure.
1.4. Review methodology
In this literature review, firstly the whole work has been classified
into some sections that was trending in the research and development of
gas turbines. Then under each section, some research problems are
addressed and literature relevant to those problems are selected. The
findings of these literatures are then compared with respect to some
common fields and presented in a tabular form in a systematic manner.
This is a narrative review since it does not address only a single problem
statement but rather comprehensively analyses various causes and fac­
tors for the proper functioning of Gas Turbines. While searching for
relevant papers, priority was given to research involving gas turbine
applications for power generation, rather than applications in aircraft
propulsion. Popular databases like ScienceDirect, IEEEexplore, springer,
Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) etc. have been searched and
106 papers have been screened for inclusion in this review. This review
article comprises mostly of various qualitative research and some
selected quantitative studies. In most cases, intensive reviews are con­
ducted, and the rest of the papers are reviewed extensively and tabu­
lated for comparison.
T.S. Chowdhury et al.
2. Gas turbine performance and cooling efficiency
Gas turbines are broadly used in powerplants, naval propulsion and
air power. To achieve higher thermal efficiency, it is necessary to in­
crease the turbine inlet temperature. Modern GT systems are aiming at
high inlet temperature (approximately 1600–1900 kelvin) which is
higher than the super alloy substrate’s melting temperature. Thus, to
ensure safe operation and durability of the whole structure mainly the
turbine blade leading edges, a reliable and effective cooling system is
needed [12].
An outstanding approach named StudGA is presented as an optimi­
zation outline to achieve best optimal performance based on minimal­
izing the consumption of fuel by keeping minimal thrust output, for the
similar consumption of fuel increasing the thrust to maximum and
minimalizing the temperature of turbine blade [13]. A SIMULINK model
which is non-linear is employed for the Spey gas-turbine engine in this
study. To provide power to military jets this engine was invented. For
this type of engine, several works have been conducted [14–16]. To
advance the performance of the Gas Turbine Engines (GTE), control
layers can be added. To reduce the consumption of fuel at the same time
keeping minimal thrust levels, geometry parameters of both inlet and
outlet can be modified. Simultaneously by reducing the flow of fuel, the
temperature of the turbine blade can be decreased. To attain higher
thrust levels, the consumption of fuel will be increased substantially. For
several operating conditions, the performance gains are [13]:
(i) By fuel savings reducing the operating costs.
(ii) Rise of flight range.
(iii) Improvement of engine lifecycle by reducing the core tempera­
ture of high engine.
(iv) For critical aircraft missions, increasing the power of engine.
To evaluate the cooling effects of High Pressure Turbine (HPT) first-
stage on cycle performance, process simulations are conducted [17]. A
perfectly streamlined and simplified model is selected for the expansion
(non-adiabatic) of the hot gas in cooling air in the passage of blade. It
permits a comparison of various cycle outlines at diverse inlet temper­
ature of turbine. Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) has turned out to be a
standard for innovative modern Gas Turbine (GT) applications, that’s
why both rotating blades and stationary vanes of GT first stage and so on
need to be precisely cooled [18–20]. At a given pressure ratio, to get
higher efficiency up to certain limit we can increase the TIT according to
the given conditions. The thermal efficiency won’t increase beyond that
limit even if we provide high TIT or PR. By maximizing TIT up to a
certain limit, the cycle efficiency’s gain become nearly negligible. At the
same time greater power outputs can be achieved. As PR increases, the
upper limit of temperature also becomes higher. And that way higher
efficiency can be attained. Between cycle efficiency and TIT at a given
PR, designers must compromise. Cooling method is needed to achieve
full benefits by providing higher TIT. Here TIT was calculated using
MATHEMATICA code created by Masci and Sciubba [21,22,17].
Different methods are assessed to increase the GT efficiency [23]. The
methods are evaluated to compare the outcomes on the performances in
a system. High efficiency is possible by merging preheating fuel, recu­
peration, and injection of steam. Under different demands of heat in the
market this combination of methods provide the best outcome. A perfect
combination of these methods can increase the efficiency (exergetic)
nearly twenty percent. By the increase of the humidity ratio of inlet air
with the help of evaporative cooling, exergetic efficiency becomes
higher between 0,5 and 5%. From [24–28], by the use of multistage GT
along with reheat combustor and by the increase of outlet temperature
of recuperator, exergetic efficiency is increased by the turbine [23].
Research conducted to evaluate the thermal state of first stage tur­
bine blades which is the most stressed element by estimating the cooling
efficiency for various criteria of a cooling medium [29–31]. Two
different categories of cooling medium were taken into consideration,
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International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329
which were air and water vapor, and a comparison between them was
conducted. The cooling efficiency was dependent on the heat transfer
coefficient of cooling channel wall and GT blade’s volume average
temperature. The numerical simulation was completed using ANSYS
Fluent which was grounded on Finite Element Method. The geometry
was modeled using BladeGen ANSYS, where a GT blade is placed in the
flow of gas [32]. From the wall of cooling channel to the coolant coef­
ficient of heat transfer was determined. The turbine blade’s volume
average temperature was also evaluated. The coefficient of heat transfer
is higher when the blade is cooled by steam than air. If the cooling
medium pressure is increased, there will be a higher difference between
the coefficient of heat transfer for air and steam. As a result, the coolant
steam is much more efficient than air when the condition was under
same parameters [29,33]. This is because of the higher thermal capa­
bility and higher Prandtl number of steam [34]. But normally coolant
systems using steam are developed for ground-based powerplants.
Steam as a coolant is not suited for aircraft engines. So, air cooling
systems are necessary and dynamically pursued for aircraft engines
[35].
Another study focuses on film cooling which is significant for in­
dustrial purpose as the conditions of actual engine are very hot, small
and fast for taking high-resolution and accurate measurements. Here a
plenum is used to transfer coolant through shaped or round film cooling
holes. The purpose of this study was determining the results of two
different internal crossflow constraints, channel Reynolds number and
channel velocity ratio, on the adiabatic effectiveness of shaped film
cooling holes. The efficacy of sharped holes was lower comparing with
plenum fed ones, like 25% drop in adiabatic effectiveness. But there is
one exception where the performance was nearly same for the both cases
while operating at minimum coolant velocity ratio as well as the internal
channel working at a minimum Reynolds number. The drop because of
the cross flow of internal channel suggests that the coolant’s uniform
distribution in the diffusive part of the shaped was skeptically affected.
On the performance of film cooling, channel velocity ratio has more
effect than channel Reynolds number [36].
Lu et al. [37] researched about the film cooling effectiveness of HPT
blade tips. Two types of rotor blade tip outlines were considered. They
are: (1) Plane Tip and (2) Squealer Tip. Both are accustomed with tip
hole cooling. Nirmalan et al.[38]. investigated the results of several
temperature and flow variables on film cooling in a GT vane cascade.
Here the operating conditions had similarity with the ranges of actual
gas turbine engines. Ahn et al. [39] measured the results of rotation on
the distribution of film cooling effectiveness of a GT blade’s leading edge
with three rows of radial angled holes conducting the PSP (Pressure
Sensitive Paint) method. These tests were done at three different rota­
tional speeds on 1st stage rotor-blade of a 3-stage axial GT. The
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the implementation of film cooling methods in a
gas turbine blade with 3rows of radial angled holes [39].
T.S. Chowdhury et al.
experimental model was modified from [40,41]. Fig. 4 shows the
configuration of film cooling effectiveness on a gas turbine blade with
3rows of radial angled holes.
Yu et al. [42] investigated the effectiveness of film cooling of diffu­
sion slot using pressure sensitive paint method. At the same time, it was
also measured for fan-shaped hole. At Mach number 0.1 (inlet) and 0.19
(outlet), the experiments were conducted. The effects of density ratio,
blowing ratio and the location of film hole on the effectiveness of film
cooling were inspected. As a result, based on this experiment, film
cooling effectiveness is achieved more while operating with diffusion
slot hole rather than fan-shaped hole. The reason is for diffusion slot hole
longer cooling trace, better capability of attachment and broader film
coverage of coolant was observed. More film cooling effectiveness was
achievable if the blowing ratio becomes higher and the distance between
the blade leading edge and film hole is higher. The closeness of coolant
and blade surface is determined by the elevating density ratio which
provides positive effects on film cooling effectiveness.
There are different types of methods for the cooling of the leading
edge of GT blade such as vortex cooling, impingement cooling and
double vortex cooling [43]. Here an extra coolant chamber is used to
increase the effectiveness. The numerical calculation is conducted based
on k-ω turbulence model and RANS equations. Another model [21] is
constructed which can be modified to any types of required operating
condition, fluid properties, cooling system, blade geometries to deter­
mine the cooling requirement to find better efficiency. This model is an
essential means to innovate the GT cycle analysis by substituting models
which are time consuming.
Fig. 5 shows the execution of different cooling methods of GT blade.
Five different outlines are arranged to see the outcomes which are
impingement cooling with two nozzles (circular and rectangular), vortex
cooling, tangential double vortex cooling and middle double vortex
cooling. Rectangular nozzles were made in vortex cooling because of
space limit. Some factors are considered for the formation of these five
outlines: (1) Inlet boundary conditions are same; (2) Dimensions of the
nozzles and coolant chamber are equal; (3) Volume of the core chamber
is same in place of Hydraulic diameter by considering blade space [43].
