Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Doug Hunsaker
Special thanks to Ben Moulton, Sabrina Snow, and Joseph Hammer for typesetting support
Contents
1 Basic Mathematical Properties 5
1.A Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.B Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.C Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.D Useful Trigonometric Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Fundamentals of Fluids 7
2.A Fundamental Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.B Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.C Dimensionless Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.D The Standard Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 Airfoil Theory 11
4.A Airfoil Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.B Thin Airfoil Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.C Vortex Panel Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1
5.F.3 Joukowski Airfoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6 Lifting-Line Theory 17
6.A Classical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.B Decomposed Fourier Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.B.1 Planform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.B.2 Washout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.B.3 Aileron Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.C Special Class of Lift Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6.D Lift Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7 Aircraft Performance 22
7.A Lift and Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.B Lift-To-Drag Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.C Power Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.D Rate of Climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.E Gliding Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.E.1 Sink Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.E.2 Glide Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.F Stall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.G Steady Coordinated Turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.H Takeoff and Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2
10 Equations of Motion 36
10.A Velocity Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
10.B Newton’s Second Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
10.C Euler Angle Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
10.D 6-DOF Rigid-Body Equations of Motion Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
10.E Linearized Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
10.E.1 Linearized Longitudinal Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.E.2 Linearized Lateral Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10.F Force and Moment Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10.F.1 Derivatives with respect to Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
10.F.2 Derivatives with respect to Rotation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
10.F.3 Derivatives with respect to Translational Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
10.F.4 Derivatives with respect to Control Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10.G Traditional Nondimensional Linearized Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.G.1 Nondimensional Linearized Longitudinal Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.G.2 Nondimensional Linearized Lateral Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.H Transformation of Stability Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11 Linearized Dynamics 48
11.A Linearized Longitudinal Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
11.A.1 Short-Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
11.A.2 Phugoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
11.B Linearized Lateral Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
11.B.1 Roll Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
11.B.2 Spiral Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
11.B.3 Dutch Roll Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
12 Maneuverability 53
12.A Longitudinal Trim with a Pitch Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
12.B Elevator Angle per 𝑔 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
12.C Dynamic Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
13 Flight Simulation 55
13.A Flat-Earth Euler-Angle Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
13.B Euler Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
13.C Euler-Rodriquez Quaternion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
13.D Quaternion Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
13.E Relations to Other Attitude Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.E.1 Euler Angles to Quaternion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.E.2 Quaternion to Euler Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.F Quaternion Renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.F.1 Exact Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.F.2 Approximate Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
13.G Flat-Earth Quaternion Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
13.H Geographic Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3
14.H Center of Gravity Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
15 Aerodynamic Models 66
15.A Aerodynamic Model Below Stall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
15.B Aerodynamic Coefficient Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
15.C Ground Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
15.C.1 Phillips and Hunsaker Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
15.C.2 Application to a Typical Aerodynamic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
15.D Aerodynamic Model Above Stall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
15.E Propulsion Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4
1. Basic Mathematical Properties
A. Cartesian Coordinates
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
∇𝜓 = 𝒊𝑥 + 𝒊𝑦 + 𝒊𝑧 (1.1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧
∇·V= + + (1.2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝒊𝑥 𝒊𝑦 𝒊𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×V= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 (1.3)
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑧𝑉𝑦
𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑥
= − 𝒊𝑥 + − 𝒊𝑦 + − 𝒊𝑧 (1.4)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
B. Cylindrical Coordinates
𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
∇𝜓 = 𝒊𝑟 + 𝒊𝜃 + 𝒊𝑧 (1.7)
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕 (𝑟𝑉𝑟 ) 1 𝜕𝑉 𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1 𝜕𝑉 𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝑉𝑟
∇·V= + + = + + + (1.8)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝑟
(1/𝑟)𝒊 𝑟 𝒊𝜃 (1/𝑟)𝒊 𝑧
∇×V= 𝜕
𝜕𝑟
𝜕
𝜕𝜃
𝜕
𝜕𝑧
(1.9)
𝑉𝑟 𝑟𝑉 𝜃 𝑉𝑧
1 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉 𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉 𝜃 1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝑉 𝜃
= − 𝒊𝑟 + − 𝒊𝜃 + − + 𝒊𝑧 (1.10)
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟
1 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕 2 𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕 2 𝜓
2 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
∇ 𝜓= 𝑟 + 2 2 + 2 = + + + 2 (1.11)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝑧
𝑉𝑟 2 𝜕𝑉 𝜃 2 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝑉 𝜃
∇2 V = ∇2𝑉𝑟 − 2 − 2 𝒊 𝑟 + ∇2𝑉 𝜃 + 2 − 2 𝒊 𝜃 + ∇2𝑉𝑧 𝒊 𝑧 (1.12)
𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟
C. Spherical Coordinates
𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓
∇𝜓 = 𝒊𝑟 + 𝒊𝜃 + 𝒊𝜑 (1.14)
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
1 𝜕 𝑟 2𝑉𝑟
1 𝜕 (𝑉 𝜃 sin 𝜃) 1 𝜕𝑉𝜑 𝜕𝑉𝑟 1 𝜕𝑉 𝜃 1 𝜕𝑉𝜑 2𝑉𝑟 𝑉 𝜃 cos 𝜃
∇·V= 2 + + = + + + + (1.15)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃
5
(1/𝑟 2 sin 𝜃)𝒊 𝑟 (1/𝑟 sin 𝜃)𝒊 𝜃 (1/𝑟)𝒊 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×V= 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜑 (1.16)
𝑉𝑟 𝑟𝑉 𝜃 𝑟𝑉𝜑 sin 𝜃
1 𝜑
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 𝜃 𝑉 𝜑 cos 𝜃 1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝜕𝑉𝜑 𝑉𝜑 𝜕𝑉 𝜃 1 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝑉 𝜃
= − + 𝒊𝑟 + − − 𝒊𝜃 + − + 𝒊𝜑 (1.17)
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟
𝜕2𝜓
1 𝜕 2 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 1
∇2 𝜓 = 2
𝑟 + 2
sin 𝜃 + (1.18)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 2
𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑2
𝜕 2 𝜓 2 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕 2 𝜓 cos 𝜃 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕2𝜓
= + + + + (1.19)
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝜕𝜑2
2𝑉𝑟 2 𝜕𝑉 𝜃 2𝑉 𝜃 cos 𝜃 2 𝜕𝑉𝜑
∇2 V = ∇2𝑉𝑟 − 2 − 2 − 2 − 2 𝒊𝑟
𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
2 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝜃 2 cos 𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝜑
+ ∇2𝑉 𝜃 + 2 − − 𝒊𝜃
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
2 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝜑 2 cos 𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝜑
+ ∇2𝑉 𝜑 + − + 𝒊𝜑 (1.20)
𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
∫ ∫
1 1 1 1
sin2 (𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 𝜃 − sin(2𝜃) cos2 (𝜃)𝑑𝜃 =
𝜃 + sin(2𝜃)
2 4 2 4
∫ ∫
1 1
sin3 (𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = − cos(𝜃) [sin2 (𝜃) + 2] cos3 (𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = sin(𝜃) [cos2 (𝜃) + 2]
3 3
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
sin𝑛 (𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 𝑛−1
𝑛 sin𝑛−2 (𝜃)𝑑𝜃 − 𝑛1 sin𝑛−1 (𝜃) cos(𝜃) cos𝑛 (𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 𝑛−1
𝑛 cos𝑛−2 (𝜃)𝑑𝜃 + 𝑛1 cos𝑛−1 (𝜃) sin(𝜃)
∫ 𝜋 ∫ 𝜋
sin(𝑛𝜃) sin(𝑚𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 0, if 𝑛, 𝑚 = integers and 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚 cos(𝑛𝜃) cos(𝑚𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 0, if 𝑛, 𝑚 = integers and 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚
0 0
sin(𝜃 ± 𝜙) = sin(𝜃) cos(𝜙) ± cos(𝜃) sin(𝜙) cos(𝜃 ± 𝜙) = cos(𝜃) cos(𝜙) ∓ sin(𝜃) sin(𝜙)
sin(2𝜃) = 2 sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃) cos(2𝜃) = 2 cos2 (𝜃) − 1
6
2. Fundamentals of Fluids
A. Fundamental Equations
Conservation of Mass:
𝜕𝜌
+ V · ∇𝜌 + 𝜌∇ · V = 0 (2.1)
𝜕𝑡
Euler Equations:
𝜕V
𝜌 + (V · ∇) V = −∇𝑝 − 𝜌𝑔∇𝐻 (2.2)
𝜕𝑡
Vorticity:
Ω=∇×V (2.3)
Circulation: ∮
Γ≡− V · ds (2.4)
𝐶
Net Volume Outflow: ∮
Λ≡ V · n𝑑𝑠 (2.5)
𝐶
Velocity Potential:
V = ∇𝜙 (2.6)
Laplace’s Equation:
∇2 𝜙 = 0 (2.7)
Bernoulli’s Equation:
1 2 𝑝
𝑉 + + 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐶 (2.8)
2 𝜌
Pressure Coefficient: 2
𝑝 − 𝑝∞ 𝑉
𝐶𝑝 ≡ 1 2
=1− (2.9)
2 𝜌𝑉∞
𝑉∞
Stagnation Pressure:
1 2
stagnation pressure ≡ 𝑝 0 = 𝑝 ∞ + 𝜌𝑉 (2.10)
2 ∞
B. Fluid Properties
Temperature:
°K ≡ °C + 273.150 (2.11)
°F ≡ 1.8(°C) + 32.0 (2.12)
°R ≡ °F + 459.670 (2.13)
Density of an Ideal Gas:
𝑝
𝜌= (2.14)
𝑅𝑇
Speed of Sound: p
𝑎= 𝛾𝑅𝑇 (2.15)
Sutherland’s equation for the dynamic viscosity of atmospheric air:
3/2
kg 𝑇 383.4K
𝜇 = 1.7153 × 10−5 (2.16)
m · s 273K 𝑇 + 110.4K
Kinematic Viscosity:
𝜇
𝜈≡ (2.17)
𝜌
7
C. Dimensionless Numbers
Mach Number:
𝑉
𝑀≡ (2.18)
𝑎
Knudsen Number:
𝜆
𝐾𝑛 ≡ (2.19)
𝑑
Reynolds Number:
𝜌𝑉 𝑑
𝑅𝑒 ≡ (2.20)
𝜇
Table 2.1 Temperature variation with geopotential altitude for the standard atmosphere.
