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ARTICLE INFO
Article ID: 03-16-05-0041
© 2023 SAE International
doi:10.4271/03-16-05-0041

Experimentally Based Methodology

to Evaluate Fuel Saving and CO2
Reduction of Electrical Engine
Cooling Pump during Real Driving
Marco Di Bartolomeo,1 Davide Di Battista,1 and Roberto Cipollone 1
1
University of L’Aquila, Department of Industrial and Information Engineering and Economics, Italy

History
Abstract Received: 21 Oct 2022
Engine thermal management (ETM) is a promising technology that allows the reduction of harmful Revised: 01 Jan 2023
emissions and fuel consumption when the internal combustion engine (ICE) is started from a cold Accepted: 22 Feb 2023
state. The key technology for ETM is the decoupling of the cooling pump from the crankshaft and e-Available: 09 Mar 2023
the actuation of the pump independently. In this article, an electric engine cooling pump has been
designed through a novel experimentally based procedure and operated on a vehicle equipped with Keywords
an advanced turbocharged gasoline engine, particularly interesting for its hybridization potential. Energy saving, Vehicle
In the first phase, a dedicated experimental campaign was conducted off board on an engine iden- consumption, CO2 emission,
tical to the one equipped in the vehicle to assess the characteristics of the cooling circuit and the Pump, Engine cooling
reference pump performances. The experimental data have been used to design an electric pump
with a best efficiency point (BEP) located in a region more representative of the real operating Citation
conditions faced by the vehicle during real driving. Once prototyped, the electric pump has been Di Bartolomeo, M., Di
compared to the reference mechanical one on a real driving mission profile whose parameters have Battista, D., and Cipollone,
been experimentally evaluated. The comparison was made in the same operating conditions of flow R., “Experimentally Based
rate and the pressure head acting on the revolution speed of the prototype to focus the attention Methodology to Evaluate
on the effect of the different design choices made possible by the electric actuation. The procedure Fuel Saving and CO2
can evaluate the pump-related fuel consumption, whatever the real vehicle speed profile and the Reduction of Electrical
Engine Cooling Pump during
actuation of the pump. The results show that in a driving cycle with urban, extra-urban, and highway
Real Driving,” SAE Int. J.
phases, the electric pump absorbs 66% less power compared to the mechanical one, which translates Engines 16(5):693-707, 2023,
into a 0.55 gCO2/km specific emission reduction. This demonstrates the validity of the novel design doi:10.4271/03-16-05-0041.
procedure together with the benefits of the electric actuation.
ISSN: 1946-3936
e-ISSN: 1946-3944