Table 1 summarizes the following selected literature emphasizing the
cooling method employed in turbine blades.
3. Blade material and geometrical construction
The blades of gas turbines are an essential component of the turbine
and are responsible for converting thermal energy of high temperature,
pressurized gas into mechanical power. Recent studies have proved that
extreme thermal loads, frequent vibrational effects, fatigue, coating
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of the implementation of five different cooling methods in blade leading edge (a) Impingement Cooling using different nozzles (Circular
and Rectangular) and Vortex Cooling, (b) Double Vortex Cooling (Middle and Tangential) [43].
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International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329
erosion, and stress leading to deformations are the leading cause of gas
turbine blade failures. As much as 42% of failures in gas turbines are a
result of turbine blade failure [44]. In power generation systems, gas
turbine blades are exposed to high temperature and pressure and are
subjected to large fatigue load and mechanical stresses which affect their
performances [45]. Many studies have been performed to analyze these
causes of failure and identify suitable materials for blade construction in
order to enhance turbine performance and minimize failures.
Salwan et al. reviewed various materials and their properties and
composition to identify suitable blade materials for open cycle industrial
gas turbines and concluded alloys such as CM 247 LC, Mar M247, PWA
148, and CMSX2 to be the most suited for blade constructions [44].
Chintala et al. [46] utilized the Reverse Engineering (RE) process to
analyze a gas-turbine blade under steady loading conditions of three
types of loads; axial, tangential, and centrifugal, and tested the effects of
five different materials on blade geometry. The results suggested cen­
trifugal forces to be the leading cause of blade failure and Titanium to be
the most feasible and safe material for blade design under high cen­
trifugal loads, thermal stresses, and fatigue loads. Martelli et al. inves­
tigated the optimal working criteria of gas turbines utilized for large
scale [47] applications in power production using combined cycle. The
employed Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) for blade construction in
order to ensure sufficient thermal and chemical resistance and deter­
mined the ideal pressure ratio and Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT).
They reported that pressure ratios higher than 60 resulted in greater
power output up to 66%–110% with TIT of 2000 ◦ C and 2200 ◦ C for
1300 ◦ C and 1500 ◦ C allowable blade temperature respectively [48].
Nowadays the increasing operating temperatures for gas turbines results
in fatigue, cracks and blade deterioration requiring repair and restora­
tion for failure prevention. Gabrielli et al. assessed laser metal deposi­
tion method to be the ideal technology for such restoration in blades
maintaining material properties and integrity with higher thermal
resistance. [49]
Sankar et al. [50] developed a 3D model of the gas turbine blades
utilized for large scale power generation to determine the optimum
thickness of Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC) using Partially Stabilized
Zirconia (PSZ) for thermal and stress analysis at various TBC thicknesses
ranging from 100 to 800 µm [51] of two materials [52,53]. The tem­
perature and heat flux decreased as thickness increased until a certain
value when a further rise in TBC thickness led to increasing heat flux and
temperature [54,55]. The results were normalized for the thickness of
550 µm [56] considering three parameters; heat flux, temperature, and
cost [57,58], and indicated higher stress values at the blade root with
Inconel 718 to be more suitable for blade fabrication [59].
Shin et al. investigated the effectiveness and resistance of TBCs
T.S. Chowdhury et al.
Table 1
Different cooling methods employed in gas turbine.
Literature Type of cooling Findings
Fan et al. 2019 Vortex cooling (VC) • Heat transfer intensity is high.
[43] • Thermal performance factor is high.
Middle-double vortex • Pressure loss is lowest.
cooling (M-DVC)
Tangential-double • Not suitable for cooling.
vortex cooling (T-DVC)
Impingement cooling • The distribution of pressure is uniform.
(IC) • Pressure loss is minimal.
Masci et al. 2018 Internal Convection • Used to determine the cooling requirement to
[21] Cooling find better efficiency.
Film Cooling • Suitable for any types of required operating
condition, fluid properties, cooling system,
blade geometries.
Moskalenko et al. Steam • Steam coolant much more efficient than air.
2016 [29] Air
against erosive particles present in inlet air of small-scale open cycle gas
turbine engines used for propulsion and power. They analyzed a plasma
sprayed TBC composed of 7 wt% Yttria stabilized Zirconia (PS 7YSZ) and
tested them for various temperatures of gases, different velocities of
particle impact and angles of impingement and compared the results to
Electron-Beam Physical Vapor Deposition TBC (EB-PVD 7YSZ). The
analysis and erosion rates were determined at GT Erosion Lab of Uni­
versity of Cincinnati with Alumina particles for 122 - 305 m/s velocity
range, 540 - 982 ◦ C temperature and 20 - 90◦ angle. The results sug­
gested higher gas temperature and velocities lead to greater erosion
rates with EB-PVD 7YSZ blades having 10 times less erosion than (PS
7YSZ)[60]. To improve blade performance of large scale aeroderivative
engines [61], Nguyen et al. analyzed Ytterbium Silicate-Based Nano­
composite Yb2Si2O7/Yb2SiO5 as the top most coating for multilayered
environmental barrier coatings (EBCs) for the gas turbine blades made of
Silicon carbide (SiC) ceramic. They reported the nanocomposites
demonstrated self-repair properties for thermal stress induced cracks in
the blades. In order to retain the efficiency of the self-healing and
improve it, they tested out the regeneration of Yb2SiO5 using water-
vapor heat treatment which showed remarkable enhancement in its
crack repairing capability (3–30%)[62].
Singh et al. [63] assessed four different materials for the construction
of gas turbine blades by comparing stress, vibration, temperature, cost,
and physical properties and concluded Nimonic 80A to be the most
feasible material. Structural and stress analyses for the blades were
performed with fixed blade root and load on the blade tip and Nimonic
80A had the least deformation. The effects of vibration are evaluated by
modal analysis where the natural frequencies are calculated for various
modes of each material [64,65] and Nimonic 80A had the maximum
range for modal frequency. A computational study by Subbarao et al.
analyzed the major factors contributing to blade failure for small scale
gas turbine engine blades of Nimonic alloys utilized for propulsion and
work output. They investigated different structural and thermal stresses
along with blade deformation for various TIT and pressures. Frequent
failure was found at the blade root and they concluded Nimonic-263 to
be better for aerodynamic applications compared to Nimonic-105 and
Nimonic-80A [66].
Kumar et al. [67] conducted a study to identify the optimum blade
profile and material for power generation and revealed Inconel 625 at a
72.5◦ bent angle to be the most suited. They utilized three models for the
profile, NACA 6409 and NACA 6409 bent at 72.5◦ and 145◦ angles
respectively. Each blade profile was analyzed for three different speeds,
20,000, 40,000, and 60,000 RPM for each of the three different blade
materials. In addition, modal analysis was performed for each profile
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International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329
Limitations Applications
• High pressure loss. Designing of gas turbine using the
best cooling method according to
• Heat transfer intensity is not high requirement.
as VC.
• Thermal performance factor is not
high as VC.
• Poor Flow.
• Heat transfer intensity is very low
and uneven.
• Deviation of the streamlines larger
with increasing upwind area of
nozzle.
• 1st stage GT rotating blades Innovative model of GT cycle which
restrictive mechanisms of GT is less time consuming.
• Maximum mechanically and
thermally loaded airfoils.
• Creep resistance is life-limiting
factor for airfoils
• Values vary from geometry to Applicable to attain better cooling
geometry. efficiency.
and material to prevent resonance in the turbine during operation [68].
Ikpe et al. [69] compared two materials for the gas turbine blade in the
Trans-Amadi power plant to minimize failure and fatigue of blades due
to vibrational effects from the misalignment of the rotating components
of the turbine [70,71]. They compared the fundamental frequency of the
two materials with the operational frequency of the turbine and deter­
mined both materials to be safe for operations, with IN738 to be the
more suitable as a rotor blade material of the first stage whereas U500
could fail in such case.
Fig. 6 demonstrates the impacts of thermal barrier coating degra­
dation and the determination of the optimum thickness of such protec­
tive coating to minimize the chances of failure and erosion. In Fig. 6(a) a
plot of TBC coating against three factors temperature, heat flux and cost
are demonstrated utilizing their normalized values in order to identify
optimum thickness of PSZ to maintain costs that are economically
feasible [50]. Fig. 6(b) identifies the effect of operation time on oxide
layer thickness by analyzing saturation level of R(red) component [73].
The thickness of oxide layer increases with decreasing saturation of R
component from a value of 212 up to 183 after which further decrease in
its value results in significant reduction of oxide layer thickness. Finally,
Fig. 6(c) investigates the effect of temperature on the thickness of
aluminum coating layers and revealed high temperatures to significantly
affect the surface layer as well as transitional layer thickness of the
entire aluminum coating [72].
4. Factors leading to failure of gas turbine blades
The major cause of blade failures in gas turbines are fatigue and
extreme thermal or mechanical stresses leading to cracks, pits, and
degradation of blade material. The sources of these cracks and their
effects are shown in Fig. 7. Crack formations as seen are more likely to
initiate in the blades especially at the leading edges due to the fact that
they are exposed to extreme dynamic stresses and thermal gradients
during power generation [74–77]. Each of the factors contributing to­
wards turbine blade damage are briefly discussed below:
a Thermal Stress and Fatigue: Gas turbine blades are subjected to very
high-temperature gases for power production and enhanced effi­
ciency. This leads to extreme thermal stresses in the blades due to
metallurgical constraints and thus effective cooling of the blades by
cooling systems [78] and Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC) [79].
However internal cooling results in non-uniform temperature dis­
tribution causing alternating compressive and tensile stresses leading
T.S. Chowdhury et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329

