bio Bosc srriags i ge ella wos i SMe Sle ldCdiE si Aol eter ase Wee ole M ure Re Curd es ee poe ras i AS Pech ou aie con caie Nate) aus aU RPO Uae din ea + Diane Dekker, MA. Linguistics Piece cL oun axe rong SAA t eae ae 510 By ec ciCOPYRIGHT... FOREWORD PREFACE TABLE OF CONTENTS Overview of teatage Policy and Practice, eRe in eaucation wag lad Chapter 2 Cy * aN Language Acquisition. Urey 4 First aleeeee my TABLE OF CONTENTS Language Policy and Planning.. Language Policy in the Philippines... The Nature of Human Language. The Study of Human Language.......... The Grammar of Philippine Languages.. Language Change... The Philippine Linguistic Situation... nderstanding Multili Types of Individual Multilingualism .. Multilingualism in society...... Multilingual behaviors.. Benefits of multilingualism .. Multilingualism in the Philippines. Selecting a Medium of Instruction .. Second Language Acquisition. Ells’ Ten Principles for the SLA Classroom lodely of MTBMLE Historical Context of Mother Tongue Based Education ... Models of multilingual education Weak and Strong Forms of MLE Mother Tongue-Based Instruction Bilingual Eduvation .... Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education .. Transitional Multilingual Educatior Maintenance Multilingual Education Immersion or Foreign Language Instruction... lingual Education..TABLE OF ConTENTS Submersion Bilingual Education... Mainstream with Foreign Language Teaching Experimental MT Programs in the Philippines .. Characteristics of Successful MTB MLE Program .. Grey 6 Literaciey iw the Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE); Teaching Strategies... 142 What is Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education MTB-MLE Curriculum Framework Salient Features of MTB-MLE ... Guiding Principles for Teaching and Learning in MTB-MLE | Program Components of MTB-MLE .. | From Theories to Language and Literacy Teaching and Learning: Language Theories and Linguistic Empiricists Domains of Language and Literacy ... ; Strategies for Oral Language Development G Tie | The Dialogic Reading Technique. on The Language Experience Approach Teaching Reading in the Mother Tongue Best Practices in Oral Language and Literacy Learning .. | An Authentic Shared Book Reading Lesson .... A Storytelling Lesson - “The Lesson and the Mouss Teaching Writing in the Mother Tongue .... (BNC Integrating Macro Skin Mother Tongue Leawons..190 | Listening and Speaking Strategies \“" Reading Strategies Writing Acttivties The Lesson Plan ... Preliminary Activities Lesson Presentation « ‘Summary .200 ~ Assessment .. 201 Assignment ... 201 WES ISMM | Historical Background of the L Policy inthe Phiipiney ands-Logal Bast of TB-HLE Historical Development .. Legal Bases of MTB-MLEChapter 1 - Overview of Language Policy and Practice in Education Around the. World 1 Overview of Language Poli oy ad and Practice inv ane Around the World By Catherine M. B. Young, Ph.D, After completing this chapter, the student is expected to: describe contrasting policy environments for language education for learners from non-dominant language communities and approaches to the implementation of MTB-MLE as applied in different national or fegional contexts. * have the confidence to dialogue effectively about policy change and approaches to the implementation of MTB-MLE with stakeholders from multiple sectors. have grown in their capacity to plan and implement advocacy Strategies to better advance and ‘Support language education for speakers of non-dominant language communities, oductiow In this chapter, the phrase language policy will mean the legislation on and practices pertaining to the use of languages in a society — often a nation, whereas the phrase language-in-education policy will be used to describe the legislation on and practices pertaining to languages or media of instruction and languages of literacy used in basic education. As we consider language policy, it’s helpful to review the role of language in society. Language has many forms ~ for example, there is a written form, a spoken form, a formal variety and informal varieties. Language also has many functions — it is used as medium of communication in different places and as language for specific purposes. Language and languages are also given different value by different people. Some languages are considered prestigious while other languages are considered to have less value. This may be Telated to the material qualities of the language — the presence of a writing system or the production of reading materials in that language. Edwards (2009) emphasizes the fact that, in most parts of the World, multilingualism is a reality, linked with geographical and‘Mother Tongue-Baved Muliingual Education: Guide fox Teacher Educators and Students The role of power relations is also an important theme associ ed with civil and international conflict as well as the impact of colonization, More recently, the impact of digital technologies has shaped the ways in which people communicate and choices of when and how different languages are used. When languages come into contact with one another as people move for social, economic, or enforced purposes, the power of a larger or dominant language may cause a non-dominant language to become weaker or to choose to use the non-dominant language in fewer domains. Speakers of non-dominant languages may begin to feel ashamed of their language, believing the dominant language to have greater value. Government policy can contribute both to the revitalisation and to the decline or death of a language. Robinson (2005:3) notes “linguistic diversity should not be seen as an insuperable problem, but as a key factor in designing intervention in literacy and other areas of development. It is not unknown for linguistic diversity to be lauded as an important and valuable manifestation of cultural diversity, while being described in the same context as an impossible problem in terms of educational usage.” The intention in this chapter is to view both multilingualism and multiculturalism from an enabling perspective, countering a deficit perspective on multilingualism, and to acknowledge and affirm the languages of ethnolinguistic communities as a dynamic aspect of their identity. 1. Language Policy and Planning National governments and regional agencies such as ASEAN or the European Union, determine language policies, determine which languages will be used for what purposes, including deciding on the language-in-education policy. Indeed, Tollefson and Tsui (2004:2) note that it is common for the educational argument for a specific language-in-education policy to be subservient to the sociopolitical or economic agenda of the nation, and that responses to multilingualism within a nation can result in a variety of responses from policy makers. Ruiz (1984:17) identifies three perspectives on language planning in multilingual situations. Language can be seen as a problem where multiple languages make mass education difficult and, thus, one language and one culture are preferred and supported, whereas others are less valued. Alternatively, it is possible to view language as a right and determine that speakersChapter 1 - Overview of Language Policy and Practice iwtducatiowAroundtheWorld 3 of non-dominant languages have the right to maintain their ethnolinguistic identity and use their languages in education. From this perspective, linguistic and cultural diversity are encouraged and supported. In addition, in this paradigm, language can be seen as a resource where linguistic and cultural diversity fosters creativity and the exchange of ideas, and all languages are seen as contributing to the richness of the nation, In the following section, examples from different regions of the world illustrate the challenges of determining language policy. 1.1 Africa In the 1960s, a group of linguists from nations in post- colonial Africa and academics from around the world met to discuss the impact of social change and national integration on language use and language development. Ferguson (2006:2) acknowledges the work of Fishman (1968:7) who described the challenges of the language policy issue in these states. as a tension between nationalism — the cultivation of national identity — and nationism — the development of “operational efficiency in administration and economic management for the maintenance of political stability”. The proceedings of this Conference were published in the Fishman, Ferguson & Das Gupta (1968) volume entitled “Language Problems of Developing Nations”. The assumptions behind this title and their implications are worthy of critical analysis, In this context, it could be said that language planning was organized around a European notion of the nation state in which the citizens are “unified around a common language” (Ferguson 2006:4). This led to multilingualism being perceived as inefficient and having the potential to promote disunity in the early years of independence when social cohesion and economic development were core national goals, In these models, planning is assumed to be necessary and desirable, and language planning tends to become a centralised process that is done by those with technical expertise and authority. However, as research on the cognitive and affective benefits of multilingualism has developed and post-colonial confidence has grown — while still concerned about the need to link with new globalization processes and opportunities — academics have increasingly been calling for the role of international/colonial languages such as English, Portuguese and French to have a more restricted role and an increased role to be accorded to African languages. However, this does not always mean that learners are receiving instruction in4 Meter Tongue Based Mutingual Education, Gude for Teacher Educators and Statens Ba ax their mother tongue even though the national languages might still be unknown by learners from rural areas or smaller, non dominant language communities, 1.2 Asia india The Ethnologue lists more than 400 individual languages for India, How does this vast country with a population of over | billion respond to the challenges of linguistic diversity, particularly in the provision of education? In India, Hindi, written in Devanagri script, and English operate as offi languages for central government, but the individual states are given the opportunity to decide what languages they will use for local administration and education. This has resulted in 22 languages being recognized for official purposes in India! and supported through legislation, For example (Edwards 2009:22), Telegu is the official language of Andhra Pradesh and Malayalam in the official language of Kerala State. It would be common in India for people, for example, to speak ‘one of the smaller, non-dominant languages at home, to use a second language in business or the marketplace and, possibly, a third language for educational and government purposes. The language-in-education policy requires states and local authorities to endeavour to provide elementary education in the mother tongue for all linguistic minorities, regardless of whether their language is official in that state. 