693
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694 Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023
Introduction
T
he main effort of the research in the transportation
sector is focused on the reduction of harmful pollutant
emissions and, in particular CO2, for the effect it has
on global warming. To achieve these goals, electric powertrains
are gradually replacing internal combustion engines (ICEs)
[1]. The adoption of electric vehicles certainly allows the reduc-
tion of pollutants emissions during the “on-use” phase; never-
theless, these are not zero, considering the whole life cycle of
electric vehicles and the used electrical energy [1]. Moreover,
hydrogen powertrains fed by fuel cells and hydrogen-fueled
ICEs are real candidates to lead the decarbonization of the
transportation sector [2, 3]. Indeed, the use of green hydrogen
(i.e., based on renewable sources) is essential to achieve low
carbon and energy footprints [4, 5]. The use of biofuels has a
good potential to decarbonize the transportation sector too,
considering they have near-zero CO2 emission from a life cycle
perspective [6, 7].
Therefore, waiting for green electricity and green
hydrogen on a wide scale, the technological improvement of
ICEs will play a fundamental role in this transition period
toward a decarbonized path [8]. Combustion improvement
[9, 10, 11], eco-driving [12, 13], use of biofuels [13, 14], and
waste heat recovery technologies [15, 16, 17, 18, 19] are
certainly interesting solutions, which allow achieving an
improvement of engine efficiency and, thus, a reduction of the
emitted CO2. Besides these technologies, an effective alterna-
tive approach is the reduction of mechanical losses [20]. The
concept of engine downsizing, which determines an impor-
tant reduction of parasitic friction and pumping losses, goes
in this direction [21]. The downsizing concept can be success-
fully integrated with ICEs hybridization, achieving substantial
fuel economy benefits compared to traditional and hybrid
vehicles [22]. Downsizing is also associated with weight reduc-
tion, which reduces propulsion power and, definitively,
specific consumptions.
Another opportunity to increase ICE efficiency is related
to the field of engine thermal management (ETM) [23]. It
considers improving the engine performance and reducing
tailpipe emissions by managing the thermal level of the
metallic masses, the temperature behavior of lubricating and
cooling fluids (in particular in the warm-up phase) and
possibly integrating other energy needs of the engine and the
vehicle. New components like heat pumps have been also
considered to improve thermal management [24] and overall
thermal comfort. The potentiality of the recovery of the wasted
heat and the choice of better heat transfer components are
worthy of attention [25] for ETM as well as technologies for a
faster lubricating oil warm-up [26, 27]. The benefits in terms
of mechanical efficiency are related to the reduction of friction
losses [28]. Moreover, during the warm-up phase, only a small
amount of combustion energy is provided to the lubricant oil
[29], which does not sustain rapid heating. Frictional losses of
ring packs, for instance, are sensibly affected by the oil temper-
ature [30], and oil thermal management assumes a funda-
mental role. To reduce the warm-up time, the adoption of a
modified oil sump is proposed in [31] to temporarily reduce
the amount of oil aspirated by the oil pump. Oil warm-up is
accelerated as the oil is remixed with a smaller cold oil quantity
inside the sump. A combination with preheating using exhaust
gases produces a significant heat-up shortening [32]. Moreover,
the electrification of the lubricating oil pump contributes to
the reduction of the warm-up time [33] because of the possi-
bility to precisely control the oil flow rate.
Moreover, an ETM based on the improvement of the
coolant and, thus, the metallic masses of the engine can
improve combustion efficiency and reduce harmful forma-
tions inside the cylinders. The main reasons for the emission
benefits are related to the improved combustion whose propa-
gation, regardless of the type of fuel (flame front advancement
in gasoline engines or fuel jet oxidation in compression
ignition engines), is sensibly affected by the overall thermal
environment of the surfaces exposed to the combustion gases.
An important opportunity is represented by the definition of
different cooling strategies, which can provide a faster
warm-up of the metallic masses [34, 35]. Similar advantages
can be also obtained by splitting the cooling circuit for
separate head and block temperature optimization [36] or by
integrating different components or engine/vehicle sources
and sinks [37, 38]. When a different control strategy is imple-
mented, an independent actuation of the engine coolant pump
is needed. In this way, at cold start the coolant flow rate can
be minimized, reducing the heat exchanged with the engine
and reducing the warm-up time. A faster warm-up is associ-
ated with improved combustion which, in turn, produces
benefits in terms of fuel consumption, pollutants, and CO2
emissions. Different solutions have been investigated in recent
years to perform this task [39]. Mechanical variable speed
pumps can satisfy this need using electromagnetic clutches
[40] or additional guide vanes [41]. A more sophisticated
option is presented in [42] where a hybrid pump adopting
both a mechanical and electric actuation is proposed. However,
more recently, electric components have been considered
when developing advanced thermal management systems [43,
44, 45]. The main advantages over previous applications reside
in the capability to continuously adjust the speed and, conse-
quently, the coolant flow rate, avoiding design, drive, and
operating losses [46]. Moreover, the adoption of electric pumps
can be useful to face additional issues such as knock and after-
boiling phenomena [47, 48].
Moreover, in conventional engine cooling circuits, the
coolant pump is a belt- or gear-driven device. This produces
significant variations and continuous off-design operating
conditions, which imply a loss of efficiency and, definitively,
an increase in fuel consumption and CO2 emissions [23].
Indeed, the coolant pump is generally designed on the
maximum engine load when the maximum thermal power is
transferred to the coolant (Best Efficiency Point—BEP).
Nevertheless, in real operating conditions, the pump works
far from BEP, with a consequent significant reduction of the
expected efficiency; in fact, centrifugal pumps have an overall
efficiency, which is strongly dependent on flow rates and speed
of rotation [49, 50]. At the BEP, the inlet velocity triangle (in
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Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023
particular relative speed) matches with the geometry of the
blade at the leading edge, ensuring a minimum incidence
angle, which prevents an early flow separation. In [51], a new
design criterion more oriented to an average working condi-
tion of the pump during real working conditions was adopted,
achieving a reduction of 15% of absorbed mechanical energy
compared to a conventional solution with the design operating
condition fixed in correspondence of the engine maximum
power. The comparison was made on a series of operating
points corresponding to a WLTC (Worldwide Harmonized
Light Vehicles Test Cycle) type approval cycle, which is
different from a real operation even though it tries to reproduce
a mix between urban and extra-urban driving. The advantages
introduced by the pump electrification (whose flow rate and
speed of rotation can be managed in similarity conditions
guaranteeing a reduced incidence angle at the blade inlet)
when vehicles perform homologation cycles on chassis dyna-
mometers are demonstrated [52]. Nevertheless, in literature,
there is a lack of knowledge about the benefits assessment when
a Real Driving Emission (RDE) test procedure was performed.
It was introduced by the European Union (EU) in the Euro 6d
standard [53] to take into account the differences observed
between a type-approval cycle and on-the-road driving [54].
EU Regulation 2016/427 defines the rules for RDE, as well as
the way to evaluate harmful emissions. In reality, RDE tests
also are characterized by uncertainties; trip selection,
boundary environmental conditions, and data analysis
methods limit the test reproducibility [44, 50, 55, 56, 57, 58].
Harmful emissions and fuel consumption, which straightfor-
wardly define CO2 emissions, are dependent on real driving,
and the RDE conditions of Regulation 2016/427 are not enough
to univocally specify environmental vehicle performances.
Considering all these aspects, in this article, the benefits
introduced by a crankshaft-independent cooling pump on
fuel consumption and CO2 emissions were evaluated over a
real driving test procedure. The electric pump design was
conducted according to the real hydraulic characteristics of
the engine. Indeed, the design operating condition was chosen