Fig. 6. Performance graphs showing variations in coating thickness for multiple factors (a) Optimized thickness of TBC [50]. (b) Variation in oxide layer thickness on
coating with R component saturation value. (c) Variation in aluminum coating thickness with temperature for specific layers [72].

Fig. 7. Major causes of failure in gas turbine blades. [79,90,91,75].

7
T.S. Chowdhury et al.
to thermal fatigue resulting in deformations and crack formation and
propagation which deteriorates turbine performance [80].
b Mechanical Stress and Vibrational Effects: Unsteady dynamic
stresses and high centrifugal force causes severe mechanical stress in
turbine blades leading to failure. Blade fatigue resulting from
Table 2
Studies on various Gas turbine blade materials with their limitations and applications.
Literature Research Conclusion
Chintala • Centrifugal forces highest
et al. 2014 and leading cause of blade
[46] failure.
• Adequate structural
stability with Titanium.
• Titanium most suitable
material for the gas turbine
blade.
Shin • TBC of EB-PVD 7YSZ
et al.2016 contributed to 10 times
[60] lower erosion.
• Rates of turbine blade
erosion enhanced with
greater gas temperature
and impact velocities at the
blades.
Kumar et al. • Three blade profiles at
2017 [67] different RPMs on various
materials analyzed.
• Inconel 625 most suited
material.
• Best results with 72.5◦ bent
blade profile.
Ikpe et al. • Failure due to vibration in
2018 [69] turbine blades assessed.
• IN 738 was better as a first
stage rotor blade material.
Sankar et al. • Optimum thickness for the
2019 [50] Thermal Barrier Coating
(TBC) of PSZ was found to
be 550 µm for the gas
turbine blades.
• Inconel 718 was found to
be more feasible as a blade
material.
Subbarao • Frequent failure was found
et al. 2019 at the blade roots.
[66] • Nimonic-263 better for
aerodynamic applications.
• Less deformation, thermal
stress for Nimonic-90
• Nimonic-80A shows
greater deformation and
equivalent stress.
Singh et al. • Four blade materials were
2020 [63] compared by
computational analysis.
• Nimonic 80A determined
to be the most suitable.
Rayapati • Failure analysis conducted
et al. 2020 based on deformation and
[92] corresponding strain and
stress
• Mar-M-200 concluded to
be the most suitable from a
structural perspective.
*
Large Scale power plants and aeroengines use open Brayton cycle for power generation.
International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329
vibrations and resonance is another major cause of turbine failures
[81]. Modal analysis is performed to identify crack locations and
detect modes of failure caused by structural vibrations for the safe
operation of turbines [82].
Materials Analysis Performed Superior Limitations Applications*
Assessed Material
Al alloy, Cast iron, Mechanical stress, Titanium • The RE technology • Large scale power
Magnesium, Thermal stress, implemented to model the generation
Stainless steel, Fatigue load turbine not 100% accurate. • Designing and direct
Titanium • Only five materials tested to manufacturing of gas
observe load effects turbine blades using the
• No experimental validation most suitable material.
done for the observed results. • Ensuring the minimum
possibility of blade failure.
PS 7YSZ and EB- Blade erosion for EB-PVD • Only Alumina particles of 27 • Small-scale gas turbine
PVD 7YSZ different 7YSZ µm used as erosive particles. engines for propulsion and
temperatures, • Further analysis with more power output
velocities and angles types of TBCs should be used. • Reduce blade failure due
of particle impact to erosive particles.
• Provide basis for TBC
research at higher gas
temperatures.
Nimonic 80A, Static structural Inconel • Transient and CFD analysis • Large scale power
Inconel 625, Super analysis, Blade 625 not done for desired efficiency generation
Alloy X profile, Modal and power generation • Produce required power
analysis by utilizing particular
RPM.
• Utilize optimum blade
profile, and material for
maximum performance.
IN 738 and U500 Modal Analysis IN 738 • Various assumptions made • Large scale power
which may not have been generation
applicable for the gas turbine • Manufacture and operate
under study. gas turbines with less
chance of failure.
• Provide guidance for
turbine maintenance to
prevent failure.
Inconel 718 and Stress and Thermal Inconel • Only two materials analyzed • Large scale power
Titanium-T6 Analysis 718 for feasibility as suitable blade generation
material. • Improved gas turbine
• More temperature and heat performance and longer
flux plots at lesser intervals to blade life span.
be carried out for greater • Enables operation at
accuracy. higher temperatures.
Nimonic-263, Structural and Nimonic- • Only Nimonic alloys tested for • Small scale aerodynamic
Nimonic-105 and thermal stress analysis 263 suitable blade material propulsion and power.
Nimonic-80A. • Stress- strain analysis not • Prevent failure in blade
performed for various blade roots resulting from high
configurations. pressure and temperature.
INCONEL alloy Stress analysis, Nimonic • The static structural analysis • Large scale power
617, Titanium Structural analysis, 80A between the materials is only generation
alloy, Rhenium, and Modal analysis done at 2000 RPM and 900 ◦ C • Enhance the life span of
and Nimonic 80 A. at a particular boundary turbine blades.
condition with no variation. • Prevent failure of blades
resulting from extreme
stress load and vibrations
and resonance.
IN-792, Udimet- Thermal stress, strain Mar-M- • Only nickel-based materials • Large scale power
700, Mar-M-200, and stress, 200 analyzed so no comparisons generation
Rene-41 deformation analysis with other alloys. • Reduce frequent failure of
• Investigation on ceramics not gas turbine blades.
conducted. • Allow selection of suitable
superalloy material based
on nickel for the
manufacture of blades of a
gas turbine.
8
T.S. Chowdhury et al.
c Fatigue: Fatigue failure appears when the size of cracks and applied
stresses surpass the fracture toughness of the blade material. It is one
of the most common causes of gas turbine blade failure leads to
failure in 42% of all gas turbines [83]. Fatigue is caused by repetitive
loading during operation and can be low cycle fatigue and high cycle
fatigue. The blade material and the cyclic stresses determine fatigue
life [76–84].
d Creep: When blade materials are exposed to high stresses lower than
the materials’ yield strength, they tend to move or get permanent
deformation which is known as creep. High-temperature results in
more creep causing cracks in the intergranular structure that leads to
creep failure [85]. The fatigue strength of the blade materials is also
considerably affected by creep that causes failure of blades [84].
e Coating Degradation: TBCs are special materials that are coated over
turbine blades to ensure insulation and protection against extreme
temperatures are essential [86]. However, during operation, adverse
working conditions cause severe degradation to this protective
coating, especially at the leading edges, and cause changes in blade
color [73]. One of the major causes of degradation of turbine blades
is the oxidation of the coating forming oxides that are lost as a result
of erosion [77].
f Corrosion and Erosion: Gas turbines utilize a variety of fuels con­
sisting of corrosive elements such as sulfur, vanadium, lead, sodium,
etc. In the case of air or saltwater contamination, these chemicals
produce alkali metals that cause severe corrosion attacks on turbine
blades leading to failure [87,88]. Erosion on the other hand removes
material from turbine blades resulting in pitting and is caused by
particles of carbon. Erosion damages the thermal barrier of blades
causing thermal fatigue, and cracks that lead to failure [89].
The following section elaborately discusses the major effects of these
failure criterions in gas turbine blades. Furthermore, suggestions for
possible solutions and improvements to prevent these factors in turbine
blades are also stated. In Table 2, various studies on gas turbine blades
are summarized in terms of key findings, materials used, limitations, and
application.
5. Failure of gas turbines
In any power plant, the shutdown or failure of a gas turbine engine
unit is accompanied by a significant economic loss [93]. The large
capital investment in a gas turbine power plant requires high degree of
reliability and reduction of forced outage occurrences. A systematic
approach was suggested combining both the proactive and reactive ac­
tions might minimize the frequency and duration of outages in power
plants. The proactive measures include Hazard and Operability study
(HAZOP), Structured What-if technique (SWIFT), and Failure Mode and
Effect Analyses (FMEA) etc. Root cause analysis (RCA), and Failure
Analysis (FA) are the reactive approaches for the case studies [94]
Some case studies of gas turbine failures in thermal power plants are
to be discussed in this section. Therefore, the study of causes and effects
of these failures becomes necessary. Already some of the works have
been carried out regarding the failure analysis of the turbine blades to
prevent these failures [95]. The common reasons for failures in gas
turbine blades include high temperature exposure, high-temperature
damage, mechanical damage, corrosion failure, fatigue failure, creep
failure etc. [96].
Failure analyses have been performed for 1st stage [97,98], 2nd
stage [99], 3rd stage [100] gas turbine blades, 4th stage steam turbine
blades (for low-pressure steam turbine) [101] and 5th stage gas turbine
blades [102]. Many failure analyses also represent the failure of com­
ponents like first stage bucket of gas turbine [103], first stage nozzles of
a heavy duty gas turbine [104], rotor blades [85], stator blades [78],
and gas turbine compressor [105] as well. All of these failure analyses
basically highlight the root causes for the failures and measures to
prevent them in future. Several research have been performed regarding
9
International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329
the gas turbine blades composed of various materials such as Nickel base
alloys Inconel 738/738LC, and superalloy Udimet-500 [106].
5.1. Failure of 1st and 2nd stage gas turbine blades and vanes
The major reason for failure of gas-turbine unit mostly seems to be
the fracture of the blades [100,101]. The failure of a gas turbine engine
[98] unit in Fig. 8 was caused by the sudden enhancing vibration more