1.3 Europe The Industrial Revolution, with the increased mechanization of production systems and the move from agriculturally-based economic systems, was a major turning ‘point in social and political history. Until the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the early part of the nineteenth century, communities tended to be geographically isolated and the impact of national culture on local communities was limited (Cartwright 2006:196). This can be seen in the Celtic-speaking peoples of Britain, the Basques in Spain and the Frisians of the Netherlands. However, post-Industrial Revolution, the dominant language communities, often those holding greater political power, adopted an assimilationist approach to national language, education and economic policy, assigning resources based on the potential of communities to ‘tpi /worw.mapsofindia.com/culture/indian-languages htmleee Chapter 1 - Overview of Language Policy and Practice Education Around the World 5 ese contribute to national development strategies. Below are two examples of the ways in which changes in the production mechanism and consequent economic policies impacted language and education strategies, Wales Industrialization and the resultant internal economic migration from more rural counties to South Wales is identified as a key factor in the decline of the Welsh language in the early 20th century (Ferguson 2006:89). This was coupled with migration from England and’ Ireland into South Wales for employment, adding to the Anglicization of the region. This increase in language contact meant that Welsh increasingly became a language that had limited function in a community where English was used in multiple «domains. English speakers remained monolingual and Welsh speakers were required to become bilingual, a unidirectional bilingualism. Culturally, immigration from England to Wales diluted the traditional functions of Welsh language in religious and social life (Edwards 2009:13), replacing them with the political and social institutions of English culture. The exclusion of the Welsh language from formal education, as determined by the 1870 Elementary Education Act (Ferguson 2006:89; Edwards 2009:13), was an additional factor in the decline of Welsh. As English became increasingly used in governance, law and education, the domains in which Welsh was perceived to be functional were reduced and the Welsh language was seen as a cultural artifact, irrelevant to progress and modernity. It was not until the increased nationalism of the 1960’s and beyond that the encroachment of English was addressed. The Welsh Language Act of 1967 gave official equality to Welsh and English but had limited impact on domains of use. One initial and significant victory for activists was the establishment of a Welsh language television channel in 1982. It was not until 1993 that Welsh and English were + -accorded equal status in public life and in legal domains. Bilingual education became a key component in language revitalization in Wales, with an increasing number of children from English-speaking homes learning Welsh in school and becoming functionally multilingual. Luxembourg Language policy in Europé continues to be strongly- rr 6 Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education: Guide for Teacher Educators and Students influenced by social and economic concerns lustrateg by the changes in the language policy in Luxembourg, 4 small nation-state in Western Europe where many of the population are already bilingual or multilingual, particularly in either French or German. The government gave Status to Letzeburgesch by establishing it as the national language in order to forge national and cultural cohesion and to mitigate against the linguistic influences from neighboring countries However, as documented by Canagarajah (Ricento 2006: 160) the move from an industrial economy to Luxembourg’s development as a center for the international banking sector has emphasized the need for Luxembourg’s citizens to become increasingly fluent in English, French and German. Education in Luxembourg includes the more dominant regional languages from the early grades, with the goal that, by the end of secondary school, learners will be sufficiently trilingual to use Letseburgesch, French and German for a variety of purposes, 2. Language Policy in the Philippines lipino perspective on the challenges of A scene-setting Fi (1999:113) who language and education is offered by Bautista notes that, “The language problem of the Philippines, according to most Filipino sociolinguists, is the problem of reconciling the competing demands of ethnicity (embodied in an individual’s mother tongue or vernacular), nationalism (manifested in having and propagating a national language) and modernisation (seen to be synonymous with using an international language).” Tollefson (1991:142) and Rappa & Wee (2006:72) discuss the complementary roles of Filipino and English. English is seen as an instrumental language of modernity, supporting economic progress. Filipino is viewed as a means of reinforcing the ideological status of the Philippines as an independent nation-state, facilitating inter-group communication within the country while preserving aspects of national identity. Thus, the design of appropriate approaches to language education for learners in the Philippines is « complex issue given the diversity of languages, cultures and pre-school experiences brought to school by children in @ nation of 7,000 istands in which more than 180 languages are spoken (Lewis et. al. 2015), The Philippines Education for All report (World Education Forum 2000:Chapter 1 - Overview of Language Policy and Practice in tducationAroundthe World 7 Internet article) states that, although the Philippines has had few problems or deficiencies with respect to access and participation in the primary education level, An understanding of language-in-education policy development in the Philippines is best understood through an awareness of both international Strategies associated with language policy and practice, Concerns about school enrolment, attendance and retention of all learners in school were a focus of both the Education for All strategies and the Millennium Development Goals. Inclusive strategies that would address the needs of minority language communities and multilingual contexts formed a theme for the 2015 World Education Forum in Korea (WEF 2015). __ , Language policy as it relates to education cannot be examined in isolation from the community and the broader social, economic and political contexts that impact provision (Rassool & Edwards 2010:280). May (2001:167) notes that education is viewed as perhaps “the key institution” in the development and maintenance of the modern nation-state and so the policies and practices that enable the provision and delivery of, particularly, basic education, are foundational in establishing appropriate systems. With more than 180 minority language communities (Lewis et. al. 2015), the Philippines has a rich and diverse linguistic and cultural heritage. However, these communities face challenges of marginalized identity on a national level, particularly in terms of appropriate education and development opportunities. Alternative policy solutions are required if equitable access to and opportunity for education is to be achieved, contributing to poverty alleviation and more equitable democratic societies. Many Philippine languages and cultural practices are lost as a result of the increasing power of the national language, Filipino, and the role of English as an official language. As these languages become more widely used, the identities of non-dominant language communities are undermined. This can result in social and economic inequalities, giving those who do not learn Filipino fewer opportunities to participate in public life, access higher education, influence political decisions and embrace economic opportunities. Many social, political and economic challenges can be linked to the root cause of an exclusionary language and education policy. The language policy of the Department of Education (1974, 1987) required the use of two languages of instruction: Filipino and English. Other languages were permitted only as “auxiliary” languages in the classroom, not in textbooks or in written form. The intent was to bring the country together under two languages and promote fluency in English and Filipino. However, thisPz fi 8 Nother Tongue Based Multingual Education; Gude for Teacher Educators and Students A EES Ong SSP jarginalized 70% of leamers by conducting learning in languages shat oly communicate to around 30% of the population. On the basis of the recommendations of the Soriano Committee, the National Board on Education issued Resolution No. 73-2, s. 1973 and on June 19th 1974, (Sibayan 1978:308) the official policy on bilingual education in the Philippines was instituted by, Department of Education and Culture and Sports (DECS) Order No. 25 titled “Implementing Guidelines for the Policy on Bilingual Education’ (Sibayan 1978:302; Espiritu 2002: Internet article; Gonzalez 2007:368). The teaching methodology described in the 1974 language Policy prescribes that the teacher use either Pilipino or English, depending on the subject. Subjects were divided into the English domain and the Pilipino domain (Gonzalez & Sibayan 1988:1), English was defined as the language of instruction for the delivery Of English Communication Arts, Mathematics and Science. Pilipino ‘Was to be the medium of instruction for all other subjects in the Curriculum. The intent was that the implementation of the Bilingual Education policy should be a phased transition (1974-1978) in order to allow schools in non-Tagalog-speaking areas to prepare needed teaching materials and train teachers to teach in Pilipino. Tagalog-speaking areas were to adopt the new policy immediately. The full implementation of the policy in elementary and secondary schools was to be achieved in all areas by 1982. Essentially, this is the policy that has continued in Philippine schools into the twenty-first century (Gonzalez 1996:210; 2007:368; Young 2011). Vizconde (2006:267) describes the 1974 policy as beginning a significant improvement in language teaching. Teachers no longer were so reliant on structured drills and memorisation that were features of the English-only policy, but were increasingly aware of methodologies th lat Were consistent with second language acquisition approaches. The Bilingual Edueariy Policy was subsequently revised in 1987 by DECS Onder Nev ae (DECS 19872; DECS 1987). In.this revised policy, the regional languages were elevated to the role of “auxiliary languages”. The Purpose of the policy (Gonzalez & Sibayan 1988:1) was that the Philippines should become a bilingual nation with ¢ Population competent in both English and Filipino, This has bere ee 8 a more realistic interpretation of the earlier Practice (Go, oe 1998:508), not dependent on the availability of Gonzalez the local vernacular languages, but leaving the use of at in language tothe discretion ofthe individual sehesy © local giving feedom to school administrators and teachers rg as a ancChapter 1 - Overview of Language Policy and Practice iwtducatiow Around theWorld § develop their own cu ; Gonzalez described it as (1998:508) “a recognition and legitimation of the on-going practice of using different media of instruction in class including the use of the home language for explaining content taught in Filipino and in English.” 