corresponding to a hydraulic resistance curve positioned
between the closed and opened thermostat curves. This design
choice allowed the operation of the pump at higher efficiencies
due to the higher proximity of the best efficiency point to the
real operating conditions imposed by the vehicle during a real
driving mission profile. Thus, the traditional mechanically
driven cooling pump of a small, turbocharged gasoline engine
was substituted with an electric one, in this way suitably
designed. The energy absorbed by the two pumps during a
real driving is assessed, when the same flow rate is delivered
toward the cooling circuit. The energy difference determines
a not negligible variation in fuel consumption and CO2 emis-
sions showing the capability of the pump electrification to
improve the environmental performance of the engine.
Therefore, an experimentally based procedure has been
developed to evaluate the instantaneous performance of the
cooling pump on board. The measuring of the requested quan-
tities on board would require invasive instrumentation (flow-
meters on each branch of the cooling circuit, pressure
695
transducers, torquemeter on the pump), which cannot
be managed on board, because of limited room on the engine
bay and additional data acquisition equipment. The novel
procedure here developed aims at reconstructing instanta-
neously the performance of a cooling pump when it is
equipped in a vehicle performing a real driving test.
The procedure starts with the reconstruction of the
cooling circuit off-board the vehicle. So a wide experimental
activity was done monitoring on a similar not-running engine
(simulacrum) all the engine cooling branches (with the same
components on board). Flow rates were directly measured as
well as pressure upstream and downstream of each branch
and component. On the simulacrum, the original pump was
actuated measuring its performances (flow rate, pressure rise,
mechanical power, and efficiency) reproducing a driving cycle.
This was possible thanks to a dynamic cooling pump test
bench, which is able to drive a pump mechanically or electri-
cally according to a high-frequency sequence of speed value.
The position of the electric coolant pump has been evaluated
according to the available space in the engine compartment
and accurately reproduced on the simulacrum. Moreover,
current and voltage measurements were set up to evaluate the
electric power absorption. The thermostat opening and closing
sequence were reproduced on the simulacrum, and the corre-
sponding positions were identified by the hydraulic perme-
abilities of different branches: in this way, during the real
engine operation on the vehicle, from temperature measure-
ment, the status of the thermostat (degree of opening and
closing) can be identified. So, for each operating condition of
the engine on the vehicle, flow rates produced by the original
pump as if it were driven by the crankshaft can be simulated
as well as the thermostat position. When the original pump
is substituted by the newly designed electrical one, a suitable
actuation of its speed guarantees the same flow rates on each
branch. Once known the hydraulic resistance of the cooling
circuit given by the thermostat lift and the cooling flow rate,
the rotational speed of the electric water pump can
be uniquely determined.
Hence, an on-the-road driving test was performed with
the vehicle, registering only the global positioning system
(GPS) (speed, altitude) and a few engine data (particularly the
temperature of the coolant, engine speed, and fuel consump-
tion). The specific procedure was triggered by the field data of
the vehicle and calculated the performances of the pumps,
reproducing the RDE transient cycle. In this way, the newly
designed electrical pump has been compared with the
mechanically driven one, evaluating the benefits in terms of
fuel consumption and emission during a real mission of
the vehicle.
Material and Methods
The analysis has been mainly conducted through experi-
mental tests, on which a procedure to evaluate the onboard
performance of the cooling circuit has been built.
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696 Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023
Experimental Campaign
A specific engine cooling test bench has been built to charac-
terize the hydraulic performance of the pump and to measure
the hydraulic resistance of all the components of a not-running
engine (simulacrum) equal to the one which operates on board
the tested vehicle. Figure 1 shows the test bench layout. It
reproduces with care the cooling circuit of the engine when
it operates on board, having used the same components
installed on the vehicle. Two different main branches have
been reproduced. The first is always active and ensures the
coolant flow in the water jackets, in the cabin heater and the
coolant-oil heat exchanger, expansion tank, etc. All these
components were the ones mounted on board (being the
original equipment manufacturer [OEM] type). The second
branch opens when the thermostat lifts because of the
increased temperature of the coolant. The radiator and the
returning pipes were positioned on it. Lengths and diameters
of pipes and heights of components were respected as in
reality. Very slight modifications were made to the connecting
pipes to place the sensors (f lowmeters, thermocouples,
pressure gauges). The partial opening and closing of the ther-
mostat were reproduced using spacers of different lengths,
which imposed a certain lift on the thermostat valve. When
it is partially opened (at a specific temperature of the cooling
fluid), most of the flow rate delivered by the pump is sent to
the radiator, to be cooled by the outside air coming through
the car grill with the remaining still evolving in the water
jackets, water oil heat exchanger, and cabin heater.
The OEM pump, as it is mounted, is driven by an electric
three-phase motor through a variable-frequency drive. Torque
and effective rotational speed have been measured by a
torquemeter. For each component of the test bench, i.e., engine
block, radiator, cabin heater, and oil exchanger, pressure drop
has been measured for a complete characterization of the
circuit. At last, the reserve tank has been pressurized to avoid
cavitation phenomena when the pump runs, thus reproducing
FIGURE 1 Test bench cooling circuit layout, with sensors of
pressure, temperature, flow, and mechanical power.
© SAE International
FIGURE 2 Picture of the specific engine cooling circuit test
bench realized.
Engine
simulacrum Radiator
Data acquisition
system
Pump –
torquemeter
© SAE International
Cabin - motor
heater
its real behavior. Flowrates were measured on each branch as
well as pressures downstream and upstream of each compo-
nent of the circuit.
The newly developed electrical pump is actuated by a 48V
direct current (DC) motor and mounted on the simulacrum
in the same relative position it will be mounted on board
the vehicle.
Figure 2 shows a picture of the test bench, with ticks on
the corresponding components. An anti-vibration table has
been adopted as support for the electric motor and the
torquemeter, while the alignment is guaranteed by two flexible
couplings. In the data acquisition system, electric input/output
signals are managed by a LabVIEW® script through three
National Instrument acquisition boards.
The results of the hydraulic characterization of the
components, in terms of flow rate versus pressure drop, are
presented in Figure 3. The engine block is the most permeable
component, while the cabin heater (“heater core”) and the oil
exchanger (HX) give the main resistance to the circuit.
A particular focus has been given to the thermostat
behavior. It is necessary to characterize its opening/closing
curve to have the possibility to evaluate the flow rate in the
different branches of the cooling circuit as a function of its
opening/closing that is, on the road, related to the temperature
of the cooling fluid. The characteristic of the opening curve
of the thermostat has been done offline, thanks to the electrical
heating of the thermostat itself. Therefore, it has been gradu-
ally heated up and contextually the lift and the temperature
of the stem measured with a K-thermocouple (Figure 4).
The characterization of the opening/closing of the ther-
mostat as a function of the temperature is shown in Figure 5,
where the usual hysteretic behavior of the spring is evident.
The thermostat opens the branch toward the radiator at 60°C,
reaching its full opening at 130°C. Data have been obtained
by measuring the thermostat lift with a linear gauge, while
heating the wax thermostat through a 12V DC electrical
heater, modulating the current to stabilize the temperature in
each experimental working point, represented by squares in
Figure 5. The assumption is that the temperature of the stem
(which has been measured) approaches the coolant
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Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023 697