than the critical value. This failure of the 1st stage blades in a gas-turbine
was analyzed [98]. After conducting a set of experimental procedures,
the root causes for the failure if the blade were identified in the result of
the experiment. From the macroscopic image of figure below, it can be
observed that the turbine rotor consists of 5 stage-blades. It is observed
that the fracture was present at the roots of the four - 1st stage blades
whose number were 62, 63, 1 and 2 respectively. Other than that, the
tips of the other blades were either damaged seriously, or chipped-off.
The first crack was occurred at the no. 62 blade due to fatigue failure
over a certain time period. And in case of the other 3 fractured blades,
the fracture was instantaneous fracture aroused with the
dendrite-morphology [98].
Another study reveals the root causes for failure of the 1st stage gas
turbine blades for a gas-turbine having capacity of 30 MW shown in
Fig. 9. The failure shows some tip cracks at both the trailing and leading
edge of gas turbine blade, which was composed of Nickel base super
alloy- IN738LC. Aluminide coating (Pt-Al2) applied on the blade through
diffusion process and the blade also had some directional grain structure
which was solidified. The results indicate the degradation of blade
surface due to overheating and the formation of corrosion-pits on the
surface of the blade which produce stress concentrations and cracks, and
degradation of the Aluminide coating due to heavy oxidation. Due to the
coating being heavily oxidized, the Aluminide coating was no longer
capable of protecting the base metal. Depending on the microstructure
and chemical composition, it can be concluded that the blade failure was
not caused by defective material [97,77]. The root causes for the turbine
blade failures are mentioned in Table 3.
Another failure scenario has been observed for Gas turbine blades
composing of nickel-based superalloy GTD 111, after being around
73,500 h in operation. These failures (as shown in Fig. 9) causing micro-
cracks in the leading edge occurred owing to precipitation of continuous
grain boundary carbides and hot corrosion due to overheating. The
overheating of blades was caused by the blocking of air channels for the
blades. Moreover, the tensile stresses as a result of fatigue cycles caused
crack initiation and propagation in the weak areas which led to blade
failure on the areas close to the leading edges.
A recent study also shows that coating with the deposition of pow­
ders on the iron-based superalloy by HVOF (High velocity oxy-fuel)
process, better resistance to hot corrosion is provided as protective
oxide scales are produced [108]. The thermo-mechanical experiment of
Fig. 8. Image of the gas turbine rotor along with the fractured blades in the
failed Gas Turbine engine unit [98].
T.S. Chowdhury et al.
Fig. 9. Turbine blade (internal-view) of a 30 MW gas turbine [77].
a nickel-based superalloy turbine blade was also conducted (as shown in
Fig. 10) in which the temperature field and strain field were stimulated
using gripping fixture and induction coil. The experimental results
indicated initiation at the trailing edge and propagation along the
leading-edge direction for a TMF crack. At the surface of the crack,
presence of both trans-granular and intergranular fractures indicates
fatigue damage and creep damage respectively. However, it was
concluded that the root cause of the failure was the combination of
oxidation, creep and fatigue damage.
Sometimes, failure of the 1st stage turbine blade leads to the failure
of other 1st stage turbine blades, as well as second and third stage tur­
bine blades. For instance, an investigation of stage-1,2,3 rotor blades
(made of Ni-base superalloys of different grades) for an aircraft engine
showed similar results [85]. The damaged surface coating resulted into
heavily localized oxidation attacks to the 1st stage blade, and oxide
formation at the interface between substrate and coating. As a result,
fatigue cracks have formed at the pits and propagated eventually leading
to the fracture of first stage blade. Moreover, further internal damage
has been occurred to the other 1st stage, as well as the 2nd and 3rd stage
blades originating from the broken pieces from the 1st stage blade in the
forms of nicks or dents on leading or trailing edges [85]. By investigating
the failure of blades and vanes of a dual fueled (1st and 2nd stage) gas
turbine [87], the main failure was found to be stress rupture. The major
reason behind this failure was high temperature exposure caused by the
collection and combustion of fuel in second stage vanes. Sometimes, due
to the improper function of fuel nozzles, the fuel combustion becomes
incomplete. Eventually it results into accumulation of fuel in the gap
between the 2nd stage vanes. This accumulated fuel if ignited, results
into rise in local temperature and burnouts of 2nd stage vanes [87].
5.2. Causes and preventions for failure
Fatigue failure might be caused by centrifugal force originated from
rotational speed and high temperature, or due to foreign object damage.
The creep failure is basically caused by approaching the yield point due
to high temperature service for a long time. Since the blade tends to
come into contact with the shell owing to creep, it is recommended to
keep the distance between the blade tip and adjacent shell to a minimum
for extracting highest amount of energy from the flowing hot combus­
tible gas in the nozzle [84].
In order to prevent incomplete combustion of fuel, it’s necessary to
prevent the failure of nozzles. Since the first stage nozzles of gas Tur­
bines are situated right after the combustion chamber and are always
encountered by hot product gas in the fluid flow path, they are very
likely to have failure due to hot corrosion, erosion etc. [109]. Not only
the turbine nozzles, but also the compressor and turbine blades of gas
turbines have a serious exposure to corrosive environment. Failures may
cause external damages (corrosion, solid particle wear due to erosion,
thermal or thermochemical fatigue, creep-failure, oxidation in the
10
International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329
trailing edges, and hot corrosion at the blade surfaces etc.) or internal
damages (rafting or phase aging, grain boundaries’ creep voids, pre­
cipitation of carbides, grain growth and microstructure deformation
etc.). These failures are dependent on the time of service or operational
history, operating conditions and variations in design and
manufacturing of the gas turbines [110]. Different types of coatings are
applied to protect the blade, nozzle or compressor surfaces from corro­
sion, erosion, and hot corrosion. For instance, thermal spray type
coating is mostly used for its good properties [111]. Sometimes the
implementation of overlay and diffusion coatings are insufficient to
prevent corrosion and hot corrosion. In such cases it’s necessary to lower
the amount of Potassium, Sodium and salts of them in the
working-environment [112].
Application, Types and Scales of Gas turbine: The discussed gas
turbines in this section are used only for power generation purpose in
many thermal power plants. They are mostly Industrial Gas turbines.
They usually have thermal efficiency range of (25–40)%. Industrial large
scale single cycle gas turbines have power capacity of (100–300) MW
and small-scale industrial gas turbines produce power less than 100 MW.
However, microturbines produce power in small scale ranging from a
few kilowatts to 100 kW [11].
Fig. 11 represents the failure due to corrosion, hot corrosion and
erosion in first stage Gas turbine blades. The corrosion damage is indi­
cated by corrosion deposits on the pressure and suction surface of gas
turbine blades. The presence of Sodium Chlorite in seawater near the
Gas Turbine at high percentage might cause hot corrosion in 1st stage
turbine blades [109]. There’s also a graph in Fig. 11 which represents
the nature and severity of attacks for hot corrosion and oxidation at
higher operating temperatures. The application of resistant coatings can
protect gas turbine and compressor blades from solid particle erosion
wear, corrosion at the surface and oxidation of leading and trailing
edges. Table 3 shows the studies on Gas turbine blade failures with
causes and effects.
Since blades account for 47% of the gas turbine failures, it’s essential
to use valuable design evaluation tools like Campbell and Goodman
diagrams for troubleshooting blade failures. The Campbell diagram
gives information on natural frequencies and forcing functions due to
different operation speeds. It can be formulated by testing or analytical
methods. The Goodman one is a visual representation of stress level and
estimated limit. This information is considered by the manufacturer not
shared with gas turbine user generally [115].
6. Working fluid
Selection of the optimum working fluid from an extensive number of
working fluids considering thermodynamic performance, environ­
mental and economic considerations should be done carefully. Accord­
ing to Davis [116], the working fluids’ nature did not show any
substantial impact on the efficiency of the power plant. However, the
environmental and economic considerations remain vital. As gas turbine
working fluids, combustion products of organic fuels (gaseous or liquid),
clean air or clean gases like inert gases or their mixtures), after heating
in heat-exchanger heaters, are used. If clean air or clean gases are used, it
must be made sure that the working fluid do not get mixed with the fuel
combustion products. Besides, the mixtures of organic fuel combustion
products together with steam or water may also be used as working
fluids of gas turbines. In case of closed cycle gas turbines, no combustion
chamber is there. As a substitute of combustion chamber, heaters like
nuclear reactor or furnace are used where the working fluids like air,
inert gases or their mixtures cannot get mixed with the fuel’s combus­
tion products.
In case of combined units where there are gas and steam turbines,
two separate units are there, namely the gas-steam units and the steam-
gas units. In this type of combined units, both steam and gas- two
working fluids are used in a single power-generating system. Based on
the working fluids interactions, the combined systems can be divided
T.S. Chowdhury et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329