The pressure at any geopotential altitude can be obtained from the integral of Eq. (2.25)
h i
𝑔𝑜 (𝑍 −𝑍𝑖 )
𝑝
𝑖
exp − 𝑅𝑇𝑖 , 𝑇𝑖0 = 0
𝑝(𝑍) = h 0
−𝑔
i 𝑜0 (2.28)
𝑝 𝑖 𝑇𝑖 +𝑇𝑖 𝑇(𝑍 −𝑍𝑖 ) 𝑅𝑇𝑖 , 𝑇𝑖0 ≠ 0
𝑖
8
3. Potential Flow Solutions
A. Uniform Flow
B. Line Source
Λ
𝜙(𝑟, 𝜃) = ln 𝑟 (3.3)
2𝜋
Λ
V(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) = ∇𝜙 = 𝒊 𝑟 + 0𝒊 𝜃 + 0𝒊 𝑧 (3.4)
2𝜋𝑟
C. Point Source
𝑄
𝜙(𝑟, 𝜃) = − (3.5)
4𝜋𝑟
𝑄
V(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑) = ∇𝜙 = 𝒊 𝑟 + 0𝒊 𝜃 + 0𝒊 𝜑 (3.6)
4𝜋𝑟 2
D. Line Vortex
Γ
𝜙(𝑟, 𝜃) = − 𝜃 (3.7)
2𝜋
Γ
V(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) = ∇𝜙 = 0𝒊 𝑟 − 𝒊 𝜃 + 0𝒊 𝑧 (3.8)
2𝜋𝑟
E. Line Doublet
𝜅 cos(𝜃 − 𝛼)
𝜙(𝑟, 𝜃) = (3.9)
2𝜋 𝑟
𝜅 cos(𝜃 − 𝛼) 𝜅 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼)
V(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) = ∇𝜙 = − 𝒊𝑟 − 𝒊 𝜃 + 0𝒊 𝑧 (3.10)
2𝜋 𝑟2 2𝜋 𝑟2
𝑅2
Γ
𝜙(𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 + cos 𝜃 − 𝜃 (3.11)
𝑟 2𝜋
𝑅2 𝑅2
Γ
V(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) = ∇𝜙 = 𝑉∞ 1 − 2 cos 𝜃𝒊 𝑟 − 𝑉∞ 1 + 2 sin 𝜃 + 𝒊 𝜃 + 0𝒊 𝑧 (3.12)
𝑟 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
G. Source Panel
( ) " #( )
𝑉𝑥 1 [−𝑦Φ + (𝑙 − 𝑥)Ψ + 𝑙] (𝑦Φ + 𝑥Ψ − 𝑙) 𝜆1
= (3.13)
𝑉𝑦 2𝜋𝑙 [(𝑙 − 𝑥)Φ + 𝑦Ψ] (𝑥Φ − 𝑦Ψ) 𝜆2
9
Φ = atan2 𝑦𝑙, 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑙 (3.14)
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
1
Ψ = ln (3.15)
2 (𝑥 − 𝑙) 2 + 𝑦 2
H. Vortex Panel
( ) " #( )
𝑉𝑥 1 [(𝑙 − 𝑥)Φ + 𝑦Ψ] (𝑥Φ − 𝑦Ψ) 𝛾1
= (3.16)
𝑉𝑦 2𝜋𝑙 [𝑦Φ − (𝑙 − 𝑥)Ψ − 𝑙] (−𝑦Φ − 𝑥Ψ + 𝑙) 𝛾2
Φ = atan2 𝑦𝑙, 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑙 (3.17)
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
1
Ψ = ln (3.18)
2 (𝑥 − 𝑙) 2 + 𝑦 2
I. Kutta-Joukowski Law
𝐿˜ = 𝜌𝑉∞ Γ (3.19)
10
4. Airfoil Theory
A. Airfoil Geometry
The upper and lower surface of an airfoil can be obtained from
𝑡 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 𝑐
𝑥 𝑢 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − q (4.1)
𝑑𝑥
2 1 + (𝑑𝑦 𝑐 /𝑑𝑥) 2
𝑡 (𝑥)
𝑦 𝑢 (𝑥) = 𝑦 𝑐 (𝑥) + q (4.2)
2 1 + (𝑑𝑦 𝑐 /𝑑𝑥) 2
𝑡 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 𝑐
𝑥𝑙 (𝑥) = 𝑥 + q (4.3)
𝑑𝑥
2 1 + (𝑑𝑦 𝑐 /𝑑𝑥) 2
𝑡 (𝑥)
𝑦 𝑙 (𝑥) = 𝑦 𝑐 (𝑥) − q (4.4)
2 1 + (𝑑𝑦 𝑐 /𝑑𝑥) 2
where the camber line and thickness distribution are given. The camber line and thickness distribution for the NACA
4-digit series is
2
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 𝑚𝑐 2 𝑥𝑚𝑐 − 𝑥𝑚𝑐 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 𝑚𝑐
,
𝑦 𝑐 (𝑥) = 2 (4.5)
𝑐−𝑥 𝑐−𝑥
2 − ≤ ≤
𝑦 𝑚𝑐 𝑐−𝑥𝑚𝑐 𝑐−𝑥𝑚𝑐 , 𝑥 𝑚𝑐 𝑥 𝑐
r 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥 4
𝑥
𝑡 (𝑥) = 𝑡 𝑚 2.969 − 1.260 − 3.516 + 2.843 − 1.015 (4.6)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
11
The resulting lift coefficient is
𝐿˜
∫ 𝜋
1 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑐
𝐶˜ 𝐿 ≡ 1 2
= 2𝜋 𝐴 0 + 𝐴 1 = 2𝜋 𝛼 − (1 − cos 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋 (𝛼 − 𝛼 𝐿0 ) (4.14)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑐
2 𝜋 𝜃=0 𝑑𝑥
where ∫ 𝜋
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑐
𝛼 𝐿0 = (1 − cos 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 (4.15)
𝜋 𝜃=0 𝑑𝑥
The pitching moment about the leading edge is
𝐶˜ 𝐿 𝜋 𝐶˜ 𝐿 1 𝐶˜ 𝐿
∫ 𝜋
𝑑𝑦 𝑐
𝐶˜𝑚𝑙𝑒 = − + ( 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 ) = − + [cos(2𝜃) − cos 𝜃]𝑑𝜃 = − + 𝐶˜𝑚𝑐/4 (4.16)
4 4 4 2 𝜃=0 𝑑𝑥 4
The pitching moment about the quarter chord is
𝐶˜ 𝐿 𝜋
∫ 𝜋
˜ ˜ 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑐
𝐶𝑚𝑐/4 = 𝐶𝑚𝑙𝑒 + = ( 𝐴2 − 𝐴1 ) = [cos(2𝜃) − cos 𝜃]𝑑𝜃 (4.17)
4 4 2 𝜃=0 𝑑𝑥
The location of the center of pressure is
∫ 𝜋
𝑥𝑐 𝑝 1 𝜋 1 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑐
= + ( 𝐴1 − 𝐴2 ) = + [cos 𝜃 − cos(2𝜃)]𝑑𝜃 (4.18)
𝑐 4 4𝐶˜ 𝐿 4 2𝐶˜ 𝐿 𝜃=0 𝑑𝑥
𝛾1 + 𝛾 𝑛 = 0 (4.22)
The influence of a single panel extending from node (𝑥 𝑗 , 𝑦 𝑗 ) to node (𝑥 𝑗+1 , 𝑦 𝑗+1 ) on a point located at (𝑥, 𝑦) can
be computed from q
𝑙𝑗 = (𝑥 𝑗+1 − 𝑥 𝑗 ) 2 + (𝑦 𝑗+1 − 𝑦 𝑗 ) 2 (4.23)
( ) " #( )
𝜉 1 (𝑥 𝑗+1 − 𝑥 𝑗 ) (𝑦 𝑗+1 − 𝑦 𝑗 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑗 )
= (4.24)
𝜂 𝑙 𝑗 −(𝑦 𝑗+1 − 𝑦 𝑗 ) (𝑥 𝑗+1 − 𝑥 𝑗 ) (𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑗 )
Φ = atan2 𝜂𝑙 𝑗 , 𝜂2 + 𝜉 2 − 𝜉𝑙 𝑗 (4.25)
1 h 𝜉 2 +𝜂 2 i
Ψ= ln ( 𝜉 −𝑙 ) 2 +𝜂 2 (4.26)
2 𝑗
12
" #" #
1 (𝑥 𝑗+1 − 𝑥 𝑗 ) −(𝑦 𝑗+1 − 𝑦 𝑗 ) (𝑙 𝑗 − 𝜉)Φ + 𝜂Ψ (𝜉Φ − 𝜂Ψ)
[𝑷] 𝑗 ( 𝑥,𝑦) = 2
(4.27)
2𝜋𝑙 𝑗 (𝑦 𝑗+1 − 𝑦 𝑗 ) (𝑥 𝑗+1 − 𝑥 𝑗 ) 𝜂Φ − (𝑙 𝑗 − 𝜉)Ψ − 𝑙 𝑗 (−𝜂Φ − 𝜉Ψ + 𝑙 𝑗 )
With these definitions, the coefficient matrix [ 𝐴] is constructed by computing the influence of every 𝑗th panel on
every 𝑖th point. This can be constructed from the algorithm
𝐴𝑖 𝑗 = 0.0, 𝑖 = 1, 𝑛; 𝑗 = 1, 𝑛 (4.28)
𝑥𝑖+1 −𝑥𝑖
𝑃21 𝑗𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖+1𝑙𝑖−𝑦𝑖 𝑃11 𝑗𝑖
)
𝐴𝑖 𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑗 + 𝑙𝑖
, 𝑖 = 1, 𝑛 − 1; 𝑗 = 1, 𝑛 − 1 (4.29)
𝐴𝑖 𝑗+1 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑗+1 + 𝑥𝑖+1𝑙𝑖−𝑥𝑖 𝑃22 𝑗𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖+1𝑙𝑖−𝑦𝑖 𝑃12 𝑗𝑖
𝛾1
[(𝑦 2 − 𝑦 1 ) cos 𝛼 − (𝑥 2 − 𝑥1 ) sin 𝛼]/𝑙 1
𝛾 2
[(𝑦 3 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝛼 − (𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 ) sin 𝛼]/𝑙 2
.
.