FIGURE 3 Pressure drop versus flow rate for the cooling FIGURE 5 Experimental characterization of the lift versus
circuit components. temperature profile of the thermostat.
© SAE International

© SAE International

temperature. Subsequently, two fitting curves, one for
increasing temperature (opening thermostat curve) and a
second one for decreasing temperature (closing), have been
plotted (dashed lines of Figure 5). It is worth noting that at
the beginning of the closing curve, the experimental tempera-
ture tends to go down quickly, due to the higher thermal
exchange with the environment.
The OEM pump of the engine has been fully tested on
the test bench, varying its revolution speed. Nine different
thermostat opening/closing degrees have been considered.
Figure 6 shows the characteristic map of the pump in a usual
operating region for engine cooling applications, where the
best efficiency point (equal to 17.0% at 5800 RPM), is located
at 114 L/min and 1.89 bar, demonstrating the usual overdesign
of the centrifugal pumps for this kind of applications. It is
worth noting the peculiar slopes of the efficiency contours
which suggest that the highest efficiency region of the pump
map is located outside the operating region comprised between
the open and closed thermostat curves.
A new pump has been developed considering two main
aspects: the hydraulic characteristic of the engine and the
FIGURE 6 Characteristic map of the OEM pump. Efficiency
iso-contours have been reported with a fixed step of 2%.

FIGURE 4 Thermostat opening characterization testing.

© SAE International

© SAE International
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698 Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023

actual operating conditions of the thermostat during real FIGURE 7 Characteristic map of the electric pump.
driving. Indeed, the design point (i.e., BEP) has been fixed at Efficiency iso-contours (in blue) have been reported with a
an intermediate curve between the open and closed thermo- fixed step of 5%. Circles represent experimental working
stat curves (red dashed lines of Figure 7). It is important to points; black lines are the iso-speed curves. Red dashed lines
note that the design point of mechanical engine coolant are the circuit curves at the minimum and maximum opening
pumps cannot be arbitrarily chosen. According to the engine degrees of the thermostat.
operating conditions at maximum power, the mechanical
pump must be designed to deliver a sufficient flow rate at a
rotational speed strictly dependent on the engine speed and
the gear ratio. For this reason, it is bound to frequently run
in off-design operating conditions with poor performances.
On the other hand, a downsized electric pump specifically
designed for a lower engine load region allows better perfor-
mances in the most frequent working conditions [51, 52] and,
at the same time, guarantees to satisfy the engine thermal
needs at maximum power by properly adjusting its rotational
speed independently. Nonetheless, this feature should not
influence the energy absorbed during a mission profile given
the very low frequency of this maximum operating condition
to occur in real driving. Reliability issues of electric motors
and electronic boards must deserve particular attention in
the automotive sector. Noise, electromagnetic interferences,
overheating, and loss of properties are causes of failures. For