Table 3
Studies on Gas turbine blade failures with causes and effects.
Literature Component Capacity Material Analyses Performed Time of Findings (Type and Recommendations
subjected to of Gas composition service cause of failure)
failure Turbine
(MW)*

2005, Mazur et al. 1st stage 70 Nickel-base microstructural 24,000 h (At Type- • Turbine blades should
[110] turbine blade alloy-Inconel- evaluation and high not provide service upon
738LC morphology difference temperature) • Initiation, and the crack initiation in the
test, carbide-precipitate propagation of inter- substrates.
test, grain- granular cracks in • The blade cooling system
characterization test, the substrate. design must be as such
blade-coating condition • Degradation of the that the thermal-
checking and stress- coating. gradients and the
evaluation using FEM • Diffusion of the thermal-stresses are
and ANSYS. material alloys in the minimized at the airfoils.
coating.
Causes-

• The mixed
mechanism of creep
and fatigue.
• Thermal fatigue.
• Continuous carbide
films forming in
grain-boundaries
with coalescence.
• High amount of
mechanical and
thermal stress.
2007, Vardar et al. 1st stage 40 Udimet-500 Visual investigation, 8000 h (At high Type- • Provide efficient blade
[106] turbine blade Optical-microscopy, temperature) cooling systems.
EDS, SEM, XRD (X-ray- • Initiation of the • Ensure that the blades
diffraction), and XRF (X- inter-granular cracks wouldn’t come in contact
ray-fluorescence). from the grain- with other objects during
boundaries and rotation.
propagation along
the critical length.
Causes-

• Agglomeration of
secondary carbides
on the boundaries of
grains due to
exposure to high
temperature.
• Creeping-failure
mechanisms due to
the presence of the
micro-cavities on the
failed surfaces.
2013, Qu et al. [98] 1st stage – Nickel-base microscopic evaluation, More than Type- Adopt methods like DS
turbine blade alloy-Inconel- metallographic-analysis, 1069 h and 58- (Directional-Solidification)
738 material-verification, starts • Initiation and and SC(Single-crystal)
macroscopic propagation of production to enhance
investigation. fatigue cracks in 2nd strength against fatigue
blade, resulting into failures [113].
instantaneous
fracture at the other
3 blades.
Causes-

• Presence of the
metallurgical
porosity defects and
cavitation in 2nd
blade due to stress-
concentration.
2016, Rani et al. 1st stage 30 Nickel-base Visual investigation, 72,000 h (At Type- TBC (Thermal barrier
[97] turbine blade alloy-Inconel- microstructural 1104 ◦ Celsius) coatings) must be applied to
738 evaluation, chemical • Degradation of blade resist the oxidation and hot
analysis, EDS, SEM, X- surface. corrosion [113].
ray diffraction and stress • Formation of
analysis by using FEM, corrosion pits at
ANSYS. blade surface.
(continued on next page)

11
T.S. Chowdhury et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329

Table 3 (continued )
Literature Component Capacity Material Analyses Performed Time of Findings (Type and Recommendations
subjected to of Gas composition service cause of failure)
failure Turbine
(MW)*

• Degradation and
heavy oxidation of
Aluminide coating.
Causes-

• Erosion.
• Hot corrosion.
• Overheating.
• Oxidation.
2007, Farhangi et al. 2nd stage 32 Superalloy Visual investigation, 50,000 Type- Raise the fretting-fatigue
[114] turbine blade (Nickel-based) Chemical test, hardness h resistance by some modern
Udimet-500 evaluation, SEM- • Initiation and coating methods such as
fractography, growth of cracks and processing of laser-shock
microstructural analysis. finally fracture in the treatment, burnishing
blade’s top firtree princess at low plasticity,
joint root. ultrasonic effect treatment,
• Transition of stable and shot-peening.
cyclic growth of
crack to unstable
rapid fracture.
Causes-