[𝑨] .. = 𝑉∞ .. (4.32)
𝛾𝑛−1
[(𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑦 𝑛−1 ) cos 𝛼 − (𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛−1 ) sin 𝛼]/𝑙 𝑛−1
𝛾
𝑛
0.0
𝑝 − 𝑝∞ 𝑉2
𝐶𝑝 ≡ 1
=1− (4.35)
2
2 𝜌𝑉∞
𝑉∞2
The section lift and pitching-moment coefficients can be computed from the know vortex strengths from
𝑛−1
Õ 𝑙 𝑖 𝛾𝑖 + 𝛾𝑖+1
𝐶˜ 𝐿 = (4.36)
𝑖=1
𝑐 𝑉∞
𝑛−1
1 Õ 𝑙 𝑖 2𝑥 𝑖 𝛾𝑖 + 𝑥𝑖 𝛾𝑖+1 + 𝑥𝑖+1 𝛾𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑖+1 𝛾𝑖+1 2𝑦 𝑖 𝛾𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑖 𝛾𝑖+1 + 𝑦 𝑖+1 𝛾𝑖 + 2𝑦 𝑖+1 𝛾𝑖+1
𝐶˜𝑚𝑙𝑒 = − cos 𝛼 + sin 𝛼 (4.37)
3 𝑖=1
𝑐 𝑐𝑉∞ 𝑐𝑉∞
13
5. Two-Dimensional Conformal Mapping
A. Fundamental Concepts
The complex velocity potential is
Φ = 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓 (5.1)
The Cauchy-Riemann conditions in Cartesian coordinates are
𝜕 𝑓𝑟 𝜕 𝑓𝑖
= (5.2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝑓𝑖 𝜕 𝑓𝑟
=− (5.3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
The Cauchy-Riemann conditions in polar coordinates are
𝜕 𝑓𝑟 1 𝜕 𝑓𝑖
= (5.4)
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕 𝑓𝑖 1 𝜕 𝑓𝑟
=− (5.5)
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
The complex velocity potential satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann conditions. Therefore, Φ is an analytic function of
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. The complex velocity is
𝑑Φ 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜙
𝑤(𝑧) ≡ = +𝑖 = −𝑖 = 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑖𝑉𝑦 (5.6)
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
1. Uniform Flow
2. Source Flow
Λ
Φ(𝑧) = ln 𝑧 + 𝐶 (5.9)
2𝜋
𝑑Φ Λ
𝑤(𝑧) = = (5.10)
𝑑𝑧 2𝜋𝑧
3. Vortex Flow
Γ
Φ(𝑧) = 𝑖 ln 𝑧 + 𝐶 (5.11)
2𝜋
𝑑Φ Γ
𝑤(𝑧) = =𝑖 (5.12)
𝑑𝑧 2𝜋𝑧
4. Doublet Flow
𝜅
Φ(𝑧) = +𝐶 (5.13)
2𝜋𝑧
𝑑Φ 𝜅
𝑤(𝑧) = =− (5.14)
𝑑𝑧 2𝜋𝑧2
14
5. Flow over a Circular Cylinder with Circulation
𝑅2 𝑒𝑖 𝛼
Γ
Φ(𝑧) = 𝑉∞ 𝑧𝑒 −𝑖 𝛼 + 𝑖 ln(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + +𝐶 (5.15)
2𝜋𝑉∞ 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑅2 𝑒𝑖 𝛼
𝑑Φ −𝑖 𝛼 Γ 1
𝑤(𝑧) = = 𝑉∞ 𝑒 +𝑖 − (5.16)
𝑑𝑧 2𝜋𝑉∞ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 (𝑧 − 𝑧 0 ) 2
C. Blasius Relations
D. Kutta-Joukowski Law
Flow over an arbitrary cross section
∞
Λ + 𝑖Γ Õ 𝐴𝑛
𝑤(𝑧) = 𝑉∞ 𝑒 −𝑖 𝛼 + + (5.21)
2𝜋𝑧 𝑛=2
𝑧𝑛
Resulting Forces
𝐴˜ − 𝑖 𝑁˜ = −𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑒 −𝑖 𝛼 (Λ + 𝑖Γ) (5.22)
𝐿˜ = 𝜌𝑉∞ Γ and 𝐷˜ = 0 (5.23)
Resulting Moment
(Λ + 𝑖Γ) 2
−𝑖 𝛼
𝑚˜ 0 = 𝜋𝜌 real 𝑖 + 2𝑉∞ 𝑒 𝐴2 (5.24)
4𝜋 2
E. Conformal Transformations
Definition
Φ2 (𝑧) = Φ1 [𝜁 (𝑧)] (5.25)
1. Joukowski Transformation
p
(𝑅 − 𝜀) 2 𝑧 ± 𝑧 2 − 4(𝑅 − 𝜀) 2
𝑧=𝜁+ or 𝜁= (5.26)
𝜁 2
15
2. Joukowski Cylinder
−𝑖 𝛼 Γ 2 𝑖𝛼 1
Φ(𝑧) = 𝑉∞ 𝜁 𝑒 +𝑖 ln(𝜁 − 𝑧 0 ) + 𝑅 𝑒 +𝐶 (5.27)
2𝜋𝑉∞ 𝜁 − 𝑧0
,
(𝑅 − 𝜀) 2
−𝑖 𝛼 Γ 1 2 𝑖𝛼 1
𝑤(𝑧) = 𝑉∞ 𝑒 +𝑖 −𝑅 𝑒 1 − (5.28)
2𝜋𝑉∞ 𝜁 − 𝑧 0 (𝜁 − 𝑧 0 ) 2 𝜁2
3. Joukowski Airfoils
q
𝜀 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 2 − 𝜂02 − 𝜉0 (5.29)
q
𝑧𝑡 = 2 2 2
𝑅 − 𝜂0 + 𝜉0 (5.30)
𝑅 2 − 𝜂02 + 𝜉02
𝑧𝑙 = −2 q (5.31)
𝑅 2 − 𝜂02 − 𝜉0
𝑅 2 − 𝜂02
𝑧𝑡 − 𝑧𝑙 = 4 q (5.32)
𝑅 2 − 𝜂02 − 𝜉0
q
Γ = 4𝜋𝑉∞ 𝑅 2 − 𝜂02 sin 𝛼 + 𝜂0 cos 𝛼 (5.33)
q
𝐿˜ = 𝜌𝑉∞ Γ = 4𝜋𝜌𝑉∞2 𝑅2 − 𝜂02 sin 𝛼 + 𝜂0 cos 𝛼 (5.34)
.q
𝐿˜ sin 𝛼 + 𝜂 0 cos 𝛼 𝑅 2 − 𝜂02
˜
𝐶𝐿 = 1 2 = 2𝜋 . q (5.35)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ (𝑧 𝑡 − 𝑧 𝑙 ) 1 + 𝜉0 𝑅 2 − 𝜂02 − 𝜉0
2𝜋
𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼 = . q (5.36)
1 + 𝜉0 𝑅 2 − 𝜂02 − 𝜉0
.q
−1 2 2
𝛼 𝐿0 = − tan 𝜂0 𝑅 − 𝜂0 (5.37)
!2
2 2 2
𝜋 𝑅 − 𝜂0 − 𝜉0
q
1 (𝑥 − 𝜉0 ) cos 𝛼 + (𝑦 − 𝜂0 ) sin 𝛼
𝐶˜𝑚𝑧 = sin 2𝛼 + 𝐶˜ 𝐿 𝑅2 − 𝜂02 − 𝜉0 (5.38)
4 𝑅 2 − 𝜂02 4 𝑅 2 − 𝜂02
16
6. Lifting-Line Theory
A. Classical Development
The fundamental lifting-line equation is
𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼
∫ 𝑏/2
2Γ(𝑧) 1 𝑑Γ
+ 𝑑𝜁 = 𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼 [𝛼(𝑧) − 𝛼 𝐿0 (𝑧)] (6.1)
𝑉∞ 𝑐(𝑧) 4𝜋𝑉∞ 𝜁 =−𝑏/2 𝑧 − 𝜁 𝑑𝑧 𝑧=𝜁
We assume a circulation distribution that can be written in terms of a Fourier sine series
𝑁
Õ
Γ(𝜃) = 2𝑏𝑉∞ 𝐴 𝑗 sin( 𝑗 𝜃) (6.2)
𝑗=1
𝜋𝑅 𝐴
𝐶ℓ = − 𝐴2 (6.7)
4
𝑁
𝜋𝑅 𝐴 Õ 𝜋𝑅 𝐴 𝑝¯
𝐶𝑛 = (2 𝑗 − 1) 𝐴 𝑗−1 𝐴 𝑗 − ( 𝐴1 + 𝐴3 ) (6.8)
4 𝑗=2 8
𝐴 𝑗 = 𝑎 𝑗 (𝛼 − 𝛼 𝐿0 )root − 𝑏 𝑗 Ω + 𝑐 𝑗 𝛿 𝑎 + 𝑑 𝑗 𝑝¯ (6.10)
where Ω is the washout amount, 𝛿 𝑎 is the aileron deflection, and 𝑝¯ is the dimensionless rolling rate defined as
𝑝¯ = 𝑝𝑏/2𝑉∞ . The decomposed Fourier coefficients can be computed from the planform distribution 𝑐(𝜃), the washout
distribution 𝜔(𝜃), aileron distribution 𝜒(𝜃), and linear change in angle of attack due to rolling rate cos(𝜃)
𝑁
Õ 4𝑏 𝑗
𝑎𝑗 + sin( 𝑗 𝜃) = 1 (6.11)
𝑗=1 𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼 𝑐(𝜃) sin(𝜃)
17
𝑁
Õ 4𝑏 𝑗
𝑏𝑗 + sin( 𝑗 𝜃) = 𝜔(𝜃) (6.12)
𝑗=1 𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼 𝑐(𝜃) sin(𝜃)
𝑁
Õ 4𝑏 𝑗
𝑐𝑗 + sin( 𝑗 𝜃) = 𝜒(𝜃) (6.13)
𝑗=1 𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼 𝑐(𝜃) sin(𝜃)
𝑁
Õ 4𝑏 𝑗
𝑑𝑗 + sin( 𝑗 𝜃) = cos(𝜃) (6.14)
𝑗=1 𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼 𝑐(𝜃) sin(𝜃)
Once the decomposed Fourier coefficients have been computed, the integrated forces and moments on the wing can be
computed by evaluating the Fourier coefficients given in Eq. (10) and using these in Eqs. (5-8).
For the special case of steady level flight when the aileron deflection and rolling rate are zero, the induced-drag
coefficient can be computed from
𝐶 𝐿2 (1 + 𝜅 𝐷 ) − 𝜅 𝐷𝐿 𝐶 𝐿 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 Ω + 𝜅 𝐷Ω (𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 Ω) 2
𝐶𝐷𝑖 = (6.15)
𝜋𝑅 𝐴
where
Õ𝑁 𝑎 2𝑗
𝜅𝐷 ≡ 𝑗 2 (6.16)
𝑗=2
𝑎1
𝑁
𝑏1 Õ 𝑎 𝑗 𝑏 𝑗 𝑎 𝑗
𝜅 𝐷𝐿 ≡2 𝑗 − (6.17)
𝑎 1 𝑗=2 𝑎 1 𝑏 1 𝑎 1
2 Õ𝑁
𝑏𝑗 𝑎𝑗 2
𝑏1
𝜅 𝐷Ω ≡ 𝑗 − (6.18)
𝑎1 𝑗=2
𝑏1 𝑎1
For the special case when the wing planform and washout distribution are both symmetric, and when the
aileron distribution and effects of rolling rate are antisymmetric, the lift can be computed from
where
𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼
𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 = 𝜋𝑅 𝐴 𝑎 1 = (6.20)
[1 + 𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼 /(𝜋𝑅 𝐴)] (1 + 𝜅 𝐿 )
1 − (1 + 𝜋𝑅 𝐴/𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼 )𝑎 1
𝜅𝐿 ≡ (6.21)
(1 + 𝜋𝑅 𝐴/𝐶˜ 𝐿, 𝛼 )𝑎 1
𝑏1
𝜀Ω ≡ (6.22)
𝑎1
and the integrated rolling moment can be computed from
where
𝜋𝑅 𝐴
𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑎 = −
𝑐2 (6.24)
4
𝜋𝑅 𝐴
𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ = − 𝑑2 (6.25)
4
The steady-state rolling rate can be found from Eq. (6.23) by recognizing that the rolling moment at a steady rolling rate
is zero. Using this in Eq. (6.23) and solving for the rolling rate gives
𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑎
𝑝¯steady = − 𝛿𝑎 (6.26)
𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯
18
1. Planform
The chord distribution of an elliptic wing is given by
𝑐(𝑧) 4 p 𝑐(𝜃) 4
= 1 − (2𝑧/𝑏) 2 or = sin(𝜃) (6.27)
𝑏 𝜋𝑅 𝐴 𝑏 𝜋𝑅 𝐴
The chord distribution of a wing with a tapered planform is given by
𝑐(𝑧) 2 𝑐(𝜃) 2
= [1 − (1 − 𝑅𝑇 )|2𝑧/𝑏|] or = [1 − (1 − 𝑅𝑇 )| cos(𝜃)|] (6.28)
𝑏 𝑅 𝐴 (1 + 𝑅𝑇 ) 𝑏 𝑅 𝐴 (1 + 𝑅𝑇 )
2. Washout
The washout distribution is defined as
𝛼(𝜃) − 𝛼 𝐿0 (𝜃) − (𝛼 − 𝛼 𝐿0 )𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑡
𝜔(𝜃) ≡ (6.29)
(𝛼 − 𝛼 𝐿0 ) 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (𝛼 − 𝛼 𝐿0 )𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑡
Linear washout is given by
𝜔(𝑧) = |2𝑧/𝑏| or 𝜔(𝜃) = | cos(𝜃)| (6.30)
For any given planform, the optimum distribution of washout to minimize induced drag is
p
1 − (2𝑧/𝑏) 2 sin(𝜃)
𝜔opt (𝑧) = 1 − or 𝜔opt (𝜃) = 1 − (6.31)
𝑐(𝑧)/𝑐 root 𝑐(𝜃)/𝑐 root
The optimum amount of washout to minimize induced drag during steady-level flight at a given lift coefficient is
𝜅 𝐷𝐿 𝐶 𝐿𝑑
Ωopt = (6.32)
2𝜅 𝐷Ω 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼
3. Aileron Distribution
The aileron distribution can be defined as
0, 𝑧 < −𝑧 𝑎𝑡
𝜀 (𝑧), −𝑧 𝑎𝑡 < 𝑧 < −𝑧 𝑎𝑟
𝑓
𝜒(𝑧) ≡ 0, −𝑧 𝑎𝑟 < 𝑧 < 𝑧 𝑎𝑟 (6.33)
−𝜀 𝑓 (𝑧),
𝑧 𝑎𝑟 < 𝑧 < 𝑧 𝑎𝑡
0,
𝑧 > 𝑧 𝑎𝑡
where 𝜀 𝑓 is the section flap effectiveness. This effectiveness can be computed from
𝜀 𝑓 = 𝜂ℎ 𝜂𝑑 𝜀 𝑓 𝑖 (6.34)
where 𝜂 ℎ is the hinge efficiency, 𝜂 𝑑 is the deflection efficiency, and 𝜀 𝑓 𝑖 is the ideal flap effectiveness given by
𝜃 𝑓 − sin 𝜃 𝑓
𝜀𝑓 𝑖 = 1 − (6.35)
𝜋
where 𝑐𝑓
𝜃 𝑓 = cos−1 2 −1 (6.36)
𝑐
19
C. Special Class of Lift Distributions
There exists a special class of lift distributions of interest in the design of wings to minimize induced drag. This
class is defined by the case where 𝐵 𝑗 = 0 for all 𝑛 ≠ 3 where
𝐴𝑗
𝐵𝑗 ≡ (6.37)
𝐴1
This includes the elliptic lift distribution (𝐵3 = 0), Prandtl’s 1933 bell-shaped lift distribution (𝐵3 = −1/3), and others.