this reason, before the hydraulic characterization of the
electric prototype, a dedicated experimental campaign verified
a reliable operation, also intensifying the operating conditions
(coolant temperature, speed of rotation, environmental
temperature, etc.). Regarding the hydraulic characterization,
the electric pump was tested in the same experimental setup
with some minor modifications. It was placed in the front of
the engine right below the coolant tank to guarantee a proper
deaeration of the circuit and in agreement with the space
available in the engine compartment of the vehicle. Being the
OEM pump integrated into the engine block, its function was
avoided by removing the pump impeller and rearranging the
fluid sealing. This produced negligible variations in the
hydraulic resistance of the circuits. The electric pump was
powered by a 48V DC power supply and actuated through a
voltage analog signal. Voltage and DC were measured to also
consider the efficiencies of the inverter and electric motor. The
maximum overall efficiency is 47.7% at 60 L/min and 1.55 bar.
Unlike the OEM pump, it is worth noting that, for each rota-
tional speed, the maximum efficiency is reached inside the
operating conditions imposed by the engine as can be seen
from the representation of the experimental efficiency
contours in Figure 7 (blue lines).
On-Board Energy
Performance Evaluation
Procedure
The testing on the simulacrum test bench has been funda-
mental in the development of a procedure to evaluate in a
simpler way the performances of the OEM pump on board
the vehicle and the eventual energy benefits related to its
replacement with an electrified one.
© SAE International
Indeed, once the hydraulic behavior of each branch of the
cooling circuit with its components (thermostat, heat
exchangers, junctions, etc.) has been experimentally obtained,
only a few additional measurements are needed on board, to
reconstruct the hydraulic behavior of the circuit and the
mechanical/electrical power absorbed by the pump. In partic-
ular, the characteristic of each ith component/branch (Δpi vs
Qi—Equation 1) is necessary to evaluate the instantaneous
equilibrium of the circuit with the coolant pump.
Qi  f  pi  Eq. (1)
Engine coolant temperature Teng measured within the
thermostat, i.e., at the engine outlet, is used to evaluate the
thermostat lift (previously experimentally characterized) and,
therefore, the pressure drop across the engine ΔpTH when the
thermostat has different lifts. In this way, the full hydraulic
behavior of the circuit can be reconstructed and, thus, the
flow rate delivered by the pump.
Hence, knowing the instantaneous engine speed
measured by onboard diagnostics (OBD) and the gear ratio
of the OEM pump, its mechanical performance can be calcu-
lated (instantaneous mechanical power POEM, efficiency ηOEM,
and energy absorbed during a driving cycle EOEM ). Then,
assuming that the same flow rate should be delivered by the
new electrical pump EP (to guarantee the thermal needs of
the engine instantaneously), also the new performance can
be evaluated since the circuit is the same, as well as the
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Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023 699

pressure head given by the pump Δppump. At the same time,
the revolution speed, which delivers the same flow rate as the
new pump nEP, can be calculated (it is a unique value when
the characteristic curves of the electrical water pump are
known). Considering the proper efficiency of the electric
battery, the final mechanical energy saved ΔEpump can be esti-
mated, during a vehicle mission.
Finally, thanks to on-the-road measurements of the
vehicle speed V and altitude (road grade αroad) during a driving
cycle, the propulsive energy can be calculated Eprop (Equation
2), knowing the geometrical characteristic of the vehicle (mass
M, road-tire friction coefficient f, frontal area S, and drag
coefficient Cx).
thermostat lift and, consequently, the hydraulic resistance of
the cooling circuit. Knowing this parameter, together with
the engine speed and the transmission ratio between the
engine and pump shaft, it is possible to calculate the equilib-
rium of the pump with the circuit, which means the pump
flow rate and pressure rise. For a certain flow rate and valve
lift, the pressure head is uniquely determined and so is the
pump mechanical power from the off-board experimental
characterization. Other measurements such as fuel consump-
tion are used to correlate the results with real CO2 emission
reduction in the mission profile.