• High-cycle fatigue
mechanism.
• Fretting wear.
• Fretting damage.
2008, Poursaeidi 2nd stage – Nickel-base Visual investigation, 73,500 h Type- Several coating methods
et al. [99] turbine blade alloy-Inconel- Fractography, like Aluminide coating and
738LC microstructural • Presence of fatigue- TBC coating can be helpful
evaluation, chemical marks and serious to solve the hot corrosion
test, and hardness pitting. problem.
assessment. • No significant
change in
microstructure.
• Fractured blade due
to the decreasing
cross-sectional area.
Causes-

• Hot corrosion and

fatigue -mechanism
since the damaged
blade was resonated
through 3rd mode of
vibration prior to the
failure.
2016, Salehnasab 1st stage – Superalloy Visual-inspection, XRD – Type- Instead of using the
et al. [109] nozzles for (Nickel-based) test, SEM-image Nimonic-105, use feasible
gas-turbine Nimonic-105 analysis, EDAX-analysis, • Failure of the blade’s modified alloys to refund
FEM. trailing-edge, which the probability of hot
results into failure of corrosion.
the nozzle blades.
Causes-

• Combined effects of
thermal-fatigue and
hot corrosion (due to
the high amount of
sodium chlorate in
the nearby
seawater).
2020, Mirhosseini 1st stage 159 – Visual-investigation, – Type- Use a more appropriate
et al. [104] nozzles for macroscopic-inspection, coating to prevent
gas-turbine micro-analysis, • Presence of fine pits corrosion. Utilize proper-
metallographic and and erosion. filtration for the air and fuel
chemical test. • Evidence of intakes to avoid erosion and
corrosion and oxidation.
oxidation in the
leading-edge.
• Initiation of surface
cracks (at internal or
external shrouds).
(continued on next page)

12
T.S. Chowdhury et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329

Table 3 (continued )
Literature Component Capacity Material Analyses Performed Time of Findings (Type and Recommendations
subjected to of Gas composition service cause of failure)
failure Turbine
(MW)*

Causes-

• Creep or thermal
fatigue due to
overheating.
• Inappropriate
coating of the nozzle,
• Inappropriate
filtration at the inlet
of turbine.

into two significant groups, namely, the contact type units and the
separate circuit units. In contact circuit units, the combustion products
get mixed with the steam-water working fluid before the expansion in
the gas-steam turbine. In separate circuit units, the steam-water and
gaseous working fluids go in different paths; the only interaction that
happens between them is across the heat exchanger surface.
There are some advantages of this type of combined system as they
have characteristics better than that of the singular modern gas turbine
units and steam-turbine systems. These combined units, in a single
thermal cycle, not only combine low-temperature heat removal just like
in a steam-turbine unit condenser but also enables high-temperature
heat input just like typical gas-turbine units. For this reason, they can
allow conditions to obtain higher thermal efficiency of the overall cycle.
This enables energy generation of high economy. In fact, the efficiency
of this type of combined cycle may even reach up to fifty percent at high
values of the GT unit parameters. So, this type of combined cycle can be
very promising in the field of power generation. This type of cycle also
provides solution to very demanding problems of effluent production,
which can reduce negative impacts on the environment [117]. Lee,
Campbell, and Wright [118] studied working fluids’ characteristic re­
quirements for a Closed-Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT). In a Brayton cycle,
the working fluid must be above its critical temperature in a gaseous
region during the whole cycle. According to this paper, the main find­
ings include:
(i) for power generating CCGT, coal-fired, and cogeneration sys­
tems, Air, Helium, and helium/carbon dioxide gas mixtures were
found as suitable working fluids.
(ii) When design pressure loss factors are equivalent, He/CO2 and air
working fluids have thermal efficiencies greater than that of He.
(iii) Compared to CCGT which uses He/CO2 mixture and air as
working fluid, the ones that use He operate with smaller blade tip
diameters and higher rotative speeds.
(iv) On heat transfer coefficient, a noticeable synergetic effect is seen
for the mixture of gases and this effect is more apparent in those
which have extensively different molecular weights.

Fig. 10. Thermo-mechanical (TMF) fatigue test results indicating cracks due to oxidation layers, creep damage by intergranular fractures, fatigue damage by trans-
granular fractures [107].

13
T.S. Chowdhury et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329

Fig. 11. Nature of Corrosion damage, Nature of Hot corrosion and oxidation with respect to temperature, Erosion damage on the leading and trailing edges on 1st
stage Gas Turbine blades, and compressor blades which could be prevented by the application of suitable coatings [109,97,111].

Ulizar and Pilidis [119] studied a semi-closed cycle GT handling,
where effects of three stages were observed which included changing of
working fluid from air to CO2-Ar. When working fluid was changed from
air to CO2-Ar, a huge increment of corrected speed compared with speed
was observed which directed that the working fluids’ change must be
done at synchronous idle in order to escape the rotors’ structural
overdesign.
A later paper studied Supercritical CO2 as working fluid of Closed
Cycle Gas turbines. In this paper, Utamura, Hasuike, and Yamamoto
[120] focused on power generation from low or medium temperature
range waste heat source. Supercritical gas may reduce compressor work
due to the real gas effect and the critical point of CO2 is around room
temperature, making it a suitable working fluid. In another study. CO2
used as working fluid in a combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP)

Table 4
Studies focusing on gas turbine working fluid.
Year Author Key Findings Cycle Application Recommendations

1980 Lee, Campbell, • For power generating CCGT, coal-fired, and cogene­ Closed Coal fired CCGT power He, air, and He/CO2 gas mixtures can be
and Wright [118] ration systems, Air, Helium, and helium/carbon di­ cycle plant for power used as working fluid
oxide gas mixtures were found as suitable working generation & co-
fluids. generation
• When design pressure loss factors are equivalent, He/
CO2 and air working fluids have thermal efficiencies
greater than that of He.
• Compared to CCGT that use He/CO2 mixture and air as
working fluid, the ones that use He operate with
smaller blade tip diameters and higher rotative speeds.
• On heat transfer coefficient, noticeable synergetic
effect is observed for mixture of gasses and this effect
is more apparent on those which have extensively
different molecular weight.
1999 Ulizar and Pilidis Operating of a semi-closed cycle GT that changes Semi closed Power generation The working fluids’ change must be done at
[119] working fluid at one stage; when working fluid was synchronous idle in order to escape the
switched from air to CO2-Ar, a huge increase of corrected rotors’ structural overdesign.
speed compared with speed was observed
2010 Utamura, Supercritical gas may reduce compressor work than ideal Closed Thermal power plant Supercritical CO2 can be efficient as
Hasuike, and can be due to real gas effect Cycle working fluid
Yamamoto [120]
2015 Cho et al. [122] Supercritical CO2 (S-CO2) power cycle can be very Combined Thermal power plant The layout suggested in the article is
effective to recover waste heat from a gas turbine cycle crucial to obtain the benefits
2019 Filippov et al. The variation of composition of gas mixtures Closed or Power generation Of the many working fluids studied, proper
[123] considerably affected the GT cycle efficiency and actual open selection of working fluid should be done
work considering important factors