2.1 The role of English in the Philippines The use of English, a result, primarily, of the American colonial legacy, has had a considerable impact, particularly in the education system, with some (Tiu 2005:8) believing that it has damaged the self-esteem of ethnolinguistic communities and the internal unity of these communities. American colonial education has franquilised our minds. Until now, it has continued to divide our communities, our intellectuals and | academics disdaining-to talk in their own languages } ~ in the languages of their peasants and workers. | When are we going to return to our own people and | restore the oneness of our communities?” In the more rural communities, people may not have had much exposure to either Filipino or English and children may begin formal schooling at six years old with little knowledge of either Filipino or English, the major languages of education, | | There is strong support for the use of English in | education and in society for instrumental purposes. House | Bill 4701 on “Strengthening and Enhancing the Use of English as the Medium of Instruction in Philippine Schools” was passed in the House of Representatives in 2006 (Licuanan 200c). President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo certified the House Bill as urgent and it received strong support from the business community, which saw the use of English in school as a component towards increasing the global economic competitiveness of the Philippines. However, Acufia & Miranda (1994:7) state that there is “hardly any clamour” for English to be the national language. The most powerful lobby for continued emphasis on English comes from the private business sector, the media, political circles and some educators (Licuanan 2007: Internet article). This lobby argues that the use of English is related to the Philippines’ global competitiveness and the country’s comparative advantages in its large English-speaking work force, particularly the potential of the Philippinés retaining its large OFW workforce. Both10 an ana aa aS ‘9 public realise that f, ilipino educators and the q x Ih ioe 3 ‘major world language eC ic Ena gives access to global opportunities. ne ae notes: itippines is clear: It - the Philippines !S el is no The lesson for learn English, especialty essary or all Filipinos 10 lea’ te ereonallzed English, provided we an devel Filipino so that most of the world’s knowledge cay ible in that langua de available and accessibte ! hat ge oe liptnos, may be educated in Filipino from kindergarten to graduate school. competence for oversea, ing English language ET Aca & Miranda (1994:7) found that i, English taught in Philippine schools has not necessari prepared migrant workers for the jobs that they would pref,, Students can only gain access to scientific and technica knowledge through English as most scientific journals ang papers are written in English (Nettle and Romaine 2000:32) However, in 1994, former President Ramos said (Brigham Castillo 1999; Young 2011), “Since we have that comparative advantage in English, by all means let us maintain the advantage so that we can be more competitive in business and production and perhaps in education in this part of the globe.” 2.2 Towards a Multilingual Education Policy There is comparatively little written about the contribution of the many vernacular languages of the Philippines to education and development. This may itself be indicative of the value assigned to the languages of the provinces and the minority ethnolinguistic communities by language policy developers. The First Iloilo Experiment was undertaken from 1948- 1954 by Jose D. Aguilar (Sibayan 1999c, 1999e, Nolasco 2008:7) who pioneered in the use of Hiligaynon as medium of instruction in Grades 1 and 2. The tests showed Hiligayno™” taught children outperforming English-taught children i8 reading, math and the social studies. The study not only showed L1 students being able to transfer the knowledge learned in their L1 to English. It also found the L1 students catching up with the L2 students in their knowledge of Englist a PeeChapter 1 - Overview of Language Policy and Practice iw Education Around the World: "1 within six months after being exposed to English as medium of instruction (Young 2011). Other related programs that can be mentioned are (Nolasco 2008:7) the Second Iloilo Language Experiment (1961-1964), the Rizal experiment (1960-1966) and the six- year First Language Component-Bridging program (FLC- BP) on “transitional” education in Ifugao province; and the Lubuagan First Language Component (Walter and Dekker 2008). However, despite these innovations supporting the use of local languages in education, the Bilingual Education policies primarily acknowledged the use of the vernacular languages of the Philippines as auxiliary languages to be used orally. nt However, towards the end of the Arroyo administration, it became clear that a response was required to the low educational achievement of Filipino students as revealed on international tests, which led to the institutionalisation of mother tongue-based multilingual education initially through Department of Education Order No. 74 s. 2009 (Department of Education 2009) which was a significant milestone in the journey to establish equitable systems for learners from all cthnolinguistic communities of the Philippines (Young 2011). This was the point at which the language-in-education policy in the Philippines moved from a Bilingual Education Policy to a multilingual approach, recognising the diversity of linguistic richness in the nation and its contribution to effective learning. On 14 September 2010, the government-initiated Alternative Learning System (ALS) Curriculum for Indigenous Peoples (IPs) Education was institutionalized through DepEd Order No. 101. This also moved multilingual policies and awareness of the importance of language-in-education from only the formal sector to the non-formal sector. 2.3 Institutionalisation of MTB-MLE Finally, in 2013, the Philippines education system, through Republic Act 10533 and the associated implementing rules and regulations, in addition to mandating a 13 year, K-12 education system, specified (Section 10.2.f) that the curriculum for basic education in the Philippines “. shall adhere to the principles and framework of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) which starts from where the learners are and from what they already know proceeding from the known to the unknown;Lf % 12 ‘Mother Tongue Based Naiingua Education: Gide fo Tacha Ewa a Siac yt ite J eupable teachers 10 Inplemey, 1 F My, MTB-MLE curriculum shall be available, For this pyy a MITB-MLE refers Lor non-formal education is jon- forma nc B-MLE refers to forma cation the learners mother tongue nd additional languages ayy in the classroom; " Continuing (Section 10.4), allocation of languages: For Kindergarten and the first three ae oI Clement, education, instruction, teaching materials, a cera Shay be in the regional or native language of he : ‘arners, ‘Th, Depkid shall formulate a mother language anh jes Progran from the mother/first language to the subsequent languayos » 10 the language cq surriculum that is appropriate to the va Pacis the curriculw p 4 to Grade 6. Ki livin, and needs of learners from Grade and English shall be gradually introduced as languages of instruction until such time when these two (2) languages cy, become the primary languages of instruction at the secondary level. The approach to mother tongue-based multilingyay education described in the Republic Act reflects best practice in programme implementation and is aligned with theoreticy, positions on programme design and development posited by educators (Baker 2006, Dutcher 2004, Cummins 2000), Pragmatically, the Department of Education has decided that an incremental approach to supporting minority ethnolinguistic communities in the provision of mother tongue-based multilingual education has the potential of allowing systematic curriculum and materials development and equipping of teachers and educational administrators. Thus, currently, nineteen languages (Abueg 2015) are included in those being supported through the Department of Education central office, although other ethnolinguistic communities are developing materials and implementing multilingual approaches at regional and division levels. instructional materials and hy " Mey the guidelines descrip, ti he M|MIAIRIY} Multilingualism is viewed from many different perspectives internationally and the use of multiple languages in education is assessed from historic, political, economic and social perspectives. However, as noted in another chapter in this volume, the psycholinguistic and learning theories underpinning the use of the leamer's most familiar language in initial literacyChapter 1 - Overview of Language Policy and Practice in Education Around the World 13 learning are irrefutable. Throughout the world, different approaches to mother tongue-based multilingual education are being implemented to respond to differing contexts. Mother tongue-based MLE is encouraged and supported by international agencies and development organisations. In the Philippines, different approaches to the use of the mother tongue in education have been tried but currently, a strong multilingual education policy is part of a Republic Act, requiring compliance throughout the education system. In small groups, interact on the following questions: + What examples can you identify of ways in which minority language communities have been disadvantaged socially or politically through language and education policy? + Spolsky (2004:17) writes, “Looking at the policy of established nations, one commonly finds major disparities between the language policy laid down in the constitution and the actual practices in the society”. Is this true of the Philippines? If so, what is the nature of the differences between policy and practice? * Do you believe that English contributes to social and economic inequalities in the Philippines? Why might that happen? Does English undermine the culture of the Philippines? cy + A language biography explores how a speaker has acquired and used different languages. Write or record a video describing how you learned the different languages that you speak and how you use those languages. Suggested iz Interview teachers, educators, and school administrators about the benefits and challenges in the implementation of the mother tongue-based multilingual education. Report your findings to the class.fy i 14 Wathe Tongue- Based Mingul Edvcaton. Guide for Teacher Educators and Students = * Describe contrasting policy environments for language education for learners from non-dominant language communities in the Philippines and approaches to the implementation of MTB-MLE as applied in different regional contexts, Choose a stakeholder in the context in which you work, Dialogue with the stakeholder about policy change and approaches to the implementation of MTB-MLE. Describe your experience to colleagues, Identify what you could do to improve your advocacy. Plan advocacy Strategies in your context to better advance and Support language education for speakers of non- ! dominant language communities.Chapter 2 - Understanding Language aR Unseen onquage By Michael Wilson |. Rosero, AB Linguistics Qlvnri@ca aan EET nn Ee, Learning Outcomey After completing this chapter, the student is expected to: * demonstrate understanding and appreciation of language to human lives and society. + explain the details of linguistic structure. + explain the arbitrariness of the language and how it changes over time. Perio MPS oles Ae SRR a ON as ea + state the basic demographic facts about the world's and the Philippine languages and its distribution. + differentiate the basic concepts and terminologies relating to language and linguistics. re identity the major subfields of linguistics. 5 The Philippines is a multilingual society with more than 180 distinct native languages. Most Filipinos are bilingual, trilingual, or quadrilingual and beyond. Filipinos that are monolingual, ie. can only tise one language, are very rare. With the passage of the Republic Act 10533, also known as the “Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013” or the K to 12 Law, these languages are given the opportunity to be utilized and developed as media of instruction and languages of literacy by their users and speakers, alongside English and Filipino. ‘This approach is called the Mother-tongue-based Multilingual Education (MTBMLE). MTBMLE is the utilization of more than two languages for the purpose of literacy and instruction. It starts from. “where the learners are and from what they already know” (Nolasco, 2008). It involves learning to read and write and think in one’s first janguage ot L1 (Cebuano, Tagalog, locano, Waray, etc.), and also teaching Mathematics, Science, Health and Social Studies in the said LI (Nolasco, 2008). 