 dV 1  Results and Discussion

E PROP   M  Mg  sin   f cos    C X SV 2 Vdt
 dt 2  The procedure developed has been applied to a vehicle
Eq. (2) propelled by a turbocharged gasoline engine, which has a
strong level of downsizing. This kind of engine is also particu-
When the fuel consumed during the trip is known (by larly suitable for mild hybridization. Table 1 shows the main
direct measurement or by using the OBD data), also the overall features of the vehicle and the engine, some of which are used
efficiency of the propulsive system can be evaluated, and the in the procedure.
mechanical energy saved by the new pump can be reported A mission profile consisting of urban, extra-urban, and
in terms of fuel saved and CO2 emissions reduction. So the highway phases has been conducted taking onboard measure-
weight of the mechanical power of the pump with respect to ments of ECU and GPS data for the evaluation of altitude and
the propulsion power on real driving can be assessed. vehicle speed. Both these parameters have been represented
Figure 8 summarizes the procedure, highlighting the in Figure 9. Vehicle maximum speed has reached almost 130
quantity measured on the off-board test bench (flow rates, km/h during the highway phases. The start and end points of
pressures heads, pump revolution speed and efficiency, ther- the driving cycle were the same, allowing the measurement
mostat lift) and the onboard parameters needed to start the of the most relevant quantities at different altitudes with the
procedure (engine and speed, road grade–altitude, fuel vehicle facing various slopes. The total duration of the test was
consumption, engine coolant temperature profile). 62 min for a distance of 42.2 km. The average vehicle speed
To evaluate OEM and electric pump consumptions, the was 41 km/h.
engine temperature and speed are read from the electronic Thanks to OBD, the engine speed and coolant tempera-
control unit (ECU) data. The former is used to evaluate the tures have been acquired (Figure 10). These quantities have
been used for the determination of the thermostat opening
degree and the pump rotational speed since it is mechanically
FIGURE 8 Schematic diagram of the developed procedure
coupled to the engine shaft with a transmission ratio equal to
highlighting the interconnections between evaluated and 0.9. As Figure 10 shows, the warm-up phase takes about 10
measured data from different components. min; after this period, the thermostat starts to open and the
cooling fluid crosses the radiator. Figure 10 highlights the
(Q;Δp)radiator intervention of the radiator, which stops the temperature
Off-board (Q;Δp)cabin heater increase of the cooling fluid. After this, the coolant follows
experimental hydraulic (Q;Δp)oil HX temperature oscillations, which mainly are the results of the
POEM
characterization (Q;Δp)pump thermal power exchanged toward the coolant fluid by the
OEM ηOEM
engine and that toward the external air through the radiator.
ΔpTH pump EOEM
neng
liftTH
Thermostat TABLE 1 Engine and vehicle data.
(Q;Δp)pump
PEP Displaced volume 1300 cc
Teng ηbattery Electric ηEP Number of cylinders 4 in-line
neng pump EEP Rated power 110 kW
Fuel
On-board nEP Charging Wastegate turbocharger
measurement V
© SAE International

© SAE International

αroad Fuel feeding Direct injection

ΔEpump
Drag coefficient 0.36
Eprop Results Δfuel Frontal area 2.661 m2
Propulsion ΔCO2
Rated fuel consumption 18.2 km/L
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700 Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023
FIGURE 9 GPS data of the mission profile.
Unsteady thermal phenomena are certainly present (heat
accumulation or rarefaction inside components and inside
the cooling fluid too) but they have second-order importance.
Two engine stops occur between 2000 s and 2500 s, due to the
activation of the Start and Stop device of the vehicle.
Instantaneous propulsive power can be evaluated
according to Equation 2 from onboard and GPS measurements
(Figure 11). The instantaneous maximum power is slightly
over 100 kW, and it is achieved at approximately 2500 s when
the vehicle is facing a significant slope and a greater torque is
needed. The average mechanical power in the mission profile
is 9.8 kW. The integration of the instantaneous values of the
FIGURE 10 Engine speed and coolant temperature during the RDE test.
© SAE International
propulsion power allows the evaluation of the overall mechan-
ical energy requested by the mission which stands at 36.5 MJ.
Once the vehicle performances are evaluated, the focus
is moved toward the coolant pump.
Figure 12 shows the flow rates and the pressure head given
by the pump during the mission profile, according to the
developed procedure and considering the OEM pump. In the
first 10 min, during the warm-up phase, the thermostat is
closed and the flow rate is low. After this period, the coolant
flow rate significantly increases due to the reduction of the
hydraulic resistance of the circuit given by the opening of the
thermostat. Flow rates delivered and pressure at the pump
© SAE International
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Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023 701

FIGURE 11 Instantaneous propulsive power of the vehicle.