14
T.S. Chowdhury et al.
system which is operated by waste heat of gas turbine [121]. Besides,
Cho et al.[122]. claims that supercritical CO2 (S-CO2) power cycle is
getting the interest of researchers as these can work at comparatively
low inlet temperature of gas turbines yielding high temperature effi­
ciency. Thus, they can be excellent for the bottom cycle of CCGT
(Combined Cycle Gas Turbine). These also have compact configuration.
According to their research, to optimize the waste heat recovery through
bottom cycle in the usual natural gas CCGT, two S-CO2 cycles were
suggested to combine. Several layouts are studied and the optimized
layout was recommended provided that the technology is efficient
enough to maintain the assumptions that were made.
Filippov et al. [123] conducted the thermodynamic analysis on the
effect of thermophysical parameters variation of working fluid on the
energy & economic parameters of the GT cycle. The working fluids
studied include Helium (He), Steam (H2O), Natural gas Combustion
products (NGC), Nitrogen (N2), Air, Carbon dioxide (CO2), and Xenon
(Xe). The variation of composition of gas mixtures considerably affected
the GT cycle efficiency and actual work. The investigated parameters’
efficiency and actual work reached a local maximum value, which was
irrespective of GT cycle type (open or closed) and oxidizer type (O2, air)
with a molar specific and the position of this local maximum was set by
working fluid’s molar specific heat. Table 4 reports few selected studies
on gas turbine working fluids with their major findings.
7. Gas turbine fuel system
For gas turbines, the flexibility in the selection of fluid plays an
important role. Gas turbines mainly handle liquid or gas fuels. Among
the possible gas turbine fuels, the standard ones include Natural gas and
diesel oil. Special liquid fuels include Methanol, crude, heavy oil re­
siduals, oil shale oil. Some special gas fuels used are synthetic gas, blast
furnace gas, coal gas with medium or low calorific value. However, the
use of special gas fuels and special liquid fuels are limited because their
burning capability depends on their exact chemical analysis and the type
of gas turbine involved. In general, industrial gas turbines are better at
handling these fuels with their large combustors [124]. Fig. 12 [125]
shows the various gas turbine fuel used with their specific energy (by
mass) and percent Hydrogen present in the fuel. This figure depicts that
the fuel used on high efficiency gas turbines include blast furnace gas, air
Fig. 12. Fuel used on high efficiency gas turbines.
15
International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329
blown syngas which are low both in specific energy and percent
hydrogen by mass. Oxygen blown syngas has higher values in both. This
approximately drawn schematic shows that the values of specific energy
and percent hydrogen by mass for each fuel are within some range and
not an exact value. Weak natural gas has a wide range of values. The
values for ethanol and DM belong to a small part of the range. Other
fuels include methanol, biodiesel, and coke ovens. Relatively higher
specific energy fuels include Crude within whose range belong residual
fuel, heavy distillates, distillate, kerosene, naphtha. The fuels with
higher percent hydrogen and specific energy includes NG within which
there are LPG (butane, propane), ethane. Then there is the group of
refineries off gas above the NG group. Hydrogen is the fuel which is at
the top with the highest value of percent hydrogen and specific energy.
This figure gives an instant idea about the specific energy and percent
hydrogen (100%) of the fuels used in the high efficiency gas turbines
[125].
In combined cycle plants, the fuel flexibility is higher than that of the
steam power plants as some gas turbines are able to burn heavy oil or
crude, when designed to do so. Special fuels can be burnt in gas turbines
with large combustors compared to the ones with smaller combustors or
annular combustor. It is because the smaller or annular combustors are
more sensitive to any changes associated with flame length, radiation
etc. The heavy fuels or crude burnt in a gas turbine must undergo correct
treatment which is an important requirement. This type of treatment is
usually done by dosing with additives and washing. These steps are
needed to remove or inhibit elements like vanadium, sodium etc. that
cause high temperature corrosions.
In combined-cycle power plants without supplementary firing, fuels
like natural gas, diesel oil, crude, heavy oil, blast furnace gas, chemical
industry gas, and coal gas can be used. In the case of combined-cycle
power plants with supplementary firing, bituminous coal can also be
used in addition to the fuels mentioned. In gas turbines, fuels like brown
coal, bituminous coal, refuse, agricultural wastes are not suitable fuels
[124]. In the selection of a suitable fuel for gas turbine, its effect on
environment must be considered. Marin, Mendeleev, and Akhmetshin
[126] studied the impact of the composition of the fuel gas in gas turbine
operations. This study shows that the composition of fuel has an impact
on the modes of operations, efficiency, and the exhaust. So, fuel must be
selected with careful consideration. Jones, Goldmeer, and Monetti [125]
T.S. Chowdhury et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329

studied a large number of fuels that can be used in gas turbine. This Table 5
paper also emphasizes exploiting alternative sources of fuel. After Classification of fuel.
analyzing emerging fuels, this paper concludes that to combat the Fuel Type Typical Lower Heating Typical specific
challenges of fuel requirements in the power generation industries along composition Value (LHV) kJ/ fuels
with considering the environmental factors, the need to explore the Nm3 (Btu/scf)
sustainable and alternative energy channels are crucial. The flexibility in High H2 > 50% 5500–11,200 Hydrogen power
the possibility of using these fuels in high performance turbomachines hydrogen
opens a new window of developing expected operability in a gaseous
fuel
carbon-restricted environment. CxHy = 0–40% (150–300) Petrochemical gas
Chen et al. [127] experimented on the effect of fuel and inlet tem­ Refinery gas
perature of air on the stability characteristics of combustion. The fuels Low/Ultra CH4 < 10% < 11,200 Air blown IGCC
tested include three chosen hydrocarbons with single component LHV
gaseous
namely a linear alkane (n-decane), a cyclic alkane (methylcyclohexane
fuel
(MCH)) and a branched alkane (isooctane). As technical reference, RP-3 H2 < 10% (< 300) Blast furnace gases
jet fuel was chosen. Among these, n-decane and RP-3 showed almost N2+CO > 40% Biomass
identical stability behaviors. From the experiments, it was found that at gasification
low inlet temperature of air, flame was steadied in the combustor when Medium H2 = 10–50% 11,200–30,000 Coke oven gas
LHV
n-decane and RP-3 was used. For other fuels, it showed instability at all gaseous
temperatures. Gökalp and Lebas [128] performed the investigation on fuel
the initial development in the characterization and choice of potential N2+CO2 = 30–50% (300–800) Landfill gas
substitutive fuels for GT. Potential gaseous and liquid fuel sources CH4 < 60% Corex gas
Weak natural gas
included: esters, vegetable oils, methanol, ethanol, flash pyrolysis oil,
High LHV Higher 45,000–190,000 Refinery off-gas
di-methyl-ether, synthetic fuels (liquids from biomass), biogas of gasi­ gaseous hydrocarbons &
fication, biogas of slow pyrolysis, biogas of wastes mechanization, in­ fuel CH4, where CxHy >
dustry process gases rich in H2. 10%
The utilization of biodiesels is getting new interest due to its many (1200–5000) Liquid petroleum
gasses (butane,
desirable characteristics. Fauzan et al. [129] employed the Calophyllum
propane)
inophyllum biodiesel as a fuel for GT. Although biodiesel has lower Liquid fuel CxHy, where x > 6 32,000–45,000 kJ/ Crude oil
calorific value compared to the necessities for ASTM D2880 standard, it kg
has high oxygen content that can make greener and complete combus­ Residual oils
Diesel oil
tion possible. According to the study, the physiochemical properties of
Bio-liquids
C. inophyllum biodiesel product can be a promising feedstock as it meets Naphtha
the necessity standard in ASTM D6751. However, compared to diesel, Natural gas CxHy = 5% 30,000–45,000 Liquefied natural
biodiesels, due to their fluid property causes poor atomization and takes gas (LNG)
longer time for evaporation [130]. Moliere et al. [131] did a field test Inerts = 5% (800–1200) Natural gasses
CH4 = 90%
with bio-ethanol as an alternative fuel. They performed a primary
characterization of the combustion capability of a wide range of
naphtha/bio-ethanol combinations with up to 95% of ethanol. The field mechanical cracking and corrosion. Furthermore, new variations of
test showed very good combustion capability of the mixtures along with superalloys and ceramics should be analyzed to enhance the thermal
many desirable facts like low emission of NOx, nearly zero carbon endurance of the turbine blades. In addition, further investigations and
monoxide (CO) emmisions, sulfur oxides (SOx) and unburnt hydrocar­ research should be conducted regarding the turbine blade failures at
bons (UHC). higher stages rather than 1st stage failures. Solution to the failure of gas
Chiesa, Lozza, and Mazzocchi [132] studied the potential of using turbine units should also be highlighted beside the causes and types of
hydrogen in place of natural gas in heavy-duty gas turbines. Taking failure. Emphasis should be given to finding specific solutions and rec­
some aspects into consideration, this paper shows an opportunity to use ommendations for each type of failure of gas turbines. Modern simula­
hydrogen as an alternative to natural gas. However, more research needs tion, programming software and techniques should also be employed to
to be done and this might paver a new horizon in energy production. further analyze and solve the issue related to gas turbine failures other
Table 5 shows the physical characteristics of various fuel employed in than the monotonous methods of investigation which had been used for
gas turbine and Table 6 summarizes some studies performed gas turbine years such as microstructural evaluation, visual investigation, metallo­
fuel system with their major findings. graphic analysis, FEM, SEM, XRD, ANSYS, etc.
Alternative and sustainable fuel sources should be pursued in
8. Recommendations and future prospects research and applications which can be beneficial in the future carbon-
restricted trends. This will help the concerned individuals to move to­
The working fluid should be selected carefully for gas turbines wards sustainable goals in fuel consumption. At the same time, this will
considering the type of gas turbine, performance expectations and help in moving towards the greener side in the field of electricity gen­
operating procedures or requirements. Comprehensive study with ex­ eration. Effective cooling methods should be introduced to ensure the
perimentations is required to be done in order to obtain a concise review durability of the whole gas turbine system. To reduce the high temper­
of the working fluids, their impacts on performance on different types of ature of air, evaporative cooling is an option which mainly depends on
gas turbines in the future studies. This can help the experts to make a the ambient air’s relative humidity. This system is suitable and efficient
constructive and scientific recommendations in the selection of working for dry and hot environments instead of humid and hot ones. To enhance
fluids. the effectiveness of evaporative inlet cooling, desiccants should be
Despite the tremendous research on improvising turbine blade ma­ implemented to dehumidify air. From a comparative study [133] it
terial and TBC, the failure of gas turbine blades is still imminent due to presents that if media evaporative cooling is introduced, it is not rec­
improper loading, mechanical vibrations, and fatigue. It is thus essential ommended to incorporate simple mechanical vapor compression.
to simultaneously analyze the effects of both blade material and extreme Rather than that subcooling multistage compressor arrangement which
stress conditions to further minimize failure due to thermal and