43 Teacher Educators and Students ed Mullingul Education; Gute or Teacher Under the K to 12 and MTBMLE, Philippine language, i ducation. To acp*¥e their own place in improving the quality of eoave an cuit this, however, there’s a need to develop in : ing orthographic ly. Appropriate instructional materials such as r training of teache et books written in the local languages, as Aber aise hen mother tongue instruction. This chapter will oe their gramme the salient features of Philippine languages, suc Sing of ta that they can develop a firmer and deeper a fi ‘shah ct tongue and other languages. This will benefit e tke Sac, the, are producing instructional materials or teaching in This chapter also discusses how many Philippine faneuages exis, how they are classified with respect to all the world’s ane ag, how they can be further sub-classified into smaller sre, and Wh, languages in the Philippines are endangered. This informat ni is usefiy ‘or teachers and students to develop their meta-awareness about Own languages, and to it value them as members of a global and divers, language tree, nguages, and b) Anguages relevant to the pupils make meaningful comparisons between 80 that learning is easier and more fig 1 THE NATURE OF HUMAN LANGUAGE Language is a defining feature that distinguishes human beings ton other species. Although other animal species have developed their own communication Systems, the 'Y pale in comparison to the human language in terms of complexity, creativity, discreteness of the Speech and gestural units, and adaptability. Language plays a vital role in the human existence as a Primary medium for communication and interaction and is an integral part in the development of cultures and Societies, Language, a distinctly human trait, is embedded into human being’s physiology, Cognition and thought processes The possession of lan; However, it has become human beings unique easily take it for granted. It is never an easy task to describe, more so to define such an immensely complex concept as language Linguists, who mainly study this highly sophisticated phenomenon in the existence of humanity. differ in their approaches and understandings Of this concept and ofies offer different and incompatible definitions. They view language asChapter 2 - Understanding Language, a social fact (Saussure, 1969), a mental entity (Pinker, 1995), a set of structures (Chomsky, 1957), a system of systems (Meillet, 1903 in Bauer, 2007), or a tool for communication (Buhler, 1934). Cognitive scientists, who are greatly influenced by Noam Chomsky, an American linguist and political commentator, primarily view language as a “psychological faculty,” a “mental organ,” a “distinct piece of the biological makeup of the brain,” and a “computational module.” Chomsky argued for a Universal Grammar, an innate ability of the human brain to acquire language and proposed that there exist a “linguistic: acquisition device” which supplies the child with the basic principles of grammar. Language is also characterized as a tool for human communication; grammatical structures of a language reflect constraints on use and needs of the users. In contrast with the formalist approaches proposed by Chomsky and his followers, the functionalist theories of grammar views language as a “product of more cognitive abilities that are also used in non-linguistic activities” and not just as product of a specialized mental device (Bybee, 1998). Languages of the world share some design features (see Table 1) — general organizational mechanisms that distinguish human language from other forms of communication. These features may be shared by some animal communication systems. Table 1: Eight Design Features of Languages (Brown et al, 2014) articulation languages) that are combined to produce a large, but finite, | sentences. Productivity Language can produce novel sentences that have never been uttered before. the meaning dog and the English word dog are connected which roughly expresses the same meaning Double Language uses a small number of sounds (less than 50 in most number of words, which can be combined in an infinite number of Arbitrariness There is no necessary connection between sound and meaning: arbitrarily as proven by the existence of the word chien in French, Interchangeability | An individual can both be a speaker and a hearer. sound. Displacement The differences between language units are of an all-or-nothing kind: a sound cannot be heard as something in between a b or p attention and is independent of its context. Specialization | Speaking requires only a limited part of the speaker's behavior! transmission and differ according to the culture the child is reared in. Cultural Not all aspects of language are innate; some are taught after birth2 Mother Tonque-Based Mulingual Educate: Guide for Teacher Educators and Students 1.1 Languages of the World and their Classification Ethnologue, 16" edition listed 7, 102 living languages SPoky, by around 7 billion people in the world (Ethnologue, 2015), 7 languages are grouped into larger language families according’ genetic affiliation, There are 141 different language families and sj, these stand out as the major language families, comprising the sy, the world languages (Ethnologue, 2015). Table 2 below shows the .” major language families of the world. : Table 2. Six major language families of the world (Ethnologue, 2015) Language Family Living Languages Number of Speakers Afro-Asiatic 366 380,821,999 Austronesian Indo-European 1,524 436,814,956 Sino-Tibetan Trans-New Guinea ’ 4,223 323,456,908 453 1,268,181,584 476 3,540,024 Total 4,479 5,326,390,851 Figure 1. Language families of the world (Wikimedia Commons)Chapter 2 -Undertanding Language 22 2. THE STUDY OF HUMAN LANGUAGE Linguistics deals with human language, including deaf sign- languages. It is a “highly diverse and interdisciplinary field” dealing with the “concrete details of physical acoustics to abstract logical ent, from concise grammatical structure to rich observations on culture and society” (Genetti & Adelman, 2014). As a field of study, it has the different subfields, each of which is concemed with particular elements of language. 1. Phonetics, the study of how sounds are made, how they are classified, how they combine and interact with each other, and how they are perceived 2. Phonology, the study of organization and structure of sounds, their distribution and conventions 3. Morphology, the study of how words are formed 4, Syntax, the study of organization of words into sentences and how they sentences are understood 5. Semantics, the study of meaning of language 6. Pragmatics, the study of meaning and how it can be interpreted in context 241 Defining Grammar In linguistics, the word grammar means (i) the mental grammar that speakers have in their brains and (ji) the model or description of this mental grammar. To say that a sentence is grammatical means that it follows the rules of both grammars; conversely, an ungrammatical sentence does not conform to these rules. ‘There are two types of grammar: descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar. ‘A descriptive grammar describes the basic linguistic knowledge of a speaker/hearer, how language is used and not how it should be used. It is the aim of linguistics to provide a formal statement (theory) of the speakers’ grammar. On the contrary, a prescriptive grammar describes how a language should or ought to be used. It tells the speakers how they should speak and what rules they should follow ie. English’s Dont split infinitives, Tagalog d and r alternation, etc). From a linguistic point of view, this type of grammar is bound to fail; language is constantly changing. Writing, however, is a different case. It follows certain prescriptive rules of grammar, usage and style that does not apply to spoken language.% MotNer Tongue Based Multilingual Education; Guide for Teacher Educators and Students 1 To understand the nature of language, one must understang |» Bae d th. nature of grammar, Linguistics recognizes that all varieties of lan, Lage are equal, that is no language or variety of a language is Superio, 4 any other in a linguistic sense. Every grammar, therefore, is logicay ang is capable of producing sets of sentences to express thought. 3 THE GRAMMAR OF PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES This section: describes the most salient points of the gramma, of Philippine languages. It presents the basic phonological ang morphosyntactic features of these languages, 3.1 Describing Speech Sounds ih Phonetics deals with the sounds of the spoken language. It is the } Study of the physical production of speech: how speech sounds ary | made, how they are classified, how they are combined with each other, how they interact with each other when combined and how they are Perceived, a When describing speech sounds, the International Phonetic | Alphabet (IPA), a standardized set of phonetic symbols designed to | "epresent the speech sounds of oral language, is used (see Figure 2) q The use of standard symbols is crucial because spelling systems * of most languages are ambiguous and inconsistent in the depiction of identical sounds (e.g English fish, rough). In this section, the use of phonetic symbols, traditionally using square brackets [ ] will be employed to describe speech sounds, Articulatory phonetics describes mechanisms involved in the Production of sounds, the organs involved in producing different speech Sounds and the classifications of sounds articulated by human beings. 3.1.1 Consonants and Vowels Speech sounds can be classified into two major categories consonants and vowels Consonants are described in terms of three dimensions: the place where the sound is articulated, the manner of that is produced, and the voicing. Voicing is determined by the vibration of the vocal folds. Speech sounds are voiced if they are produced when the vocal folds are vibrating and voiceless if they are-produced when vocal folds are apart. For example, in Tagalog and English, the [b] sound is voiced while [p] sound is voiceless. The place of articulation refers to a point where an src (usually some part of the tongue and lips) comes in contact ee location (typically a part of the vocal tract). The table below lists places of articulation involved in producing human speech sounds > |Chapter 2 - Understanding Language, 25 ‘THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 2005) CONSONANTS PULMONT) o2msima isis [Lateral] Devas [Aros Poel nertox] Pal | velw_[ toi | Panneet!| io row |p D td Ldle 3/k gla 6 2 Na! mm n n/ al al Trill B T R Tapor Pap v L Eee nee fv [6 8[sz]ps|sale ax viz »| hth | Gaerad t 5 aire Approxinart v 1 if if 4 [Teper I Les o ‘Where symbole appear in par, the one to the righ represents a voiced consorant, Shaded areas denote aticulaionsjwlge impossible. CONSONANTS (NON-PULMONIC) vowas Clicks Voiced implovives jectives aid a ‘ig © mo | 5 naan oe ed TT [owt | etinese |” naa Ty \ 2 1 omar | f vin | denna | Hentd CRP— OFO— F FO $ rion | fi wie [KT va : 2 [Arent | GE vraie |S” ated saene Opera € co—3\ — AgO OTHER SYMBOLS eo A Open arc. aeD MA Veicesatintdactcuive — GZ Atta nies ‘Where symbols appearin pun, te one W> Voical lbinhdec approximant T vcs svete tara ap See UY veeatitigtetngesinnt ff] Simireas J we X 'SUPRASEGMENTALS. HL Voedes signal fice "primary sess 5 owen eee ee fen tung et DIACRITICS Discs maybe plcedaove asym witha decent. 