Any wing can be designed to produce these lift distributions. For a given planform, a wing with
D. Lift Distributions
The lift distribution can be computed by using Eq. (6.2) with the Kutta-Joukowski Law
˜
𝐿(𝜃) = 𝜌𝑉∞ Γ(𝜃) (6.41)
A dimensionless lift distribution can be defined by dividing by the dynamic pressure and wingspan
˜
𝐿(𝜃)
𝐶ˆ 𝐿 (𝜃) = 1 2 (6.42)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑏
The contributions to this dimensionless lift distribution from planform, washout, aileron deflection, and rolling rate can
be computed from
𝐶ˆ 𝐿 (𝜃) = 𝐶ˆ 𝐿planform + 𝐶ˆ 𝐿washout + 𝐶ˆ 𝐿aileron + 𝐶ˆ 𝐿roll (6.43)
where
𝑁
Õ
𝐶ˆ 𝐿planform (𝜃) = 4(𝛼 − 𝛼 𝐿0 )root 𝑎 𝑗 sin( 𝑗 𝜃) (6.44)
𝑗=1
𝑁
Õ
𝐶ˆ 𝐿washout (𝜃) = −4Ω 𝑏 𝑗 sin( 𝑗 𝜃) (6.45)
𝑗=1
𝑁
Õ
𝐶ˆ 𝐿aileron (𝜃) = 4𝛿 𝑎 𝑐 𝑗 sin( 𝑗 𝜃) (6.46)
𝑗=1
𝑁
Õ
𝐶ˆ 𝐿roll (𝜃) = 4 𝑝¯ 𝑑 𝑗 sin( 𝑗 𝜃) (6.47)
𝑗=1
The contributions of planform, washout, aileron deflection, and rolling rate to the local section lift coefficient can be
found from
𝐶˜ 𝐿 (𝜃) = 𝐶˜ 𝐿planform + 𝐶˜ 𝐿washout + 𝐶˜ 𝐿aileron + 𝐶˜ 𝐿roll (6.49)
20
where
𝑏
𝐶˜ 𝐿planform (𝜃) = 𝐶ˆ 𝐿planform (6.50)
𝑐(𝜃)
𝑏
𝐶˜ 𝐿washout (𝜃) = 𝐶ˆ 𝐿washout (6.51)
𝑐(𝜃)
𝑏
𝐶˜ 𝐿aileron (𝜃) = 𝐶ˆ 𝐿aileron (6.52)
𝑐(𝜃)
𝑏
𝐶˜ 𝐿roll (𝜃) = 𝐶ˆ 𝐿roll (6.53)
𝑐(𝜃)
21
7. Aircraft Performance
B. Lift-To-Drag Ratio
The lift-to-drag ratio in steady level flight is
1 2
𝐿 2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝐶 𝐿 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿
= 1
= = (7.3)
𝐷 2 𝐶𝐷 𝐶 + 𝐶 𝐶 + 𝐶𝐿2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝐶 𝐷 𝐷0 𝐷1 𝐿 𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴
C. Power Required
The power required is
𝑃 𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉 cos 𝛼𝑇 = 𝐷𝑉 (7.7)
Using the small-thrust approximation, this can be written in terms of lift coefficient as
! s
√ 𝐶𝐷0 𝐶𝐷1 𝐶 𝐿1/2 𝑊 𝑆𝑤
𝑃 𝑅 = 2 3/2 + 1/2 + 𝑊 (7.8)
𝐶 𝐶 𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴 𝜌
𝐿 𝐿
or in terms of velocity as
𝐶𝐷0 𝜌𝑉 3
2(𝑊/𝑆 𝑤 )
𝑃𝑅 = + 𝐶𝐷1 𝑉 + 𝑊 (7.9)
2(𝑊/𝑆 𝑤 ) 𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴 𝜌𝑉
The power required is minimized when
𝐶 𝐿2
3𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐶𝐷1 𝐶 𝐿 = (7.10)
𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴
This occurs at a velocity of
s
2 𝑊/𝑆 𝑤
𝑉𝑀 𝐷𝑉 = q (7.11)
p 𝜌
𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴𝐶𝐷1 + (𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴𝐶𝐷1 )2 + 12𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴𝐶𝐷0
22
and results in a power required of
√ 1/4 s
4 2𝐶𝐷0 𝑊/𝑆 𝑤
𝑃 𝑅min = (𝐷𝑉) min =˜ 𝑊 (7.12)
(3𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴) 3/4 𝜌
D. Rate of Climb
The rate of climb is
𝑃 𝐴 − 𝑃𝑅
𝑉𝑐 = (7.13)
𝑊
E. Gliding Flight
1. Sink Rate
The sink rate is the negative of the climb rate with zero power
𝑃 𝑅 𝐷𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = = (7.14)
𝑊 𝑊
This can be written in terms of velocity as
𝑃𝑅 𝐶𝐷0 𝜌𝑉 3 2(𝑊/𝑆 𝑤 )
𝑉𝑠 = = + 𝐶 𝐷1 𝑉 (7.15)
𝑊 2(𝑊/𝑆 𝑤 ) 𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴 𝜌𝑉
The sink rate is minimized at the same speed that minimizes power required
s
2 𝑊/𝑆 𝑤
𝑉𝑀 𝑆 = 𝑉𝑀 𝐷𝑉 = q (7.16)
p 𝜌
𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴𝐶𝐷1 + (𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴𝐶𝐷1 ) 2 + 12𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴𝐶𝐷0
2. Glide Ratio
The glide ratio is defined as
𝑉𝑔
𝑅𝐺 = (7.17)
𝑉𝑠
With zero wind, the glide ratio is equal to the lift-to-drag ratio
𝐿
𝑅𝐺 = (7.18)
𝐷
Hence, the maximum zero-wind glide ratio is the max lift-to-drag ratio
√
𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴
(𝑅𝐺0 ) max = (𝐶 𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 ) max = p √ (7.19)
2 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐶𝐷1 𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴
and the velocity that maximizes the zero-wind glide ratio is the same velocity that maximizes the lift-to-drag ratio
√ s
2 𝑊/𝑆 𝑤
𝑉𝐵𝐺0 = 𝑉𝑀 𝐷 =˜ p (7.20)
4 𝜌
𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝐴𝐶𝐷0
In general, the glide ratio depends on wind and can be expressed as a function of velocity as
q
2 2 𝜑
1 − 𝑉𝑤 sin
𝑉2
𝑤
− 𝑉𝑤 cos
𝑉
𝜑𝑤
𝑅𝐺 =˜ 1 2 (7.21)
2 𝜌𝑉 𝐶𝐷0 𝑊 /𝑆𝑤
𝑊 /𝑆𝑤 + 𝐶𝐷1 + 1 𝜋𝑒𝑅 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴
2
The velocity that maximizes the glide ratio with wind is found by numerically solving the equation
s
𝑉𝑤2 sin2 𝜑2 𝑉𝑤 sin2 𝜑 𝑤 ª
2 𝑉 4 − 𝑉𝑀
4
− 3𝑉 4
− 4
cos 1 − + ®=0 (7.22)
©
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑤 𝜑 𝑤
𝐷 𝑀𝐷
𝑉2
𝑉
« ¬
23
F. Stall
The minimum velocity is equivalent to the stall speed
r s
2 𝑊/𝑆 𝑤
𝑉min = (7.23)
𝐶 𝐿 max 𝜌
𝑉 2 cos 𝛾
𝑅= (7.24)
𝑔 tan 𝜙
The stall-limited bank angle can be found from
𝑊
cos 𝜙max = 1
(7.25)
2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝐶 𝐿 max
The turn radius is related to load factor for a nearly-level turn according to
𝑉2
𝑅= √ (7.28)
𝑔 𝑛2 − 1
The maneuvering speed is the velocity at which the tightest turns can be performed. This is also called the corner
velocity and is the same velocity that gives us the maximum turning rate
s s
2𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑙 𝑊max /𝑆 𝑤 √
𝑉𝑀 = = 𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑙 𝑉smgw (7.29)
𝐶 𝐿max 𝜌
where thrust, drag, and rolling friction are all functions of velocity
24
1 2
𝐹𝑟 = 𝜇𝑟 (𝑊 − 𝐿) = 𝜇𝑟 (𝑊 − 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝐶 𝐿 ) (7.34)
2
Notice that the drag equation has been altered slightly to account for ground effect on the induced drag.