16
T.S. Chowdhury et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100329

Table 6 cycle, capacity, and service time. Moreover, this paper creates scopes
Studies on gas turbine fuel system. and motivation for further research on improved gas turbines in the
Year Literature Key Findings Applications Limitations power industry relative to steam turbines and diesel engines. The key
findings of this review study are summarized below:
2011 Jones et al. Fuels for gas Gas turbine fuel No comparative
[125] turbines system design for study or guide for
power plants fuel selection • Working fluid should be selected carefully mainly in respect of
2019 Chen et al. RP-3 and n- In selection of fuel Studied few environmental and economic considerations. Appropriate working
[127] decane fuel with stabilized numbers of fuels, fluid selection depends on the type of gas turbine. For example, for
burn with characteristics more
stabilized flame and optimum experimental and
closed cycle gas turbines, Air, Helium, and helium/carbon dioxide
at low inlet air inlet air numerical gas mixtures are found as suitable working fluids. The handling of
temperature. temperature in approaches are respective gas turbines also needs caution when it comes to using
aircraft. suggested different working fluids.
2019 Marin et al. The Fuel must be Fuel composition
• The composition of fuel has an impact on the modes of operations,
[126] composition of selected with of different fields
fuel gas has precaution in are different, so efficiency, and exhaustion. Along with conventional fuels, alterna­
effects on the power plants experimental data tive fuels like biogas for gasification, biogas for waste mechaniza­
modes of may not be useful tion, biogas for slow pyrolysis, and industrial process gases rich in
operation, hydrogen. esters, flash pyrolysis oils, etc. are getting the interest of
efficiency etc. of
gas turbines
engineers and policymakers.
2005 Chiesa Hydrogen can A cleaner fuel More practical • Natural gas, the most widely used fuel in gas turbines, has a Lower
et al. be used in place source can be research need to Heating Value of 30,000–45,000 kJ/Nm3. For Liquid fuel, this value
[132] of natural gas employed in large be done is 32,000–45,000 kJ/Nm3, for High LHV gaseous fuel
when some size and heavy-
45,000–190,000 kJ/Nm3, Medium LHV gaseous fuel 11,200–30,000
design considers duty power plants
was considered kJ/Nm3, Low/Ultra LHV gaseous fuel < 11,200 kJ/Nm3, and for
2020 Fauzan Calophyllum Could assist gas Feasibility study High hydrogen gaseous fuel 5500–11,200 kJ/Nm3.
et al. inophyllum turbine operator could be done • At higher than 1600 ◦ C TIT, modern GT operates. Because of high
[129] biodiesel can be to select biodiesel parameters, high temperature components and materials are
a promising for power
required. That’s why advanced cooling systems and thermal barrier
feedstock generation
2009 Moliere Field test shows Could assist gas The scale, cycle of coatings are necessary. As a coolant, steam is much more efficient
et al. that bio- turbine operator the system and than air when the conditions are under the same parameters because
[131] ethanol, to select bio- the of steam’s higher thermal capability and higher Prandtl number. On
particularly ethanol for power environmental
the other hand, high efficiency is achievable by merging preheating
mixtures of generation conditions should
naphtha/bio- be kept in mind fuel, recuperation, and injection of steam. Adding cooling system to a
ethanol can be before practical powerplant increases the overall thermal efficiency by more than
an excellent fuel applications 1%.
2004 Gökalp Alternative fuel Selection of fuel Detailed research • In order to achieve optimum turbine performance, the selection of
and Lebas sources for gas considering is not done
blade material and geometric construction of gas turbine is vital.
[128] turbines economic and
environmental Various studies are reviewed and compared among several suitable
aspects in turbine blade materials. Titanium, Inconel, and Nimonic 80A are
industrial gas regarded to be the most feasible material in terms of load analysis,
turbines
stress analysis, and modal analysis.
• In addition, centrifugal force is the leading cause of blade failure.
is attached with a single effect refrigeration system (LiBr-H2O-absorp­ Furthermore, to protect turbine blades from extreme thermal loads
tion) and a wet cooled condenser shows higher effectiveness. and pressure, Partially Stabilized Zirconia (PSZ) is found to be the
In a gas turbine system, to boost the power as well as enhance the most suitable material as Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC) and turbine
efficiency, evaporative cooling method is much cheaper and more blades gave optimum performance at 550 µm thickness of PSZ and
effective than cooling coil system because of its requirement of high blade profile of 72.5◦ bent angle.
power to maintain the vapor compression refrigeration sector [134]. In • From the failure analyses, it can be concluded that the main reasons
another study [135] three different cooling methods were implemented for the failure of different components include hot corrosion, erosion,
to find out the most efficient one. Three methods are: Incorporating (1) thermal fatigue, creep failures, deformation of microstructure,
Mechanical chiller; (2) Evaporative media and (3) Turbo-expander in oxidation of edges and precipitation of carbides, etc. Turbine blades
the place of throttling valves. Among them incorporating account for more than 42% of gas turbine failures. There’s definite
turbo-expander is the cheapest to improve the performance. Thus, the need for identifying different causes and effects of failure modes and
future prospect of gas cooling system is in the hands of engineers, users, troubleshooting with the help of various design evaluation tools. In
suppliers who can give inputs in the implementation of the system. New order to avoid different types of failures, some recommendations are
innovations of individuals will play vital role to achieve higher gas mentioned earlier. The most important ones are to implement
turbine efficiency in the long run. different types of coatings to protect blades and other components
and provide suitable blade cooling system to the gas turbine units.
9. Conclusions • However, exhaust stream of open cycle turbine used in large scale
operations contains more than 60% of the total energy output.
The key findings of various papers are being summarized and Therefore, there’s huge scope for heat recovery applications which
compared. In the present work, at first, the general concepts and theories are usually known as advanced cycles with higher efficiency and
about gas turbines cooling system and failures are introduced so that it improved performance.
could be easier to interpret and grasp the research works that have been
reviewed. This work also classifies all the literature in tabular forms Declaration of Competing Interest
based on types of cooling medium, blade materials, thermodynamic
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

17
T.S. Chowdhury et al.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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