06 1) 1 Haig €F seston me Odi wwe balm EE) | toe ce § tl, cw bats ow td || 2 tn pop Teo dP ed 7 g tt id Yes ite wee ee tc aU | eed EME area] heen _aeant = recone OD | nwanne OO] Ee TES Ew A main come 6 = Vabeb or shayeamee € tm EN rate Seceedag | tae Bence cect 1] age GB ee ee ote £41 toma Aewettoganan © + omee | mae + macy Oa], Renonetopenee _& Tee SS cutter Figure 2: The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA, 2005)“8 26 Wome Tone Sasa Mana Eaton: Gute or Teacher Ear an Sers Table 3. Places of Articulation a Place off |__ Articulation Bilabial Description ‘Sounds are produced by the narrowing or complete osure of the lips Labiodental ‘Sounds involve the upper teeth and the lower lip English Interdental ‘Sounds are made by sticking the tip ofthe tongue _| between the upper and lower teeth Examples English [p,b, mf, v, w] English th (IPA (6]) in thin, and y (PA) in the Alveolar ‘Sounds are produced when the front of the tongue is ‘raised to the alveolar ridge English ft, 4, n, s, 2} Post-alveoiar/ Atveopalatal Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular ‘Sounds which involve the area just behind the alveolar Fidge Sounds are made by curling the tongue tip backward, ‘and touching the area behind the alveolar ridge ‘Sounds involve the contact with the roof of the mouth in the center of the hard palate ‘Sounds are produced by the contact ofthe tongue and Ho Soft palate or velum Sounds are made by moving the tongue straight back to touch the uvula and some part ofthe palata English sh (IPA {]) in ship, s (PA {3)) in pleasure, English in red (IPA [g) in English ‘Tagalog y (IPA fj) in yelo Hiligaynon [Kg] and ng (PA In) in kasing-kasing, The °F sound in French is an example of this, Pharyngeal ‘Sounds are produced by moving the tongue down and bback into the pharynx. ‘The glottal stop (IPA [7] represented by the dash in pag- ‘big and h in himala ‘miracle in Luh oh are example of these. Gilottal ‘Sounds involve only the larynx palzvo-alveolar ai vuvular pharyngeal lotta! Figure 3: Place of articulation (Hayes, 2009)Chapter 2 - Understanding Language 27 The manner of articulation refers to the differences in the narrowness of constriction in the vocal tract, which affects the airflow, thus producing different speech sounds, Table 4. Places of Articul: Description Examples Stop complete closure of the vocal tract Fricative @ constriction is made, tight enough to let the air | English [f, v), th (IPA [@)) in thin, ass through the mouth and th (IPA [6) in the Sibilant Fricative involves more complex mechanism of production: | s, z}s, sh (IPA [/}) in ship, and s a stream of air is directed at the upper teeth, | (IPA (3) in pleasure Creating noisy turbulent flow Nasal the airflow through the mouth is blocked, allowing | fm, n, m, q} ke air to escape through the nose ‘Africate Consists of a stop followed by a frcative, produced | English ch (IPA [if in church in rapid succession that it results in a typical } and j (IPA [ds] in judge. uration of single speech sound Tap or Flap the tongue makes a rapid brush against a| English tt (IPA (q) in butfer and place of articulation; it is a flap if the motion of] d in rider articulation is forward while its a tap if the motion is backward ‘Approximant the constriction is fairly wide so the air passes through without creating turbulence or tiling Lateral approximants | the air passes through the sides of the tongue | TagalogiMasbatenyo [I] as in fipadfupad ‘to fly’ z Central approximants | the flow is through a gap in the center English y {in youth, w [w] in win, and r {gin ray Approximants are sometimes classified differently, according to their characteristic acoustic quality. The /-like and rlike sounds are called liquids while the w and y are referred as glides (or semivowels).28 atner Tongue Based Mtingua Edcalon: Guide for Teacher Eda and Sludnts 1 Figure 4 below shows the description of all the possible Sou, produced by humans. Nd, THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (2005) CONSONANTS (PULMONIC) sabia! | TB Tpentalfaveotae™ eetrofes| Palatal | Velar | Uvular a m| n ni} nl op | Plosive pbhlpad| "td td[cslkg rowe _|o8 [tv [es[szlisl[saleilxy lx ‘Appronimant 7 ; Ea Trill B tT Top Flap 7 Facte +5 { : eral 1 Ul « j j Where symbols Shaded areas denote articulations judged tobe impossible. ‘appear in airs, the one to the right roprevents a modal voleed Figure 4. IPA Consonant Chart Vowels, on the other hand, have no points of articulation; it is the whole vocal tract that serves a resonating chamber. When describing vowels, three modifications to the vocal tract are to be considered: + Rounding of lips. Tagalog [v] and [9] (orthographically u and 0, respectively) are rounded vowels while i [1] is unrounded Height, which refers to the widening or narrowing of the mouth. Vowels are classified as high, mid or low. High vowels such as Tagalog and English [1], and [u] are also referred to as close vowels while low vowels such like [a] in English spa and Tagalog tatay are called open vowels. Frontness or backness, wherein the body of the tongue is placed towards the front of the mouth or towards the back. | Vowels are classified as front like [i], central like the English | schwa [@] in adept, Hokano e in pakbet and back like [uv] and bl.Chapter 2 - Understanding Language 29 VOWELS Front Nearfront Central Nearback Back Close 1 4B wyu Near close rey Ce} Close mid e\o—9 \e——¥f 0 Mid Q Open mid € ce—3\o—a o Near open e Open a’ c-4 \—a dD Vowels at right & left of bullets are rounded & unrounded, : Figure 6. IPA Vowel Chart 3.1.2 Diphthongs ‘A diphthong is a sequence of two sounds: a vowel and a glide. Diphthongs occur in many languages, including Philippine languages. ‘The diphthongs in Tagalog are: [aw] in sabaw ‘soup’, [rw] in agi ‘soot’, [aj] in bahay ‘house’, and [vj] or [oj] in baboy ‘pig’ - 3.1.3 Suprasegmentals Phonetic properties above the level of individual sounds (otherwise known as segments) are called suprasegmentals. This include the syllable, stress, tone and intonation. ‘The syllable is defined as a linguistic grouping of segments that consist of a nucleus (or a peak), an onset, or a coda. The nucleus is the most prominent part of the syllable. Consonants preceding the nucleus are called the onset within the syllable while consonants following the nucleus are called the coda. The most common syllable pattern in Philippine languages are CV (also called open syllable) and CVC (also referred to as closed syllable). : In Tagalog and other Philippine languages, the glottal stop is the obligatory onset of the words that begin in vowels. It is commonly represented by different symbols: dash ( - ) as in pag-ibig ‘love’, grave accent (°) as in hika ‘asthma,’ or circumflex (* ) as in puné ‘full’. syllable boundaries are represented by period positioned between syllables. For example, the word manggagamot, which has four syllables, would be transcribed as [,may.ga.'ga.mot] ‘doctor’.30 ‘Mother Tongue-Based Nufingual Education: Guide for Teacher Educators and Students make distinctions of stress. Stress can be defin, as Ae iaies promineice of different syllables in sen Iti, characterized by duration (length), frequency (pitch) am a lensity (loudness). In Philippine languages, length is found i rie mas consistent determinant of stress (Moriguchi, 1977; Arquillo, 10; Klimenko, 2010; Roseto, 2011; Tantiangco, et al, 2010). Stress on syllables can either be primary stress or secondary stress. The secondary stress is characterized as not as strong as the primary stress but*is stronger. than unstressed syllables. Take for example the word Mississippi [,m1.sa.'s.pi], which has a secondary stress on the first syllable. The IPA symbol ['] is used to represen, primary stress while [,] is used for secondary stress. In some languages, tone which is characterized by fundamenta| frequency (or pitch), rather than stress, plays a more important role in distinguishing meaning between words. Tone languages include: Mandarin, Cantonese and virtually every other Chinese language, Thai, Vietnamese in Southeast Asia; Tibetan in the Tibetan Plateau; Zulu, Shona, Igbo, Hausa and Igbo in Africa; Hopi and Cherokee in North America; Mixtec, Huave, and Otomi in Mexico; and Kubeo and Piraha in South America (Genetti, et al, 2014). Another suprasegmental which is present in all languages is the intonation. Intonation refers to the changes in fundamental frequency that occur in a phrase or utterance. Changes in intonation convey different meaning as in the case of declarative and interrogative sentences. 3.2 The Study of Sound Patterns As subfield of linguistics that deals with speech sounds, phonology, focuses more on the systematic organization of sounds in a particular language. An important concept in phonology is the occurrence of minimal pairs. Minimal pairs refer to two words consist which have different meanings and differ only in one sound occurring in the same position or environment. For example, the English words spill and still, and the Tagalog words basa [ba.’sa?] ‘wet’ and pasa [pa.'sa?] ‘bruise’, In English, {p] and [t] both occur between {s] and [1] while in Tagalog {b] and [p] both occur word-initially. These sounds (p] and [t], and [} and [b] are contrastive, meaning they contrast words with different meanings. Minimal pairs are helpful in determining sounds that are used to contrast words with different meanings; these sounds are called phonemes, Sounds that have their own Phonemic status product entirely different words. These sounds are in contrastive distributio?: meaning they can occur in the same environment in words Wit? different meanings.Pn iat Chapter 2 «Understanding Language 34 Minimal pairs are also used to identity sounds that are variants of each other, For example, in English, the sound [p] is always aspirated when it occurs word-initially; when it occurs after [s}, itis always unaspirated, In Tagalog, {d] changes into [r] when it occurs petween vowels as in the case of {bo.kid) ‘field’ + (in) => (bo.ki.mn] 4 These sounds are called allophones; that is they occur in mutually exclusive environments, ie, one allophone in one context and another allophone occur in another, Allophones are in complementary distribution: one sound never occurs in the environments in which the other occurs, The phoneme associated with the allophones is often termed the underlying phoneme, while the other allophones: linked to the phoneme are often called the surface allophones. Another type of distribution is called free variation in which two different sounds can occur in the same environment. For example, Tagalog [1] and [e] in the words babai and babae ‘woman’, respectively. In English, released and unreleased stdps are in free variation word-finally as seen in [ket] or [k'wet"] ‘cat’. The same motivating forces that govern the occurrence of allophones also condition the occurrence of allomorphs, which are variants of morpheme that occur in complementary distribution, A morpheme is the meaningful part of a word that cannot be further subdivided. In English, the past tense ending -ed has three phonetic realization that depends on the final consonant of the root word: @ if the root-final consonant is voiceless, it is realized as [{], e.g. walked if the root-final is voiced, it becomes [d], e.g. robbed [uabd]; (ii) iff the root-inal is an alveolar stop or flap, it is articulated as [ad], e.g. waited [werad]. 3.2.1 Phonological Processes Different phonological processes usually trigger allophonic and allomorphic variation. Below are some common phonological processes in spoken languages. «Assimilation, when one sound becomes like that of another sound, e.g. in Tagalog, Cebuano, Waray and other Philippine languages, [1] becomes [m] before [p, b], [n] before [t, 4, 1, 1], and [y] before [k, g, ?, hi. + Palatalization, a subtype of assimilation in which a velar or alveolar consonant is pronounced in the palatal region when adjacent to a high vowel, e.g bet you as betcha, did you as didj + Dissimilation occurs when a sound become less like another sound, e.g. English February as Feb/jJuary + Metathesis, when two sounds are reordered, e.g English iron [‘aromn] + Deletion, the loss of sound, e.g. the loss of final /n/ in hymn.i “Mother Tongue-Gased Muiiingual Education: Guide for Teacher Educators and Students 71 + Insertion (or Epenthesis), occurs when a vowel is Mserte4 between two consonants, e.g. in the formation of past tg e and plural forms in English bat > batted, glass > glass, Masbatenyo laba + -an > labahan ‘to wash et + Fortition, the strengthening of a sound, ¢.g. word-initig aspiration in English - + Lenition, the weakening of a sound, e.g. flapping of Englig, Mv and /d/ * Vowel reduction, the conversion of unstressed vowels to mo, schwa-like allophones, e.g., the second vowel in emphasis * Gemination, occurs when the consonant sound is doubled, eg, Tlokano kan + perfective aspect > kinnan ‘ate’ Phonological processes are triggered by the environment of the sound in a word or sometimes triggered by neighboring sounds. It is also brought about by competing forces: ease of articulatory effort and perceptual distinctiveness, 3.2.1.1 Writing Phonological Rules Linguists use certain rules when they want to write down the phonological patterns of language. That is, the description of the distribution and relationship between phonemes and allophones can be expressed formally using phonological rule. For example, the allophonic relation of Tagalog (d] and [£]. In Tagalog, (d] changes into [r] when it occurs between vowels. In phonology, slashes // are used to represent phonemes and square [] are used for allophones. Q) i — [q/vv [4 elsewhere Rule (1) is read as follows: /d/ becomes [r] in the environment that is between vowel sounds while it occurs as [d] elsewhere. [d] is an example of elsewhere allophone, it occurs not just intervocalically, but also at the beginning or end of the word or syllable, Q [+stop, -voice] —» — [Haspiratedy/ #_ Rule (2) describes English sounds characterized by features [+stop] and [-voice] which change to their [+aspirated] counterparts in an environment after a word boundary. represented by # sign. Phonological rules are used by linguists to describe phonological processes influenced by ease of articulation and perceptual distinctiveness (Genetti, et al, 2014). 