The liftoff speed is 10% above the stall speed
r s
2 𝑊/𝑆 𝑤
𝑉𝐿𝑂 = 1.1 (7.35)
𝐶 𝐿 max 𝜌
25
8. Longitudinal Static Trim and Stability
The longitudinal forces and moment can be written in nondimensional form as
𝐴
𝐶𝐴 ≡ 1 2
(8.1)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝑤
𝑁
𝐶𝑁 ≡ 1 2
(8.2)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝑤
𝑚
𝐶𝑚 ≡ 1 2
(8.3)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯ 𝑤
Assuming that the vertical offset between the center of gravity and the aircraft neutral point is small, and applying the
small angle approximation, the traditional estimate for the static margin can be written as
𝑙𝑛 𝑝 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼
𝜎= =− (8.6)
𝑐¯𝑤 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼
The static margin is related to the location of the neutral point relative to the center of gravity, and can be estimated
from the pitch stability derivative and the lift slope.
and the summation of pitching moment about the center of gravity can be written as
𝑆 ℎ 𝑐¯ℎ 𝑙𝑤 𝑆ℎ 𝑙ℎ
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚 𝑤 + 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝑚ℎ − 𝐶𝐿 − 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ = 0 (8.8)
𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑤 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
where
𝐶 𝐿𝑤 = 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 , 𝛼 (𝛼 + 𝛼0𝑤 − 𝛼 𝐿0𝑤 ) (8.9)
𝐶 𝐿ℎ = 𝐶 𝐿ℎ , 𝛼 (1 − 𝜀 𝑑, 𝛼 )𝛼 + 𝛼0ℎ − 𝛼 𝐿0ℎ − 𝜀 𝑑0 + 𝜀 𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (8.10)
𝐶 𝑚 ℎ = 𝐶 𝑚 ℎ 0 + 𝐶 𝑚 ℎ , 𝛿𝑒 𝛿 𝑒 (8.11)
If all geometric properties are known, Eqs. (8.7) and (8.8) can be combined into a system of equations to solve for
the required angle of attack and elevator deflection for a given operating condition
" #( ) " #
𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 𝛼 𝐶 𝐿 − 𝐶 𝐿0
= (8.12)
𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 −𝐶𝑚0
26
where
𝑆ℎ
𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 = 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 , 𝛼 + 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ , 𝛼 (1 − 𝜀 𝑑, 𝛼 ) (8.13)
𝑆𝑤
𝑆ℎ
𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 = 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ , 𝛼 𝜀 𝑒 (8.14)
𝑆𝑤
𝑊 cos 𝛾
𝐶𝐿 = 1 2
(8.15)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝑤
𝑆ℎ
𝐶 𝐿0 = 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 , 𝛼 (𝛼0𝑤 − 𝛼 𝐿0𝑤 ) + 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ , 𝛼 (𝛼0ℎ − 𝛼 𝐿0ℎ − 𝜀 𝑑0 ) (8.16)
𝑆𝑤
𝑙𝑤 𝑆ℎ 𝑙ℎ
𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 = − 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 , 𝛼 − 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ , 𝛼 (1 − 𝜀 𝑑, 𝛼 ) (8.17)
𝑐¯𝑤 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
𝑆 ℎ 𝑐¯ℎ 𝑆ℎ 𝑙ℎ
𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑒 = 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝑚 ℎ , 𝛿𝑒 − 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ , 𝛼 𝜀 𝑒 (8.18)
𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
𝑆 ℎ 𝑐¯ℎ 𝑙𝑤 𝑆ℎ 𝑙ℎ
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚 𝑤 + 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝑚ℎ 0 − 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 , 𝛼 (𝛼0𝑤 − 𝛼 𝐿0𝑤 ) − 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ , 𝛼 (𝛼0ℎ − 𝛼 𝐿0ℎ − 𝜀 𝑑0 ) (8.19)
𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
and 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 is the pitch stability derivative.
D. Estimating Downwash
Downwash is a complex phenomenon that can only be accurately predicted or measured from high-fidelity CFD
simulations, inviscid solutions, panel codes, or experimental results. However, during the early phases of design,
approximations for downwash can be very useful. This section presents relations that can be used to estimate downwash
or upwash in the vicinity of a main wing.
The vortex-span factor 𝜅 𝑏 is the ratio of the distance between the two trailing vortices and the wing span. It can be
computed from lifting-line theory as
∞ ,
𝑏 0 𝜋 Õ
𝑗 𝐴𝑗
𝜅𝑏 ≡ = + 2
cos( 𝑗 𝜋/2) 𝜅 𝑣 (8.23)
𝑏 4 𝑗=2 ( 𝑗 − 1) 𝐴1
27
For an elliptic lift distribution, 𝜅 𝑣 = 1 and 𝜅 𝑏 = 𝜋/4.
2. Plane of Symmetry
The downwash angle in the plane of symmetry of the aircraft (𝑧 = 0) can be estimated from
𝜅 𝑣 𝜅 𝑝 𝐶 𝐿𝑤
𝜀 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦, 0) = (8.24)
𝜅 𝑏 𝑅 𝐴𝑤
where " #
2 ˆ 𝑥ˆ 2 + 2 𝑦ˆ 2 + 1)
𝑥(
𝜅𝑝 = 2 2 1+ p (8.25)
𝜋 ( 𝑦ˆ + 1) ( 𝑥ˆ 2 + 𝑦ˆ 2 ) 𝑥ˆ 2 + 𝑦ˆ 2 + 1
3. Sweep Effects
Effects of sweep can be approximated by neglecting the effect of sweep on 𝜅 𝑣 and 𝜅 𝑏 and including a correction
factor that accounts for the change in position of the tips of the main wing
𝜅 𝑣 𝜅 𝑝 𝜅 𝑠 𝐶 𝐿𝑤
𝜀 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦, 0) = (8.26)
𝜅 𝑏 𝑅 𝐴𝑤
ˆ
𝑥−tan Λ 𝑥ˆ ( 𝑟ˆ +𝑡ˆ) ( 𝑡ˆ02 − 𝑥ˆ 2 )
1+ 𝑡ˆ
+ 𝑟ˆ 𝑡 ( 𝑟ˆ 𝑡ˆ+𝑟ˆ 2 − 𝑥ˆ tan Λ)
ˆ
𝜅𝑠 = (8.27)
𝑥ˆ ( 𝑟ˆ 2 +𝑡ˆ02 − 𝑥ˆ 2 )
1+ 𝑟ˆ 2 𝑡ˆ0
where q
𝑟ˆ ≡ 𝑥ˆ 2 + 𝑦ˆ 2 (8.28)
q
𝑡ˆ ≡ ( 𝑥ˆ − tan Λ) 2 + 𝑦ˆ 2 + 1 (8.29)
q
𝑡ˆ0 ≡ 𝑥ˆ 2 + 𝑦ˆ 2 + 1 (8.30)
16 𝐶 𝐿𝑤
𝜀 𝑑 (𝑥 → ∞, 0, 0) = (8.31)
𝜋 3 𝑅 𝐴𝑤
28
𝑙 𝑤 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 − ℎ 𝑤 𝐶𝐷𝑤 ℎ 𝑤 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 + 𝑙 𝑤 𝐶𝐷𝑤
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚 𝑤 − cos(𝛼 − 𝜀 𝑤 ) − sin(𝛼 − 𝜀 𝑤 )
𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
𝑆ℎ 𝑐¯ℎ 𝑙 ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ − ℎ ℎ 𝐶 𝐷ℎ ℎ ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ + 𝑙 ℎ 𝐶 𝐷ℎ ℎ𝑇
+ 𝜂ℎ 𝐶 𝑚ℎ − cos(𝛼 − 𝜀 ℎ ) − sin(𝛼 − 𝜀 ℎ ) = 𝐶𝑇 (8.34)
𝑆𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
where
𝑇
𝐶𝑇 = 1 2
(8.35)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝑤
The lift on the main wing can include upwash or downwash
and the lift on the horizontal control surface can be computed from
The drag on the main wing and horizontal control surface can be computed from
𝐶 𝐿2 𝑤
𝐶𝐷𝑤 = 𝐶𝐷0𝑤 + 𝐶𝐷1𝑤 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 + (8.38)
𝜋𝑒 𝑤 𝑅 𝐴𝑤
𝐶 𝐿2 ℎ
𝐶𝐷ℎ = 𝐶𝐷0ℎ + 𝐶𝐷1ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ + (8.39)
𝜋𝑒 ℎ 𝑅 𝐴ℎ
The pitching moment on the horizontal control surface can be computed from Eq. (8.8). The system of equations given
in Eqs. (8.29)-(8.31) are nonlinear. Given a geometry and flight condition, the angle of attack and elevator deflection
required to trim the aircraft must be solved iteratively.
The pitch stability derivative can be found from Eq. (8.31) by taking the first derivative with respect to angle of
attack
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑙 𝑤 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 − ℎ 𝑤 𝐶𝐷𝑤 ℎ 𝑤 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 + 𝑙 𝑤 𝐶𝐷𝑤
= sin(𝛼 − 𝜀 𝑤 ) − cos(𝛼 − 𝜀 𝑤 ) (1 − 𝜀 𝑤 , 𝛼 )
𝜕𝛼 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
𝑙𝑤 ℎ𝑤
− cos(𝛼 − 𝜀 𝑤 ) + sin(𝛼 − 𝜀 𝑤 ) 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 , 𝛼 (1 − 𝜀 𝑤 , 𝛼 )
𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
ℎ𝑤 𝑙𝑤 2𝐶 𝐿𝑤
+ cos(𝛼 − 𝜀 𝑤 ) − sin(𝛼 − 𝜀 𝑤 ) 𝐶𝐷1𝑤 + 𝐶 𝐿𝑤 , 𝛼 (1 − 𝜀 𝑤 , 𝛼 )
𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝜋𝑒 𝑤 𝑅 𝐴𝑤
(8.40)
𝑆ℎ 𝑙 ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ − ℎ ℎ 𝐶 𝐷ℎ ℎ ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ + 𝑙 ℎ 𝐶 𝐷ℎ
+ 𝜂ℎ sin(𝛼 − 𝜀 ℎ ) − cos(𝛼 − 𝜀 ℎ ) (1 − 𝜀 ℎ, 𝛼 )
𝑆𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
𝑆ℎ 𝑙ℎ ℎℎ
− 𝜂ℎ cos(𝛼 − 𝜀 ℎ ) + sin(𝛼 − 𝜀 ℎ ) 𝐶 𝐿ℎ , 𝛼 (1 − 𝜀 ℎ, 𝛼 )
𝑆𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
𝑆ℎ ℎℎ 𝑙ℎ 2𝐶 𝐿ℎ
+ 𝜂ℎ cos(𝛼 − 𝜀 ℎ ) − sin(𝛼 − 𝜀 ℎ ) 𝐶𝐷1ℎ + 𝐶 𝐿ℎ , 𝛼 (1 − 𝜀 ℎ, 𝛼 )
𝑆𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝜋𝑒 ℎ 𝑅 𝐴ℎ
F. Aerodynamic Center
The aerodynamic center of an airfoil, wing, or entire aircraft can be found from the following development. The
aerodynamic center is the point that satisfies the two conditions
𝜕𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐
≡0 (8.41)
𝜕𝛼
and
𝜕𝑥 𝑎𝑐 𝜕𝑦 𝑎𝑐
≡ 0, ≡0 (8.42)
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼
29
The pitching moment about the origin can be expressed in terms of the pitching moment about the aerodynamic
center as
𝑥 𝑎𝑐 𝑦 𝑎𝑐
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 − 𝐶𝑁 + 𝐶𝐴 (8.43)
𝑐 ref 𝑐 ref
Taking the first derivative with respect to alpha and applying Eq. (8.38) gives the neutral axis line
𝑥 𝑎𝑐 𝑦 𝑎𝑐
𝐶𝑁 , 𝛼 − 𝐶 𝐴, 𝛼 = −𝐶𝑚0 , 𝛼 (8.44)
𝑐 ref 𝑐 ref
Taking the derivative of Eq. (8.41) with respect to alpha gives a second line
𝑥 𝑎𝑐 𝑦 𝑎𝑐
𝐶 𝑁 , 𝛼, 𝛼 − 𝐶 𝐴, 𝛼, 𝛼 = −𝐶𝑚0 , 𝛼, 𝛼 (8.45)
𝑐 ref 𝑐 ref
The intercept of these two lines is the aerodynamic center. The intersection of these two lines is
𝑥 𝑎𝑐 𝐶 𝐴, 𝛼 𝐶𝑚0 , 𝛼, 𝛼 − 𝐶𝑚0 , 𝛼 𝐶 𝐴, 𝛼, 𝛼
= (8.46)
𝑐 ref 𝐶 𝑁 , 𝛼 𝐶 𝐴, 𝛼, 𝛼 − 𝐶 𝐴, 𝛼 𝐶 𝑁 , 𝛼, 𝛼
𝑦 𝑎𝑐 𝐶 𝑁 , 𝛼 𝐶𝑚0 , 𝛼, 𝛼 − 𝐶𝑚0 , 𝛼 𝐶 𝑁 , 𝛼, 𝛼
= (8.47)
𝑐 ref 𝐶 𝑁 , 𝛼 𝐶 𝐴, 𝛼, 𝛼 − 𝐶 𝐴, 𝛼 𝐶 𝑁 , 𝛼, 𝛼
In general, the aerodynamic center is a function of angle of attack.