© SAE International

outlet fit according to the equivalent hydraulic resistance of As the electric pump is designed for a lower flow rate, the
the cooling circuit seen by the pump. No delays are observed revolution speed of the latter is higher with respect to the OEM
between these properties meaning that the pressurization and pump. So a suitable revolution speed control of the electric
flow delivery is a quasi-steady phenomenon. pump is sufficient to guarantee the desired flow rate which
Knowing the values of the flow rate and pressure head of acts as a time-varying set point. The evolution of the pump
the OEM pump, it has been possible to compare the perfor- speed is reported in Figure 13.
mances of this latter with the new electric pump. This compar- The mechanical power needed by the OEM pump is
ison has been conducted considering the same hydraulic shown in Figure 14. The hydraulic power given to the coolant
parameters to guarantee the engine cooling needs in both is the same for the OEM and electric water pump. The differ-
cases. The rotation speed of the electric pump has been evalu- ence in terms of power is due to the different pump instanta-
ated for this purpose, ensuring the same flow rate at any time. neous efficiency (the OEM type has a BEP at 114 L/min; the

FIGURE 12 Pressure head and coolant flow rates during the RDE test.
© SAE International
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702 Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023
FIGURE 13 Revolution speed of the OEM and electrical pump.
electric one at 60 L/min, which is definitively closer to the
operating conditions encountered during a type approval and
real driving cycles). This new design criterion determined the
operating conditions of the pump closer to its design point,
allowing it to keep the efficiency near the BEP. It is evident in
Figure 14 how the redesigned (electric) water pump absorbs
a significantly lower mechanical power with respect to the
OEM version. The mechanical power stays below 200 W while
the OEM pump absorbed mechanical power has peaks of
600 W and above. The farther the operating condition from
FIGURE 14 Instantaneously pumps power.
© SAE International
the design point the lower the efficiency increasing the amount
of wasted energy for the same hydraulic need.
The higher efficiency of the electric pump determines
lower energy consumption in the mission profile. As reported
in Figure 15, the overall energy absorbed is 100 kJ against the
298 kJ in the OEM case. The resulting saving stands at −66%.
Most of it is obtained in the last phase of the mission profile
where engine loads are higher just like the delivered flow rates.
Figure 16 represents the instantaneous fuel consumption
of the vehicle and the cumulated mechanical energy calculated
© SAE International
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Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023
FIGURE 15 Pumps cumulated energy during RDE.
© SAE International
based on torque and engine speed read from ECU data. The
two trends are in good agreement with the cumulated energy
showing higher slopes for higher fuel rates corresponding to
highway phases. The total cumulated energy reached 36.5 MJ.
Energy savings due to the adoption of the electric pump (198
kJ) represents 0.27% of this amount. Applying this share to
the total fuel consumption evaluated by integrating the fuel
rate on the mission profile, the total fuel savings was approxi-
mately 10 mL. Considering gasoline CO2-specific emissions
of 2.33 kgCO2/L, CO2 emission reduction was 23.3 g or in an
equivalent manner 0.55 g/km.
FIGURE 16 Fuel rate and cumulated mechanical energy of the vehicle in the mission profile.
© SAE International
703
The comparison shows a specific CO2 reduction (referred
to the distance traveled) which is interesting if the electric
water pump is the residual technology usable to fulfill the CO2
emission limit. In this case, the CO2 saved can be converted
into a financial value given by the fines which represent a
penalty for carmakers in Europe. With a rate of 95 Euro for
each gram that exceeds the limit, the “environmental value”
of this technology is 52 Euro, which adds to the real cost of
the pump which has to include the electric motor, the elec-
tronic board, and their integration with the pump. A final
remark is that the CO2 saving considers only the mechanical
energy saved to drive the pump and not the benefits related
to an ETM which is easily implementable on board when the
actuation of the pump is not linked to the crankshaft.
Conclusions
Thermal management of the engine and vehicle is one of the
most promising opportunities to reduce fuel consumption
and emission in the transportation sector. It can also add new
expectations for other thermal needs of the vehicle such as
cabin thermal comfort. Concerning the cooling fluid, the key
component is represented by a circulating pump whose revolu-
tion speed is independent of that of the crankshaft. This allows
controlling the flow rate according to a goal which could
be the fastest engine warm-up.
In this article, an electric water pump has been installed
in a real gasoline downsized turbocharged engine operating on
a mid-class passenger car. The engine has a strong interest to
be fully hybridized. The pump has been redesigned with respect
to the OEM version according to an original design rule which
considers the real engine hydraulic characteristics and the
actual operating conditions during real driving. The OEM water
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704 Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023
pump driven by the crankshaft was designed to have the
maximum efficiency when the engine delivers its maximum
power; being the OEM centrifugal type pump, this produced
low efficiencies in usual real driving. The energy consumption
of the two water pumps has been measured on a real driving of
the vehicle, mixing urban and extra-urban paths. A thorough
experimental activity has been dedicated to the evaluation of
the hydraulic characteristics of the cooling circuits, allowing
the determination of the cooling flow rate circulating in each
branch. As a result, the findings of this campaign permitted
the setting of the electric water pump speed needed to elaborate
the same flow rate of the OEM machine during real driving.
The procedure starts from an off-board experimental
characterization of a similar engine (simulacrum) perfectly
reproducing the cooling circuit of the vehicle in terms of
components (OEM pump, heat exchangers, junctions, radiator,
thermostat, etc.). In this way, it was possible to have an experi-