4Chapter 2 - Understanding Language, 33 Misi 3.2.2 Speech Sounds in Philippine Languages Most Philippine languages have fewer than 18 consonants and have three to four native vowels. The most common consonant sounds are [p, t, k, b, d, g, m, n, 9, 1, r, w, j, 8, h, 2]. Other consonant sounds found in Philippine languages are either allophones of distinct phonemes: several Northern Philippine languages such as Ivatan, Finallig, Balangao, Gaddang, Ifugao, Southem Kalinga have [f], [v] and {t{]; others also have velar fricatives [x] and [y] and bilabial fricatives [B), (]; Mamanwa has [z]; Maranao has both aspirated stops [k*] and {t'], and unspirated stops [k], [t] (Gieser, 1987 in McEachern, 2013). The most common inventory of vowels in Philippine languages are (a, i, 0, 9}. Reid (1973) enumerates at least five languages with only three vowels, twenty languages with five vowels, a dozen with six vowels, three with seven vowels and one with eight languages. There are also some restrictions in the distribution of some phonemes. One instance is the distribution of glottal stop. Most Philippine languages only allow post-consonantal glottal stop. However, in Manide and Inagta Alabat, both preconsonantal and post-consonantal stops are allowed (Lobel, 2013 in McEachern, 2013). Consonant clusters are non-native to Philippine phonology, and are found mostly in loan words. 3.2.3 Speech Rhythm One of the most notable characteristics that differs Philippine languages from English is the speech rhythm. English is a stress-timed language, wherein intervals between stresses are said to be of equal jength. On the contrary, Tagalog, and other Philippine languages, is syllable-timed, in which the successive syllables are of near-equal length, Filipinos leaning English have the tendency to adapt English to their own syllable-timed rhythm instead of speaking English in a stress-timed manner (Guevara, et al, 2011). 3.2.4 Orthography : Every language has its own: a) set of segmental sounds (vowels and consonants); b) non-segmental features (e.g. pitch, loudness, length); c) syllable structure; d) sound distribution constraints. A writing system, called orthography, is needed to represent a sound system in order to allow readers or speakers of the language to reconstruct linguistic messages on the basis of written signs (Himmelmann, 2006). Most Philippine languages employs alphabetical writing system in which the basic units are letters which corresponds to the phonemes of the language. However, within alphabetical writing systems, there are instances that a single phoneme may be represented by combination of34 Wetter Tongue-Based Mutlingual Education: Guide for Teacher Educators and Students graphemes, such as di- or trigraphs (Himmelmann, 2006), ¢. nasal /N/ is represented by ng, or by combining lewers with diacritics e.g. 4 for stressed syllable /a/ that co-occurs with glottal stop /2/. Almost all the modern orthographies of Philippine languages make use of alphabets derived from the Latin alphabet (a, b, etc.), but there are some ancient scripts (collectively called ‘baybayin’) that are useq in isolated cases. The Tagbanua, Ilokanos, Tagalogs, and other groups used their own baybayin scripts hundreds of years ago, but now they use Latin-based alphabet$ (McEachern, 2013). With the implementation of the mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTBMLE), local languages should be able to develop their own educational materials. A vital prerequisite for this is a working orthography which consists of written symbols that represent the important sound features of the language and the rules for using these symbols. Nolasco (2012) noted that a working orthography is not the Standardized version of the language rather the embodiment of all spelling conventions actually used and decided on by the language user for official and academic purposes at a particular point in time. Such orthography needs to be tested, revised and retested in the “crucible of Practice” before the standardization and final decision can be made by the language community. 3.3 The Morphosyntax of Philippine Languages Morphology is the sub-branch of linguistics that deals with the description of how words are formed and the principles governing the way words are put together. Syntax, on the other hand, is the study of organization of words into sentences and how they sentences are understood. The study of grammar is the combination of morphology and syntax, also known as morphosyntax. 3.3.1 The Morphosyntax of World’s Languages The letters S, A, and O are used by linguistics to identify core grammatical relations (Dixon, 1979). These relations distinguish certain Privileged participants (i.e. subject) in events and states (Mithun, 1999) The term “argument” is used to refer to the participants and their semantic roles/relations that are normally associated with a given verb or predicate (Payne, 1997). It is a term for nouns that linguists use in describing morphosyntax. S refers to the only core nominal argument of a clause with only % One argument (also called ‘intransitive’) clause. A is defined as the y most agentive argument (or the entity that is the source of the action expressed by the verb) of a clause with more than one arguments (also aareferred to as ‘trans ” i {the entity that is mane: O is the most patientive argument Other non-core argume ed by the action) of the transitive clause. primary function of obi 's marked are considered obliques whose tvity or an event, like ep teasee is to express the setting of an i a li ation, time, purpose, direction, manner and the like. This semantic function distinguishes it from the A. Seen ia As and © in basi sentence types i wef in termining the fundamental difference between two major language pattern Secusative Norse ergaiive languages) In a nominative/ secomtive syrtem, S and A are mucked the same and O is marked eee zi ile in ergative/absolutive system, it is the $ and O that OER) end NOIaeG: marking and A is marked differently. De Guzman ee Nolaseo (2003) proposed that Philippine languages can be fangitige ergative language. In contrast, English is an accusative A ° Ergative-absolutive languages Nominatie-accusative languages Figure 6. The major language patterns of world’s languages The examples below are illustrative of the differences between Tagalog, a Philippine language, and English. Tagalog (1) Lumangoy ang bata sa batis. ” s (2) Nilangoy ng bata ang batis. A oO Sentence (I) is a type of intransitive sentence and bata is the only argument (S), both the source of the action and the most affected entity of the swimming action. Sentence (2), on the other hand, is a transitive(A) and batis as the my, ; ction (. ‘ 0 sentence with bata as the source of ai jes are illustrated bel," affected entity (0). In contrast, English examp! English (3) She dances. s (4) She loves him. A ° i is.the S. In (4) Sentence (3) is an intransitive sentence and she is which is a transitive sentence, she (A) has the same marked as the § in 3). 3.3.2 The Internal Structure of the Word In describing the internal structure of words, the morpheme is considered the minimal unit that expresses meaning. Morphemes combine to form a word, e.g. Ifugao gatut ‘hundred’ + -in-'> ginatut ‘hundreds’ (Hohulin & Burquest, 2011), Bicolano ma- + diklom ‘darkness’ > madiklom ‘dark’, etc. A morpheme can be classified as a bound morpheme or a free morpheme. The affixes -in- and ma- are bound morphemes which must be attached to some other morpheme in order to be integrated into discourse. The roots gatut and diklom, on the other hand, are free morphemes and do not have to be attached to some other form in order to express their meaning. A word in Philippine languages may consist of or can be: (a) a root, e.g. Surigaonon daya ‘to bring,’ Ilocano bigat ‘morning’ (b) a stem, a root with one or more affixes; e.g. Masbatenyo maraut ‘ugly’, Waray maupay ‘good’ (©) a particle, e.g. Ifugao of ‘and/the’, Romblomanon agod ‘so that’ 3.3.3 Deriving New Words New words can be derived (i.e. made) through the process of inflection and derivation. Inflection is the process by which variationas in the form of a word are derived through affixation to express # grammatical contrast, such as aspect, person, number and gender. In Tagalog, the reduplicative affix -ga- in the stem magaganda is a0Chapter 2 - Understanding Language 37 I E derivation i the proces bec tt gies puraliy. Incomes form. lerives a new category from the original Philippine lan, new eanppine languages employ the following operations in deriving Affixati ; a Fe papi ipenorss to which an affix is attached to a root ara \ie “ugly. ree big e.g. Masbatenyo kara ‘it + m- > I, 1am + ~ ‘toy,’ i + -in- sinugha ‘smoked fish’ = mange es eS b. Reduplication, the repetition of word or part of word ee a a new word; e.g., Masbatenyo bartito + PWr soiuplionion'> baru-bariito ‘mini boat’; Masbatenyo tdwo an /t reduplication > tawo-tawo ‘toy man’; Masbatenyo akalén + CV, reduplication > babakalén ‘will buy’ c. Stress shift, ¢.g., Masbatenyo bayad ‘pay’ > bayad ‘paid’ 3.3.4 Grammatical Categories in Philippine Languages ; Words can be categorized as lexical (or content) words and non- lexical (or function) words. They are further categorized in terms of their membership to grammatical categories, also known as word classes (i.e., noun, verb, determiner, etc.). In some languages, categorization of word classes can be difficult, especially at their boundaries. Root words in Philippine languages have been analyzed as pre-categorial or neutral; their part-of-speech membership is much clearer when affixes are attached to them or when they are used in phrases or sentences. However, word classes are structured around prototypes and their core notions can be easily identified; some words are more prototypical than the others. Grammatical categorization can also be established according to how a form varies when used in discourse (Hopper and Thompson, 1984). the major grammatical categories are In Philippine languages, determiners, linkers, nouns, verbs, modifiers (adjectives and adverbs), and conjunctions. 