where q
𝑑 𝑓 ≡ 2 𝑆 𝑓 /𝜋 (8.49)
This can be written in terms of the pitching-moment effect on the entire aircraft as
H. Contribution of Propellers
The contribution of a running propeller can be written as
where
ℎ𝑝 2𝑑 2𝑝 𝑙 𝑝 𝐶 𝑁 𝑝 , 𝛼
(𝐶𝑚0 ) 𝑝 = − 𝐶𝐷 − (𝛼0 𝑝 − 𝜀 𝑑0 𝑝 ) (8.54)
𝑐¯𝑤 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝐽 2
2𝑑 2𝑝 𝑙 𝑝 𝐶𝑁 𝑝 , 𝛼
(𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 ) 𝑝 = − (1 − 𝜀 𝑑, 𝛼 ) 𝑝 (8.55)
𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝐽2
30
I. Contribution of Jet Engines
The contribution of an operating jet engine can be written as
where
𝑇 ℎ𝑗 𝜂 𝑝𝑖 𝑙 𝑗
(𝐶𝑚0 ) 𝑗 = − 1 2
+ (𝛼0 𝑗 − 𝜀 𝑑0 𝑗 ) (8.57)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝑤
𝑐¯𝑤 2(1 − 𝜂 𝑝𝑖 ) 𝑐¯𝑤
𝑇 𝜂 𝑝𝑖 𝑙 𝑗
(𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 ) 𝑗 = − 1 2
(1 − 𝜀 𝑑, 𝛼 𝑗 ) (8.58)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝑤
2(1 − 𝜂 𝑝𝑖 ) 𝑐¯𝑤
31
9. Lateral Static Trim and Stability
The lateral force and moments can be written in nondimensional form as
ℓ
𝐶ℓ ≡ 1 2 (9.1)
2 𝜌𝑉∞𝑆𝑤 𝑏𝑤
𝑛
𝐶𝑛 ≡ 1 2
(9.2)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝑤 𝑏 𝑤
𝑌
𝐶𝑌 ≡ 1 2
(9.3)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝑤
1. Vertical Tail
The largest contributor to yaw stability and trim is the vertical tail. The yawing moment due to the vertical tail can
be estimated from
𝑆𝑣 𝑙𝑣 𝑐¯𝑣
(𝐶𝑛 ) 𝑣 = 𝜂 𝑣 𝐶 𝐿𝑣 , 𝛼 (1 − 𝜀 𝑠,𝛽 ) 𝑣 𝛽 − 𝐶 𝐿𝑣 , 𝛼 𝜀 𝑠0 − 𝜀𝑟 𝐶 𝐿𝑣 , 𝛼 − 𝐶𝑚𝑣 , 𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟 (9.8)
𝑆𝑤 𝑏𝑤 𝑙𝑣
and the change in yaw stability derivative due to the vertical tail can be estimated from
𝑆𝑣 𝑙𝑣
(𝐶𝑛,𝛽 ) 𝑣 = 𝜂 𝑣 𝐶 𝐿 , 𝛼 (1 − 𝜀 𝑠,𝛽 ) 𝑣 (9.9)
𝑆𝑤 𝑏𝑤 𝑣
The change in yawing moment due to rudder deflection can be estimated from
𝜕𝐶𝑛 𝑆𝑣 𝑙𝑣 𝑐¯𝑣
𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑟 ≡ = −𝜂 𝑣 𝜀𝑟 𝐶 𝐿𝑣 , 𝛼 − 𝐶𝑚𝑣 , 𝛿𝑟 (9.10)
𝜕𝛿𝑟 𝑆𝑤 𝑏𝑤 𝑙𝑣
32
2. Fuselage, Nacelles, and Stores
An estimate for the contribution of the fuselage, nacelles, and stores can be taken from Hoak (1960)
𝑛𝑐𝑔 𝑓 𝑆𝑓 𝑐𝑓
(𝐶𝑛 ) 𝑓 ≡ 1 2
= 𝐶𝑛 = (𝐶𝑛,𝛽 ) 𝑓 𝛽 (9.11)
2 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝑆 𝑤 𝑏 𝑤
𝑆𝑤 𝑏𝑤 𝑓
3. Propellers
An estimate for the contribution of propellers can be expressed as
where
2𝑑 3𝑝 𝐶𝑛 𝑝 , 𝛼 𝑦𝑏 𝑝
(𝐶𝑛0 ) 𝑝 = (𝛼0 𝑝 − 𝜀 𝑑0 𝑝 ) − 𝑓𝑇 𝐶𝐷 (9.14)
𝑆𝑤 𝑏𝑤 𝐽2 𝑏𝑤
2𝑑 3𝑝 𝐶𝑛 𝑝 , 𝛼
(𝐶𝑛, 𝛼 ) 𝑝 = (1 − 𝜀 𝑑, 𝛼 ) 𝑝 (9.15)
𝑆𝑤 𝑏𝑤 𝐽2
2𝑑 2𝑝 𝑙 𝑝 𝐶𝑁𝑝 , 𝛼
(𝐶𝑛,𝛽 ) 𝑝 = (1 − 𝜀 𝑠,𝛽 ) 𝑝 (9.16)
𝑆𝑤 𝑏𝑤 𝐽2
D. Estimating Sidewash
Sidewash is positive from left to right. For small sideslip angles, it can be expressed as
𝜀 𝑠 = 𝜀 𝑠0 + 𝜀 𝑠,𝛽 𝛽 (9.17)
Using the same simplified model for downwash as was used in the longitudinal section, we can estimate the sidewash at
any point in the flowfield from the relations
−2 𝑦ˆ ( 𝑧ˆ − 1)
𝜅 𝑣 𝑥 𝑑 𝐶 𝐿𝑤
𝜕𝜀 𝑠
𝑥𝑑
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = − 1 +
𝜅 𝑏 𝜋 2 𝑅 𝐴𝑤 2 + ( 𝑧ˆ − 1) 2 ] 2
q
𝜕𝛽
[ ˆ
𝑦 2 2
(𝑥 𝑑 + 𝑦ˆ + ( 𝑧ˆ − 1) 2
" #
2 𝑦ˆ ( 𝑧ˆ + 1) 𝑥𝑑 𝑦ˆ 𝑥 𝑑 ( 𝑧ˆ − 1)
+ 2 1 + q − 2
[ 𝑦ˆ + ( 𝑧ˆ + 1) 2 ] 2 2 2 2
(𝑥 2𝑑 + 𝑦ˆ 2 + ( 𝑧ˆ + 1) 2 𝑦ˆ + ( 𝑧ˆ − 1) [(𝑥 𝑑 + 𝑦ˆ + ( 𝑧ˆ − 1) ]
2 3/2
" #)
𝑦ˆ 𝑥 𝑑 ( 𝑧ˆ + 1)
+ 2 (9.18)
𝑦ˆ + ( 𝑧ˆ + 1) 2 [(𝑥 2𝑑 + 𝑦ˆ 2 + ( 𝑧ˆ + 1) 2 ] 3/2
where 𝑥,
ˆ 𝑦ˆ , 𝑧ˆ, 𝜅 𝑣 , and 𝜅 𝑏 are calculated from Eqs. (8.21) - (8.23), and
𝑥 𝑑 = 𝑥ˆ − tan Λ (9.19)
Along the symmetry plane of the aircraft (𝑧 = 0 in the aerodynamic coordinate system), the sidewash gradient can
be estimated from
𝜕𝜀 𝑠 𝜅 𝑣 𝜅 𝛽 𝐶 𝐿𝑤
(𝑥, 𝑦, 0) = − (9.20)
𝜕𝛽 𝜅 𝑏 𝑅 𝐴𝑤
33
where
" #
4 𝑦ˆ 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥𝑑 2 𝑦ˆ 𝑥 2𝑑
𝜅 𝛽 ( 𝑥,
ˆ 𝑦ˆ , 0) = 2 2 1 + q + 2 2 (9.21)
𝜋 ( 𝑦ˆ + 1) 2 2 2
𝑥 2𝑑 + 𝑦ˆ 2 + 1 𝜋 ( 𝑦ˆ + 1) [𝑥 𝑑 + 𝑦ˆ + 1]
3/2
0.7
xd =2.50
0.6 2.25
2.00
0.5
1.75
0.4 1.50
1.25
0.3
1.00
0.2 0.75
0.50
0.1
0.25
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
ŷ
2. Rudder
𝑆𝑣 ℎ𝑣
(𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟 ) 𝑣 = 𝜂 𝑣 𝜀𝑟 𝐶 𝐿𝑣 , 𝛼 (9.24)
𝑆𝑤 𝑏𝑤
𝑆𝑣 𝑏ℎ
(𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟 ) ℎ = ±0.08𝜂 𝑣 𝜀𝑟 𝐶 𝐿𝑣 , 𝛼 (9.25)
𝑆𝑤 𝑏𝑤
34
F. Steady-Heading Sideslip
For an aircraft with no assymetries due to propulsion, the general small-angle lateral trim equations simplify to
𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿 𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑟 𝐶𝑊 𝛿 𝐶
𝑎 𝑌 ,𝛽
𝑎
0 𝛿𝑟 = − 𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝛽 (9.26)
𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑎 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟
0
𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑎
𝐶𝑛,𝛽
𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑟 𝜙
This can be rearranged to yield the bank angle and control deflections required to trim the aircraft, which are proportional
to the bank angle
−1 𝜕 𝛿𝑎
𝛿𝑎
𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑎 𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑟 𝐶𝑊
𝐶𝑌 ,𝛽
𝜕𝛽 SHSS
𝜕𝛿
𝛿𝑟 = − 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑎 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟 0 𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝛽 = (9.27)
𝑟
𝜕𝛽 SHSS 𝛽
0
𝜙 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑎 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑟 𝐶𝑛,𝛽
𝜕𝜙
𝜕𝛽 SHSS
where the steady-heading sideslip gradients are
𝜕𝛿 𝑎 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟 𝐶𝑛,𝛽 − 𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑟
= (9.28)
𝜕 𝛽 SHSS 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑎 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑟 − 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑎
𝜕𝛿𝑟 𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑎 − 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑎 𝐶𝑛,𝛽
= (9.29)
𝜕 𝛽 SHSS 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑎 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑟 − 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑎
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝛿 𝑎 𝜕𝛿𝑟
= − 𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑎 + 𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑟 + 𝐶𝑌 ,𝛽 𝐶𝑊 (9.30)
𝜕𝛽 SHSS 𝜕 𝛽 SHSS 𝜕 𝛽 SHSS
G. Minimum-Control Airspeed
The general small-angle lateral trim equations can be rearranged to yield
𝐶𝑌 ,𝛽 𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑎 𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑟 𝛽 (𝐶 ) + 𝐶𝑊 𝜙
𝑌 𝑝
𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟 𝛿 𝑎 = − (𝐶ℓ ) 𝑝 (9.31)
𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑎
(𝐶𝑛 ) 𝑝
𝐶𝑛,𝛽
𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑎 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
Dividing by the weight coefficient gives
−1
𝛽/𝐶𝑊 𝐶 𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑎 𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑟 −𝑌 /𝑊 − 𝜙
𝑌 ,𝛽 𝑝
𝛿 𝑎 /𝐶𝑊 = 𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑎 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟 −ℓ 𝑝 /(𝑏 𝑤 𝑊 (9.32)
𝛿𝑟 /𝐶𝑊
−𝑛 𝑝 /(𝑏 𝑤 𝑊)
𝐶𝑛,𝛽
𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑎 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑟
Once values for the ratios on the left-hand side of Eq. (9.32) have been found, the minimum-control airspeed for the
aileron and rudder are s
2𝑊 (𝛿 𝑎 /𝐶𝑊 )
(𝑉𝑚𝑐 )aileron = (9.33)
𝜌𝑆 𝑤 𝛿 𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑡
s
2𝑊 (𝛿𝑟 /𝐶𝑊 )
(𝑉𝑚𝑐 )rudder = (9.34)
𝜌𝑆 𝑤 𝛿𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑡
35
10. Equations of Motion
A. Velocity Definitions
The freestream velocity relative to the aircraft coordinate system can be expressed either as components (𝑉𝑥𝑏 = 𝑢,
𝑉𝑦𝑏 = 𝑣, 𝑉𝑧𝑏 = 𝑤) or as a magnitude 𝑉 with two aerodynamic angles (𝛼 and 𝛽). The definition for the angle of attack is
universally accepted 𝑤
𝛼 ≡ tan−1 (10.1)
𝑢
There are two definitions for the sideslip angle 𝛽. The most common is what Phillips refers to as the experimental
definition of sideslip angle, which he subscripts with an 𝑒
𝑣