mental map of each component. In particular, the flow rates
on each branch were directly measured and correlated to
pressure differences upstream and downstream of the branches
themselves. The thermostat at different opening and closing
positions has been fully tested, thus reproducing its status
when the cooling fluid is warmed. So the full real cooling
circuit was characterized in terms of hydraulic resistances
when the pump was entrained, reproducing the speed of
rotation that would be imposed by the mechanical connection
with the crankshaft. For different working points of the pump
(which reproduced different working points of the engine) and
for different positions of the thermostat, a full experimental
characterization was done and, similarly, a theoretical proce-
dure was set up to reconstruct the status of the cooling circuit
from coolant temperature and pump speed measurements.
On the vehicle which was equipped with the same engine
(and cooling circuit), pressure measurements were done
during real operations because these measurements are easily
manageable. Indeed, these data and those acquired by conven-
tional OBD instruments allowed the determination of the flow
rates on each branch and the status of the thermostat. Knowing
the hydraulic power transferred to the fluid and the pump
efficiency previously determined on the test bench, it was
possible to evaluate the instantaneous mechanical power
absorbed by the pump as well as the cumulated energy over
a real driving mission profile. On the vehicle, an electric water
pump was used instead of using the OEM pump; the devel-
oped procedure calculated the speed of revolution which
guarantee the same flow delivered to the cooling circuit. This
parameter is uniquely determined by the hydraulic resistance
of the circuit and the cooling flow rate. Indeed, there is only
one intersection between the characteristic curves of the pump
and the circuit for a given speed. The procedure identifies the
hydraulic status of all the branches and, from the cooling
temperature, the status of the thermostat. The instantaneous
mechanical power and cumulated energy absorbed by the
pump have been calculated for the OEM pump. The mission
profile consisted of a 40-min long test corresponding to
42.2 km with urban, extra-urban, and highway phases. The
cumulative elevation gain was 970 m.
The electrical cooling pump shows very high efficiencies,
with an absorbed energy 66% lower than the mechanical energy
absorbed by the OEM pump. From the calculation of the propul-
sive power of the vehicle during the test, the energy saving
corresponds to about 0.27% of the overall propulsive energy.
Moreover, from the evaluation of the fuel consumption on the
vehicle during the driving test, approximately 10.4·10−3 L of
gasoline was saved, which corresponds to 23.3 gCO2 and 0.55
g/km. Overall, the experimental results showed that the electric
pump prototype can operate at part load with greater efficiency
compared to its mechanical counterpart, without determining
any additional time lag in the delivery of the coolant flow rate
with respect to the mechanical actuation. This result has been
achieved thanks to a proper downsizing of the component and
a suitable choice of the best efficiency point which did not under-
mine the pump capability to deliver sufficient coolant flow rate
for engine operating conditions at maximum load. The applica-
tion of this methodology could be useful also in different
engines since no specific constraints related to the target vehicle
have been introduced. Moreover, for example, in heavy-duty
applications, space availability does not represent a serious issue
leaving more freedom in the design of the components of the
engine cooling system. However, it is worth noting that such
engines have higher reliability standards which need to be seri-
ously considered in the design phase. The electric motor design
could be reduced in terms of power delivered by considering
hybrid electrical-mechanical solutions for pump driving.
Despite no economic considerations made since
comparing a standard mechanical pump to an electrified
pump would have been unfair, the significant CO2 savings and
the future adoption of electric components in different sectors
could justify the adoption of these systems in the automotive
sector. The value of the fines which should be paid by the car
manufacturers for each gram of CO2 exceeding the fleet
average standards easily justifies the extra cost associated with
the electric water pump. The CO2 savings are certainly greater
than those related to only driving the pump if the additional
benefit of an electrified pump is added in terms of the reduced
warm-up time. Moreover, the associated pollutant reduction
adds interest mainly in urban driving in congested areas.
Acknowledgment
This work is realized in the time framework of “Hyper –
Hybrid Propulsion for Electric Realignment” – POR FESR
2014-2020 - Call HUB Ricerca e Innovazione.
Contact Information
Marco Di Bartolomeo
marco.dibartolomeo2@univaq.it
Davide Di Battista
davide.dibattista@univaq.it
Roberto Cipollone
roberto.cipollone@univaq.it
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Di Bartolomeo et al. / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 16, Issue 5, 2023 705

Definitions/Abbreviations 4. Valente, A., Iribarren, D., Candelaresi, D., Spazzafumo, G.

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2WD - Two-wheel drive
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Cx - Drag coefficient doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.09.059.
DC - Direct current 5. Candelaresi, D., Valente, A., Iribarren, D., Dufour, J. et al.,
“Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen-Fuelled
E - Energy
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EP - Electric pump ijhydene.2021.01.034.
ETM - Engine thermal management 6. Dimitriou, P. and Tsujimura, T., “A Review of Hydrogen as a
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EU - European Union
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f - Road-tire friction coefficient
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ICE - Internal combustion engine
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OEM - Original equipment manufacturer
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p - Pressure on Combustion Improvement Under Heterogeneous
PEMS - Portable emissions measurement system Combustion Field by Using Multi-Impinging Injection
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Q - Flow rate
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