3.3.4.1 Nouns and Noun Phrases Nouns convey ideas of referents, €.g. people, object, abstractions These ideas are characterized by persistence (Mithun & Chafe, 1999). i 2 in active consciousness, expressing the most time-stable concepts that time (Givon, 1984). do not vary appreciably over le or derived. It is simple or unmarked if it is composed only of root, €.8. Kapampangan biga ‘sky,’ Itawis taggam ‘ant,’ Asi raga? ‘ocean’; it is derived if it consists of a root plus affixes, e-g, Masbatenyo parahubog ‘drunkard,’ lokano panangisuro ‘teaching’. ‘A noun can be simpli 38 Mote Tone Seed Mung sexton: Guide Teacher Ears and Stes , | Nouns can also be classified as proper nouns, which are y, to address and identify particular persons or culturally signifi personages or places, and common nouns, which are used to refe, general names of things, concepts or a class of entities. Proper ” | common nouns are distinguishable from each other because they hay { their respective determiners. In Tagalog, common nouns are market | by ang, ng, sa while proper nouns are marked by si/sina, ni/nina ay, a | | . kayfkina Nouns can be derived from’ other word classes through affixatig, (a nominal affix can be a nominalizing morpheme or a verbal affix, Nouns also distinguish themselves from other grammatica, categories because of the roles they play in relation to an activity o, action. These roles are called semantic roles and they are as follows; + Agent, typical animate instigator of the action; + Foree, an entity that instigates 'an action indirectly | + Experiencer, an entity which neither.controls nor is visibly | affected by an action. | 4 + Recipient, the typically animate destination of some moving « object. | by + Patient, an entity that does not act with volition, instigate an | “ event, receive something or experience a sensory impression. Ha Another level of structures associated with nouns is called | I grammatical relations. Grammatical relations identify who does what | i to whom. As mentioned above, these relations are signified by the q letters S, A and O. Nouns are easily identifiable because they are usually accompa | by grammatical markers, called determiners. Determiners in Philippine languages differ from that of English whose function is restricted to indicating whether an entity is definite (e.g. the ball) or indefinite (e.g. a ball). Philippine determiners function to instantiate (or make an instance of) nouns and establish them as referential (Nolasco, 2011). | Referentiality pertains to an entity exists as a “bounded, individuated entity in the message world” or it has something to do with continuing importance over a portion of a text. In other words, a noun phrase is referential when it is used to refer to “an object which has a continuous identity over time.” (Du Bois, 1980) | |Chapter 2 - Understanding Language 39 Table 5. Determiners in some Philippine languages Tagalog Masbatenyo Tokano Cebuano | a losttso Ja Jost /sio]a ost |Si0 A [OBL ni__|kay |si_|ni kan [ni_[ ni kenni__| si ni kay rina | kina | sinda [nina | Kanda [da_|da_| kadda sila nila_| kanila ng |sa [ang [san fsa [i [i |i ang jng 8 : _|__+— +— +— ale ug ug Bikolano Kapampangan Maguindanao SIO}A ]OBL [S/O JA opt {sio [A [OBL Personal [SG iat = ne si [ni [ki_{i ng___|kang_|si vi_|k ni PL sa_[na [ka |dili_ |r kari [sia _[nila__| kanila Sommon | Specific) ang fin [sa fing -|ringng | king | su Tru | kanu Definite ring |reng | Karing Non-specific[su_[kan i__[na_[sa ‘Aside from determiners, nouns are also preceded by (a) quantifiers (eg, numeral terms) as in (5) and; (b) modifiers as shown in (6). (5) isad na bata one LKR child “one child” (©) marhay = na_— ag good LKR — moming “good morning” nouns is possessability. Possession is a relation between possessor and possessum wherein the possessor asserts eontrol over the possessum (Levin and Hovav, 2011). There are two grammatical distinct possession strategies: (a) alienable versus (b) inalienable possession. Inalienable entities are those which have direct relation to the possessor (i.e. body parts, kinship terms) while alienable items are those which have ‘distance’ from the possessor (Haspelmath, 2008). (7) kamay ng matanda “old man’s hand” (8) _ singsing ni Lola “Lola’s ring” ‘Another structural property of40 NotrerTongue-Based Muttngel Education: Gude fr Teacher Educators and Sens e ff possession stratgy;, Philippine languages employ three types Gl ~olique hrc (a) possessive clauses (using existential terms a Nay kan); (b) lexical noun phrases (ni an dd san/sin constructions) and: (y , 8). genitive case pronouns (personal and demonstrative pronouns), Tagalog ; Pretzels si Queenie. i" ® EXT Pretzel DET Queenie “Queenie has Pretzels.” Masbatenyo ; (10) gitara ni Bernice guitar GEN Bernice “Bernice guitar” Maguindanao (Juanmarti, 1906) i (11) Tinguin nacua su bengala ku? who took shirt my “Who took my shirt?” ‘| 3.3.4.2. Verbs Verbs are words that refer to events to which ideas of referents (nouns) participate. In Philippine languages, verbs can be described as dynamic or stative. A dynamic verb expresses a wide range of actions which may be physical (to run), mental (to ponder) or perceptual (to see), whereas a stative verb which purely expresses a state in which there is no obvious action (to know, believe, suppose etc,). Verbs are marked for their voice (or focus), aspect, modality. These features often interact with each other and sometimes difficult to tease apart. 33.4.2.1 Voice | Voice (often called “focus”) is a feature of the verb where a special noun is co-indexed to an affix in the verb and identified as the most affected entity. It distinguishes forms or a “system of inflections of a verb to indicate the relation of the most affected entity of the verb to the action which the verb expresses” (Nolasco, 2011). The privileged | nominal is marked by the determiner ang/si and its counterpart in other Philippine languages. Voice determines the transitivity of clauses. Transitivity is a central concept in the organization of clauses in Philippine languages, ie. the number of arguments, grammatical relations, and serves as the basis for the preference of one sentence construction over the other. Philippine transitivity, as proposed by Nolasco (2003), refers to “how effectively the effects of an action are transferred from an agent to theChapter 2 -Undertonding Language 44 patient or object. See the examples below: (12) Kumuha ang bata n, “The child took a eee (13) Kinuha ng bata ang laruan The toy was taken by the child.” Foe ae aie sentence (12) is analysed as an active sentence ( dered yject is the doer of the action) while sentence (13) is considered as passive (where the subject is the receiver and not the - oe action). This analysis is based on the subject’s semantic role; whether it is the actor or the patient. Nolasco’s (2003) transitivity, however, pointed out in sentence (13), the action is more active, deliberate, particular, effortful, and the entity most affected by the action is /aruan, which is marked by ang. Meanwhile, in sentence (12), the action is more stative, no endpoint, general and effortless. In the past, Philippine languages have always been treated like English, an accusative language, in which active voice is basic and the passive voice is marked and non-basic category (Shibatani, 1988). Recent studies, however, have shown that Philippine languages exhibit preference to patienVobject (Cefia, 1977; De Guzman, 1979; Gerdts, 1979; Starosta, 1982). In their studies, Starosta, Pawley and Reid (1981 in De Guzman, 1988) claimed that Proto-Austronesian, from which Philippine languages originally came from, is a mixed ergative language, in the sense of the patient being the primary choice for the syntactically prominent position. 4 The notion of the source of action and the most affected entity is important in identifying clause transitivity in Philippine languages. The clause is intransitive if it contains only one argument (called the S) which is the source of the action and also the most affected entity. It is transitive when the source of the action (A) is distinct and separate from the most affected entity (O). Intransitive construction can only have the $ argument and can never have A and O. Transitive constructions cannot have an S. Below are illustrative examples of different types of clause and the roles nouns play in them in some Philippine languages. Tagalog (14) Sumikat ang araw _sa silangan rises sun east “The sun rises in the east.” Masbatenyo (15) Kumadto an bata sa pampang went the child to the shore “The child went to the shore.”is 42 Mote tne Tongues _, piad Batad es in Batad Tigo => Me hee grew aed “ My grew up here in Batad. Kepampontr i ring tau | a ited (ive) DerpL people : ” It “He killed the people. Ivatan : ‘aha he it dro ou re ea DET Poke DET house my “Pedro bought my house.” les of intransitiy tences (14)-(16) above are examples i wate “while (4) oS) are examples of aati sees hk -( bata, =a are S, They are the so rgument that i, on nee Gf action and the most affected entity of the action, J, other words, the verbs meaning “to rise”, “went”, and “grew up” are done by the S noun and also affect the S noun. No other nouns are 6 i 1 directly involved in the action. ti Examples (17) and (18) are transitive sentences, so they have both 4! an agent noun (labelled by linguists as A) and a patient noun (labelled oy! by linguists as 0). In example (4), Peteno is the source of the action Hi in other words, the agent (A). He acts upon tau, the people. Tau, as the ie! most affected entity of the sentence, is therefore the patient, labelled by e linguists as O. Similarly in example (18), Pedro is A and vahay is 0, Me | Silangan, pampang, and Batad are not S, A, nor O, because they are not directly involved in the action. Linguists call them obliques becuase they just identify location, setting, or other auxiliary information, Further, the notion of subject is quite problematic in Philippine | languages. Subject is defined as “the doer of the action” or “the entity | being talked about.” It can be considered as the starting point of the event or state, “the grammaticized expression of the referent a speaker ri uses as a point of departure for whatever is expressed by the rest of the clause” (Chafe, 1994). Mithun & Chafe (1999), however, observed | that ergative languages are dominated by the absolutive relation, that | the “the closest participant in the situation ... the core argument wh | directly takes part in it” (Kibrik, 1979 in Mithun & Chafe, 1999) and the “participant most immediately or directly involved in the event ot | state (Mithun, 1994) is considered the most important argument in the sentence, _ Proponents of ergative-absolutive language pattern argue thst Philippine languages exhibit primacy of the patient or the most affect 3Chapter? -Understanding Language 43 ay cola Source of the action. In other words, the thing necessarily the actor. red the most important part of a sentence, not essay ihe actor. However, there is still some debate about the arrves Philippine langesgen rt iPpine languages, since not everyone Some Enguists anal ee should be classified as ergative-absolutive. ‘milar to that of = 7 them as nominative-accusative languages, argued that Philippine ish, an actor-oriented language. Others have pups : u a (Foley, 1998; Kaufman, 2009; or asl oa ergative nor accusative 33.4.2.2 Aspect The second distinguishing characteristi ili : is teristic of the Philippine verb is aspect. Aspect signals the stage or phase of the action or activity. It indicates whether the activity has begun or not begun, whether it is continuing or has finished and whether it is about to start or has recently started. Aspect is different from tense. In tense, the verb changes its form according to the temporal relation of the action relative to the moment of speaking. Most Philippine languages do not require a change in the form of the verb. What is important to the speakers is not a temporal relation of the activity to the moment of speaking, but the internal stages of the activity. Philippines languages have the following aspectual forms: infinitive or neutral, perfective, imperfective, prospective and recent perfective. Another aspectual category, the inceptive future, is proposed by Cena (2014). (19) Purunta kami sa palengke kanina. (Perfective) 20) Pumupunta kami sa palengke tuwing Martes. (Imperfective) (21) Pupunta kami sa palengke sa linggo. (Prospective) 22) Kakapunta lang namin ng palengke kanina. (Recent Perfective) (23) Papunta na kami ng palengke (Inceptive Future) Perfective means that action has been completed. Imperfective means the action is ongoing. Prospective means the action is planned but hasn’t taken place yet. Recent perfective means that the action has just been done recently. Inceptive future means that the action is just