𝛽 = 𝛽𝑒 ≡ sin−1 (10.2)
𝑉
A secondary definition that is sometimes used and is analogous to angle of attack is what is commonly referred to as the
flank angle, or what Phillips refers to as the analytical definition of sideslip angle
𝑣
𝛽 𝑓 = 𝛽 𝑎 ≡ tan−1 (10.3)
𝑢
If either form for the sideslip angle is known along with the angle of attack, the other can be found through the relation
tan 𝛽𝑒
tan 𝛽 𝑎 = (10.4)
cos 𝛼
For small angles of attack, these two definitions are nearly identical. In fact, the small-angle approximation for the
sideslip angle is the same for either definition
𝑤
𝛼≈ (10.5)
𝑢
𝑣
𝛽≈ (10.6)
𝑢
If the velocity magnitude and aerodynamic angles are known, the velocity components in the body-fixed coordinate
system can be found from
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 𝑎
𝑢 =𝑉p = 𝑉 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽𝑒 (10.7)
1 − sin2 𝛼 sin2 𝛽 𝑎
cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 𝑎
𝑣 =𝑉p = 𝑉 sin 𝛽𝑒 (10.8)
1 − sin2 𝛼 sin2 𝛽 𝑎
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 𝑎
𝑤 =𝑉p = 𝑉 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽𝑒 (10.9)
1 − sin2 𝛼 sin2 𝛽 𝑎
36
where ∭
𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 = (𝑦 2𝑏 + 𝑧2𝑏 )𝑑𝑚 (10.13)
𝑚
∭
𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 = (𝑥 𝑏2 + 𝑧2𝑏 )𝑑𝑚 (10.14)
𝑚
∭
𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 = (𝑥 𝑏2 + 𝑦 2𝑏 )𝑑𝑚 (10.15)
𝑚
∭
𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 = 𝐼 𝑦 𝑥𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑏 𝑦 𝑏 𝑑𝑚 (10.16)
𝑚
∭
𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 = 𝐼 𝑧 𝑦𝑏 = 𝑦 𝑏 𝑧 𝑏 𝑑𝑚 (10.17)
𝑚
∭
𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 = 𝐼 𝑧 𝑥𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑏 𝑧 𝑏 𝑑𝑚 (10.18)
𝑚
𝐼𝑥 𝑥
𝑏 −𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 −𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏
𝑝¤ 𝑀 𝑥𝑏
0 −ℎ 𝑧𝑏 ℎ 𝑦𝑏
𝑝
−𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 −𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 𝑞¤ = 𝑀 𝑦𝑏 + 0 −ℎ 𝑥𝑏 𝑞
𝐼 𝑦 𝑦𝑏 ℎ 𝑧𝑏
−𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 −𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 𝑟¤ 𝑀𝑧𝑏
𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏
−ℎ 𝑦𝑏 ℎ 𝑥𝑏 0
𝑟
(𝐼 − 𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 )𝑞𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 (𝑞 2 − 𝑟 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 𝑝𝑞 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 𝑝𝑟
𝑦𝑦𝑏
2 2
+ (𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 ) 𝑝𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 (𝑟 − 𝑝 ) + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 𝑞𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 𝑝𝑞 (10.20)
(𝐼 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑦 ) 𝑝𝑞 + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 ( 𝑝 2 − 𝑞 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑝𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 𝑞𝑟
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
where 𝐹𝑏 and 𝑀𝑏 are the aerodynamic forces and moments including thrust. For an aircraft that is symmetric about the
𝑥 − 𝑧 plane and neglecting any gyroscopic effects, Eqs. (10.19) and (10.20) reduce to
𝑢¤
𝐹𝑥𝑏 + 𝑊 𝑥𝑏 + (𝑟𝑣 − 𝑞𝑤)𝑊/𝑔
𝑊
𝑣¤ = 𝐹𝑦𝑏 + 𝑊 𝑦𝑏 + ( 𝑝𝑤 − 𝑟𝑢)𝑊/𝑔 (10.21)
𝑔
𝑤¤
𝐹𝑧𝑏 + 𝑊𝑧𝑏 + (𝑞𝑢 − 𝑝𝑣)𝑊/𝑔
𝐼𝑥 𝑥
𝑏 0 −𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏
𝑝¤
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 + (𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 )𝑞𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 𝑝𝑞
2
0 𝑞¤ = 𝑀 𝑦𝑏 + (𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 ) 𝑝𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 (𝑟 − 𝑝 ) 2 (10.22)
0
𝐼 𝑦 𝑦𝑏
−𝐼 𝑧 𝑥𝑏 0 𝑟¤ 𝑀𝑧𝑏 + (𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 ) 𝑝𝑞 − 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 𝑞𝑟
𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏
𝜙 = Bank Angle
𝜃 = Elevation Angle
𝜓 = Azimuth Angle
37
They are defined with limits
−180° < 𝜙 ≤ +180°
−90° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ +90°
0° ≤ 𝜓 < +360°
To obtain the correct rotation matrix, the angles are applied in the order 𝜓, 𝜃, 𝜙. Any vector in body-fixed coordinates
can be obtained in earth-fixed coordinates from the rotation
𝑣 𝐶 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 − 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜓 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 + 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜓 𝑣
𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑏
𝑣 𝑦 𝑓 = 𝐶 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 + 𝐶 𝜙 𝐶 𝜓 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 − 𝑆 𝜙 𝐶 𝜓 𝑣 𝑦𝑏 (10.23)
𝑣𝑧 −𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝐶
𝜙 𝜃 𝐶 𝐶
𝜙 𝜃
𝑣
𝑓 𝑧𝑏
Any vector in earth-fixed coordinates can be obtained in body-fixed coordinates from the rotation
𝑣 𝐶 𝜃 𝐶𝜓 𝐶𝜃 𝑆𝜓 −𝑆 𝜃 𝑣
𝑥𝑏 𝑥𝑓
𝑣 𝑦𝑏 = 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 − 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜓 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 + 𝐶 𝜙 𝐶 𝜓 𝑆 𝜙 𝐶 𝜃 𝑣 𝑦 𝑓 (10.24)
𝑣𝑧 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 + 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜓 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 − 𝑆 𝜙 𝐶 𝜓 𝐶 𝜙 𝐶 𝜃
𝑣𝑧
𝑏 𝑓
For example, the velocity of the aircraft in body-fixed coordinates can be used to obtain the velocity of the aircraft
relative to the ground through the rotation
𝑥¤ 𝐶 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 − 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜓 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 + 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜓
𝑢 𝑉 𝑤 𝑥 𝑓
𝑓
𝑦¤ 𝑓= 𝐶 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 + 𝐶 𝜙 𝐶 𝜓 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 − 𝑆 𝜙 𝐶 𝜓 𝑣 + 𝑉𝑤 𝑦 𝑓 (10.25)
𝑧¤ 𝑓
−𝑆 𝜃
𝑆 𝜙𝐶𝜃 𝐶𝜙𝐶𝜃
𝑤 𝑉𝑤 𝑧 𝑓
Likewise, the weight vector can be obtained in body-fixed coordinates
𝑊 − sin(𝜃)
𝑥𝑏
𝑊 𝑦𝑏 = 𝑊 sin(𝜙) cos(𝜃) (10.26)
𝑊𝑧 cos(𝜙) cos(𝜃)
𝑏
Using a similar transformation method, the change in orientation can be found as a function of the current
orientation and rotation rates of the aircraft
𝜙¤
1 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 /𝐶 𝜃 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 /𝐶 𝜃
𝑝
¤𝜃 = 0 𝐶𝜙 −𝑆 𝜙 𝑞
(10.27)
𝜓¤
0 /𝐶 /𝐶
𝑆 𝜙 𝜃 𝐶 𝜙
𝜃 𝑟
𝑢¤
𝐹𝑥𝑏
−𝑆 𝜃 𝑟𝑣 − 𝑞𝑤
𝑔
𝑣¤ = 𝐹𝑦𝑏 + 𝑔 𝑆 𝜙𝐶𝜃 + 𝑝𝑤 − 𝑟𝑢 (10.31)
𝑊
𝑤¤
𝑞𝑢 − 𝑝𝑣
𝐹𝑧
𝐶 𝜙 𝐶 𝜃
𝑏
−1
𝑝¤
𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 0 −𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 𝑀 𝑥𝑏 + (𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 )𝑞𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 𝑝𝑞
𝑞¤ = 0 𝐼 𝑦 𝑦𝑏 0 2 2
𝑀 𝑦𝑏 + (𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 ) 𝑝𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 (𝑟 − 𝑝 ) (10.32)
𝑟¤
−𝐼 𝑧 𝑥𝑏 0 𝑀𝑧𝑏 + (𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 ) 𝑝𝑞 − 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 𝑞𝑟
𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏
38
𝑥¤ 𝐶 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝐶𝜓 − 𝐶𝜙 𝑆 𝜓 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 + 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜓 𝑢 𝑉 𝑤 𝑥 𝑓
𝑓
𝑦¤ 𝑓 = 𝐶 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 + 𝐶𝜙𝐶𝜓 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 − 𝑆 𝜙 𝐶 𝜓 𝑣 + 𝑉𝑤 𝑦 𝑓 (10.33)
𝑧¤ 𝑓
−𝑆 𝜃
𝑆 𝜙𝐶𝜃 𝐶𝜙𝐶𝜃
𝑤 𝑉𝑤 𝑧 𝑓
𝜙¤
1 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 /𝐶 𝜃 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 /𝐶 𝜃
𝑝
𝜃¤ = 0 −𝑆 𝜙 𝑞 (10.34)
𝐶𝜙
𝜓¤
0 𝑆 𝜙 /𝐶 𝜃 𝐶 𝜙 /𝐶 𝜃 𝑟
Equations (10.31) and (10.32) are Newton’s second law. The pseudo aerodynamic forces and moments in these two
equations include thrust, and are functions of the velocity and aerodynamic angles, as well as pilot control inputs.
