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Anneke Smelik
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The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies, First Edition. Edited by Nancy A. Naples.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss157
2 GAZE
poses the problem that the active male hero Gender; Visual Culture; Visual Culture and
offers ideal images for identification, whereas Gender
the image of the passive woman offers no
such visual pleasure for the female spectator. REFERENCES
As the structures of voyeurism (the desire Beauvoir, Simone de. 2009. The Second Sex.
to have the other) and narcissism (the desire London: Cape.
Berger, John. 1972. Ways of Seeing. Har-
to be the other) are both geared toward the
mondsworth: Penguin.
pleasures of a male audience, the female Foucault, Michel. 1979. Discipline and Punish: The
viewer has no other option but to identify Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage Books.
with a male gaze or adopt a marginal or Hall, Stuart, ed. 1997. Representation: Cultural Rep-
masochistic viewing position. Consequently, resentations and Signifying Practices. London:
feminist activists – ranging from theorists to Sage.
filmmakers – have tried to create a female Mulvey, Laura. 1989. “Visual Pleasure and Nar-
gaze and develop visual pleasures for a female rative Cinema.” In Visual and Other Pleasures,
14–26. London: Macmillan. First published
audience. Questions of a black women’s gaze
1974.
and a lesbian gaze were soon included in this
quest. The notion of the gaze as a device in FURTHER READING
power relations between the “races” was fur- Baudry, Jean-Louis. 1992. “Ideological Effects of
ther developed in black studies (Hall 1997). the Basic Cinematographic Apparatus.” In Film
Moving away from cinema, the gaze also Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings,
pertains to panopticism in society. A panoptic edited by Gerald Mast, Marshall Cohen, and
gaze is a form of disciplinary power involving Leo Braudy, 302–312. Oxford: Oxford Univer-
techniques of control and regulation. Michel sity Press.
Foucault (1979) argues that modern societies Freud, Sigmund. 1953. “Three Essays on the The-
ory of Sexuality.” In The Standard Edition of the
have installed technologies of surveillance
Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,
to discipline their subjects. Contemporary trans. James Strachey, vol. 7. London: Hogarth.
forms of surveillance, such as the routine Lacan, Jacques. 1977. “The Mirror Stage as Forma-
use of CCTV cameras, but also the ubiquity tive of the Function of the I as Revealed in Psy-
of media in the public realm, produce an choanalytic Experience.” In Écrits: A Selection,
anonymous and authoritative panoptic gaze. 1–7. New York: Norton.
Feminists have argued that the disciplining Metz, Christian. 1977. The Imaginary Signifier: Psy-
choanalysis and Cinema. London: Macmillan.
effect of the panoptic gaze is internalized by
Smelik, Anneke. 2007. “Feminist Film Theory.”
women in their relation to their own body. In The Cinema Book, edited by Pam Cook,
491–504. London: British Film Institute.
SEE ALSO: Feminism and Psychoanalysis;
Feminist Film Theory; Popular Culture and