about to begin.44 Wee ‘Tongue-Based Muliingual Education: Guide for Teacher Educators and Students 3.3.4.2.3 Mode Mode describes the the speakers” belief in akers’ attitude toward a situation, inclug “fs realty, or likelihood (Payne, 1997) ; il i tion is done. ‘Ty describes the view of the speaker as to how the ac e tom mode, mood and modality are often used inirebang 0) Therg are at least six types of mode that occur in most Philippine language,. (a) indicative; (b) imperative; (c) aptative/abilitative; (d) Teciprocay, social; (e) causative; and (f) distributive. Table 6. Mode in Most Philippine languages Mode Affix Meaning | Indicative um, m., -an, ~in/-on, | states that an action is performed i Imperative |-on, -an, -a, 7 Tequest or command | Aptative | maka-/paka- Possibility/ accidental | Reciprocal | makiypaki- action is done together by the actor and the goal of the action exchange of actions between two or more actors | Causative | pa- the actor is the reason why the action is done but |] the actor is not doing the action | Distributive | ma-/pang- plurality of an action or that an action is done| | Tepeatedly Modifiers | School In Philippine languages, as observed by Nolasco (2011), “adjectives” and “adverbs” grammar teaches us that words that modify nouns are called adjectives and those that modit adverbs. This analysis i ify verbs and non-nouns are called | are similar in form. Morphologically, there are No persuasive reasons for separating the modifiers of verbs ax now verbs. Thus, the analysis class, called modifiers, followed here is to treat them as ‘one word | Modifiers typically express the following properties: age. dimension, value, color, physical characteristic and speed. They also express differing degrees comparative, superlative 's, human propensity, | or intensity such as | and intensive degrees,Chapter 2 -Understanding Language 45 They can be (i) bi derived from a pi \Wralfixed, which means that they are not ‘small’; of (ii) affixed or der: ‘asbatenyo daan ‘old,’ Cebuano gamay Kankanacy annawa ‘wide’, ved, ¢.g. Maguindanao malemeg ‘tall,” Philippine modifiers ar, degrees of intensity: basic, © inflected by means of affixes for four Comparative, superlative, and intensive. 24) Mi i (24) ljaganda siya, (Basie) (25) Mas maganda ang kapatid niya kaysa kanya, (Comparative) (26) Pinakamaganda ang bunsong kapatid nila sa lahat, (Superlative) (27) Napakaganda niya! (Intensive) Further, modifiers function as predicative, or attributive. (28) Maganda siya. (Predicative) (29) Bilhan mo siya ng magandang damit, (Attributive) __Adverbial properties in Masbatenyo are rather expressed by clitic particles such as na ‘already’, pa ‘still’, ngdni ‘really’, kund* ‘reportedly’, etc. 3.3.6 Pronouns In Philippine-type languages, pronouns replace the full noun phrases in a clause. Pronouns however do not take the place of nouns in most expressions (e.g. an bata > siya, not an siya), but do so in oblique phrases (e.g. sa bata “to the child” > sa iya ‘to him/her.” They also assume the grammatical roles of S, A, O or oblique arguments. There are five important types of pronouns in Philippine languages: personal pronouns, interrogative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, reflexive pronouns and indefinite pronouns. Personal pronouns refer to entities already mentioned in the discourse or known to the hearer. They are classified according to person, case and number. They can be classified into two types, according to their phonological properties: (a) the second-position (2P) (en)clitic pronouns; and (b) free pronominals. 2P pronouns form the immediate part of the first element in the clause. They follow the first word in a clause, a position that is not available to non-clitic arguments.| 48 other Tongue Based Mutua Education Gui fr Teacher Educators and Sufents Table 7. Pronominal forms in Tagalog Gi | Person | Gloss | ABS | ERG | ABS ae ENOR 1} | CLITIC (2P) f : He ‘akin_—_[ (58) ain | | ‘stsing [186 | =ako =ko ako a (Se) ye {| 2nd sing [286 |=kafkaw _ |=mo ikaw ‘anya (58) to | fata ese ee lene [jn [te Ht ‘st excl pl [1#2 | =kami | =némin | kami ‘an ais iH ‘st incl pl [1+2PL | =kita =nétin__| Kita_ ah oe ] 2nd pl PL. =kamo =ninyo | kami HP = Inyo | 3rd pl [3PL_ [sia sniya [sila [niya Leni Demonstrative pronouns or deictics refer to entities a Telati to distance, and space and also refer to their location on a ime ling |) In discourse, demonstratives are also used to track reference acro, ! clauses. They sometimes take the place of third personal pronouns, ra Table 8. Demonstrative Pronouns in Philippine languages i a) Spatial Tagalog Masbatenyo Waray i) j orientation al! sio TA Tost {so Ja Ca a a | — it near speaker tito rito [ato int_feint Jai) Taar Tha did sani eet nearhearer ivan nian [aiyan_|ina [sina Tada ha Tra ini | %) sana _|itén [triton cide Hal! fer fom both Jiyon niyon [aon |isto | sito Tao Tago hadto | didto | 2 sadto | Interrogative pronouns are those that take place of the nouns in | questions. Interrogatives are used when a concept is being questioned and to elicit information so that an item can be identified. In Tagalog the interrogative pronouns are: sino ‘who, . saan ‘what, ’: alin ‘which; | kalian ‘when,’: paano ‘how,': and bakit ‘why.’ Indefinite pronouns refer t ‘© entities, persons, places or times which cannot be clearly established. 3.3.7 Numeral Terms and Numerical Expressions Most Philippine languages, have native terms for numbers ever, in the domain of money and time, Spanish termes ane used Numerals typically go with nouns to specify the number of th | How.chapter items talked about. They can indicate degree and quant cre Mify verbs and other priate t Y of action, The plural marker m, many Philippine languages, yore an approximation if it occurs bene Pronouns expressed their plurality 4 reduplication also indicat \ced /mana/) indicates plurality in , it can also be used to indicate plurali rea numeral or a measure word. es ph ity through their plural forms. Syllable plurality of arguments. 3.3.8 Clitic Particles daetetonk Constitute a group that adds meaning to the Sa ‘ich tale of the sentence. They are prosodically weak caial atwuich Bet ofa word (or other prosodic unit) with other ‘word in the clause, C is syntactically distinct, They follow the first full ~ Clitics are also polysemous; in most instances, they need to have a context to acquire meaning. The examples of clitics and their classifications in Tagalog are as follows: + Class 1: na ‘already,’ pa ‘still * Class 2: man ‘even’ * Class 3a: ba ‘question marker,’ din “too,” kasi ‘because,’ ho/po politeness marker,’ lamang ‘only,’ nga ‘really’ + Class 3b: daw ‘reportedly,’ muna ‘for a while,’ naman ‘instead’ + Class 4: kava ‘speculation marker,’ pala ‘surprise marker,” sana ‘hopefully,’ tuloy ‘as a result,’ yata ‘uncertainty marker” 33.9 Linkers Linkers are words which connects words, phrases and sentences into larger constructions. The linkers in Philippine languages usually are: na/nga/a, which is used to connect words, phrases and clauses, and ka, which is used in some languages to connect numerical expressions to the entity it modifies. 3.3.10 Conjunctions Conjunctions are connector words such as at ‘and,’ ngunit ‘but, ‘in order to’, which can also be kung “if? kahit “even,” upang/para é considered as linkers in the sense that they link one clause to another. These words link utterances in discourse to ensure an efficient and Coherent expression of thoughts. understanding Language AT48 Mother Tony "we Based Muitngual Education; Gude fo Toachor Educators and Studonts There are two major classifications of conjoinin, coordination ang Subordination conjunctions. Coordination is a process which combjn, milar types of constructions into larger units and still has the Same Semantic relations with other surrounding clements. Subordination, ,,” the other hand, connects two unequal clauses which involve part-who), relationship. . 3.3.11 Clause Structure A clause is the basic unit in discourse for accomplishing the nds of communication. It consists of at least a predicate (usually a very and an entity (noun), Clauses may be unmarked or pragmaticaljy marked. Unmarked clauses are simple declarative clauses which do no perform any specialized function other than to state an idea or transmi, information, Pragmatically marked clauses are used in more specializeq contexts, They may exhibit variant intonation (as in questions), worg order (as in focus.or cleft constructions), or clause structure (as jn relative clauses). Philippine languages are typically predicate-initial, as opposeq to the predicate-medial basic word order of English. That is, in pragmatically neutral declarative clauses, the verb appear first, followed by nominal arguments (nouns or pronouns). In English, the verb is preceded by the subject. For example, in Tagalog, one would usually say, “Kakain ako”, whereas in English one would usually say, “I will eat”, Notice that in the Tagalog example, the verb is at the start of the sentence, whereas the English sentence begins with a noun. Non-verbal constructions are simple clauses whose predicates are not verbs. They are a type of intransitive clause because they only have an $ argument and this can only be accompanied by oblique phrases. Existential constructions are exceptional because while they are intransitive, they do not have an § argument (Nolasco, 2011). The predicates of these verbs function to describe the existence, state, condition or location of the entity/entities being talked about. Non-verbal constructions may be classified into: (a) proper inclusion clauses, the entity being talked about belongs to a class specified in the predicate, e.g. Magsasaka si Lolo ‘Lolo is a farmer’; : (b) equative clauses, the entity being talked about is identical to the entity specified in the predicate, e.g Bestfriend ko si Kym ‘Kym is my best friend.’; attributive clauses, the attribute specified in the predicate applies to the entity talked about, e.g. Maganda si Benj ‘Ben is beautiful’; (cChapter 2 - Understanding Language 49 a) locativ ; ‘ ve clauses, the entity being talked about is in a certain location or condi ition, e. ie oe Korea’; -& Nasa Korea si Jianne ‘Jianne is in e) existenti: ( ial or presentative clauses, e.g assert that the existence of some i ” 3 Soto ha Rong te: Mey Berend 0) Fee ciiteh: assert the possession of one things or TEugs DY another, e.g. Pumasa sa scholarship grant si Kay 'y has qualified for a scholarship grant.” Pragmatically marked constructions are: (a) exclamatory clauses, which express extreme emotions, e.g.” lasusunog ang bahay! ‘The house is burning!”; (b) questions, Consists of two types: yes-no questions and question: word: questions, e.g. Pupunta ka ba ng Sweden, Christel? ‘Christel, are you going to Sweden?”, (yes-no), Saan ka pupunta? ‘Where are you going?” (question-word); (©) relative clauses, clauses that modify nominals, e.g Si Jean ang diwatang sasagip sa buhay niya ‘Jean is the fairy who will save his life.’; (d) imperative clauses, express command or request; © complement clauses, clauses which serve as one of the arguments, e.g Sinabi nya na matalino si Jezelle ‘She said that Jezelle is intelligent’; (0) preposed constructions, one of the participants moved to the front of the clause, Ang kamay ko ang hinawakan niya ‘(It is) my hand that she held’; (g) negation clauses, assert that some event, condition, state or situation does not hold, e.g. Tagalog Hindi tamad si Juan “Juan is not lazy,’ Masbatenyo Waran tawo sa balay ‘There’s no one in the house’. 4 LANGUAGE CHANGE Languages change gradually. Certain changes may be introduced at first as an optional rule (¢.g. colloquial terms, coinage, word manufacture, etc.) by any speaker of the language and spread gradually through an entire speech community. New vocabulary can be invented or adapted from other languages. change is the way children acquire A basic cause of languag' ; language, Fach child constructs a personal grammar on his/her own, from a diverse linguistic input. This may result to Which he/she derives