Equations (10.33) and (10.34) are kinematic transformation equations based on the aircraft orientation. At any point
in time, all the information on the right of Eqs. (10.31) – (10.34) is known. The left-hand side of these equations
represents the change of the state of the aircraft with respect to time, and can then be integrated forward to find the new
state of the aircraft.
𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑜 + Δ𝑢 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑜 + Δ𝑣 𝑤 = 𝑤 𝑜 + Δ𝑤
𝑝 = 𝑝 𝑜 + Δ𝑝 𝑞 = 𝑞 𝑜 + Δ𝑞 𝑟 = 𝑟 𝑜 + Δ𝑟
𝑥 𝑓 = 𝑥 𝑜 + Δ𝑥 𝑓 𝑦 𝑓 = 𝑦 𝑜 + Δ𝑦 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 = 𝑧 𝑜 + Δ𝑧 𝑓
𝜙 = 𝜙𝑜 + Δ𝜙 𝜃 = 𝜃 𝑜 + Δ𝜃 𝜓 = 𝜓𝑜 + Δ𝜓
(10.35)
𝐹𝑥𝑏 = 𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝑜 + Δ𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝐹𝑦𝑏 = 𝐹𝑦𝑏 𝑜 + Δ𝐹𝑦𝑏 𝐹𝑧𝑏 = 𝐹𝑧𝑏 𝑜 + Δ𝐹𝑧𝑏
𝑊 𝑥𝑏 = 𝑊 𝑥𝑏 𝑜 + Δ𝑊 𝑥𝑏 𝑊 𝑦𝑏 = 𝑊 𝑦𝑏 𝑜 + Δ𝑊 𝑦𝑏 𝑊𝑧𝑏 = 𝑊𝑧𝑏 𝑜 + Δ𝑊𝑧𝑏
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 = 𝑀 𝑥𝑏 𝑜 + Δ𝑀 𝑥𝑏 𝑀 𝑦𝑏 = 𝑀 𝑦𝑏 𝑜 + Δ𝑀 𝑦𝑏 𝑀𝑧𝑏 = 𝑀𝑧𝑏 𝑜 + Δ𝑀𝑧𝑏
𝛿 𝑎 = 𝛿 𝑎𝑜 + Δ𝛿 𝑎 𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒𝑜 + Δ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑟 = 𝛿𝑟 𝑜 + Δ𝛿𝑟
For the particular solution, we will choose steady-level flight at a velocity of 𝑉𝑜 with zero sideslip, and zero angular
rates. We will align the 𝑥-axis of the aircraft with the direction of flight (𝑢 𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 ). For simplicity, we will also align the
𝑥-axis of the aircraft with the 𝑥-axis of the earth-fixed frame, since the dynamics of the aircraft do not depend on the
direction we are flying. This gives
Using these simplifications along with Eq. (10.35) in Eqs. (10.21) and (10.22) and dropping second-order
disturbance terms gives
0 0 0 0
0 Δ𝑢¤ Δ𝐹𝑥𝑏 + Δ𝑊 𝑥𝑏
𝑊/𝑔
0 0 0 0
0 Δ𝑣¤ Δ𝐹𝑦𝑏 + Δ𝑊 𝑦𝑏 − Δ𝑟𝑉𝑜 𝑊/𝑔
𝑊/𝑔
0 0 𝑊/𝑔 0 0
0 Δ𝑤¤
Δ𝐹𝑧𝑏 + Δ𝑊𝑧𝑏 − Δ𝑞𝑉𝑜 𝑊/𝑔
= (10.37)
0
0 0
𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 −𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏
0
Δ 𝑝¤
Δ𝑀 𝑥𝑏
Δ𝑞¤
0 0 0 0 𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 0
Δ𝑀 𝑦𝑏
0 0 −𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏
0 0 𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 Δ𝑟¤ Δ𝑀𝑧𝑏
The pseudo aerodynamic force and moment derivatives are functions of the velocity, angular rates, acceleration,
39
and control-surface deflections. Expanding these in a Taylor series and retaining only the linear terms gives
𝜕𝐹𝑥 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏
Δ𝐹 𝜕𝑢𝑏 Δ𝑢 𝜕 𝑝 Δ𝑝
𝑥𝑏
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝐹𝑦
𝜕𝐹𝑦𝑏
Δ𝐹𝑦𝑏 = 𝜕𝑢𝑏
𝜕𝐹𝑦𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑦𝑏 Δ𝑣 + 𝜕𝐹𝑦𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑦𝑏
Δ𝑞
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑏
Δ𝐹𝑧 Δ𝑤 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑏
Δ𝑟
𝑧𝑏
𝑏
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑟
(10.38)
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏
𝜕𝑢¤
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏
Δ𝑢¤
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑏
Δ𝛿
𝜕 𝑣¤ 𝜕 𝑤¤
𝜕 𝛿𝑎
𝜕𝐹
𝜕 𝛿𝑒 𝑎
𝜕 𝛿𝑟
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹𝑦𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑦𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑦𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑦𝑏
+ 𝜕𝑢𝑦¤𝑏 𝜕 𝑣¤ 𝜕 𝑤¤
Δ ¤
𝑣 + 𝑦𝑏
𝜕 𝛿𝑎 𝜕 𝛿𝑒 𝜕 𝛿𝑟
Δ𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑏
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑏 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑏
𝜕𝑢¤ Δ𝑤¤
𝑧𝑏 Δ𝛿𝑟
𝜕 𝑣¤ 𝜕 𝑤¤ 𝜕 𝛿𝑎 𝜕 𝛿𝑒 𝜕 𝛿𝑟
40
2. Linearized Lateral Equations
At the equilibrium state we have chosen, the aerodynamic force and moment coefficients are
𝐶𝑋
−𝐶𝐷𝑜
0
𝐶𝑌
−𝐶 𝐿𝑜
𝐶𝑍
= (10.46)
𝐶ℓ
0
𝐶
𝑚
𝐶 𝑚𝑜
𝐶𝑛 0
where
𝑊 cos 𝜃 𝑜
𝐶 𝐿𝑜 = 1 2
(10.47)
2 𝜌𝑉𝑜 𝑆 𝑤 cos 𝜙𝑜
and
2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐶𝐷1 𝐶 𝐿𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷2 𝐶 𝐿𝑜 (10.48)
41
1. Derivatives with respect to Velocity
Equations (10.41) and (10.42) require derivatives with respect to velocities in the body-fixed coordinate system.
However, aerodynamic derivatives are traditionally known in terms of the total velocity, the angle of attack, and the
sideslip velocity. From Eqs. (10.28) – (10.30), using the small-angle approximation and evaluating the derivatives at the
equilibrium state (𝑢 𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 , 𝑣 𝑜 = 𝑤 𝑜 = 0) gives
𝜕𝑉 𝑢 𝜕𝑉 𝑣 𝜕𝑉 𝑤
=√ = 1, =√ = 0, =√ =0 (10.49)
𝜕𝑢 𝑢 + 𝑣2 + 𝑤2
2 𝜕𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2 + 𝑤2
2 𝜕𝑤 𝑢 + 𝑣2 + 𝑤2
2
𝜕𝛼 𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼 1 1
≈ − 2 = 0, = 0, ≈ = (10.50)
𝜕𝑢 𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝑢 𝑉𝑜
𝜕𝛽 𝑣 𝜕𝛽 1 1 𝜕𝛽
≈ − 2 = 0, ≈ = , =0 (10.51)
𝜕𝑢 𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝑢 𝑉𝑜 𝜕𝑤
Given an aerodynamic parameter that is a known function of 𝑓 (𝑉, 𝛼, 𝛽), we can compute the derivatives of that
parameter with respect to 𝑢, 𝑣, and 𝑤 at the equilibrium state by applying Eqs. (10.49)–(10.51)
𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕𝛼 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕 𝛽 𝜕 𝑓
= + + = (10.52)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝛽 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑉
𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕𝛼 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕 𝛽 1 𝜕𝑓
= + + = (10.53)
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝛽 𝜕𝑣 𝑉𝑜 𝜕 𝛽
𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕𝛼 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕 𝛽 1 𝜕𝑓
= + + = (10.54)
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 𝛽 𝜕𝑤 𝑉𝑜 𝜕𝛼
Using Eqs. (10.43)–(10.46), and (10.52)–(10.54) and evaluating at the equilibrium condition gives the following
derivatives.
Derivatives with respect to 𝑢
1 2𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐹𝑥𝑏 ,𝑢 = − 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤 + 𝑇,𝑉 cos 𝛼𝑇 0
2 𝑉𝑜
𝐹𝑦𝑏 ,𝑢 = 0
1 2𝐶 𝐿𝑜
𝐹𝑧𝑏 ,𝑢 = − 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤 − 𝑇,𝑉 sin 𝛼𝑇 0
2 𝑉𝑜 (10.55)
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 ,𝑢 = 0
1 2 2𝑐¯𝑤 𝐶𝑚𝑜
𝑀 𝑦𝑏 ,𝑢 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜 𝑆 𝑤 + 𝑧𝑇 0𝑇,𝑉
2 𝑉𝑜
𝑀𝑧𝑏 ,𝑢 = 0
where
𝑧𝑇 0 = 𝑧𝑇 cos 𝛼𝑇 0 + 𝑥𝑇 sin 𝛼𝑇 0 (10.56)
Derivatives with respect to 𝑣
𝐹𝑥𝑏 ,𝑣 = 0
1 2 𝐶𝑌 ,𝛽
𝐹𝑦𝑏 ,𝑣 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜 𝑆 𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜
𝐹𝑧𝑏 ,𝑣 = 0
(10.57)
1 2 𝑏 𝑤 𝐶ℓ,𝛽
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 ,𝑣 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜 𝑆 𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜
𝑀 𝑦𝑏 ,𝑣 = 0
1 2 𝑏 𝑤 𝐶𝑛,𝛽
𝑀𝑧𝑏 ,𝑣 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜 𝑆 𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜
42
Derivatives with respect to 𝑤
1 2 𝐶 𝐿𝑜 − 𝐶𝐷, 𝛼
𝐹𝑥𝑏 ,𝑤 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜 𝑆 𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜
𝐹𝑦𝑏 ,𝑤 = 0
1 2 −𝐶𝐷𝑜 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼
𝐹𝑧𝑏 ,𝑤 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜 𝑆 𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜 (10.58)
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 ,𝑤 = 0
1 2 𝑐¯𝑤 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼
𝑀 𝑦𝑏 ,𝑤 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜 𝑆 𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜
𝑀𝑧𝑏 ,𝑤 = 0
where
𝐶𝐷, 𝛼 = 𝐶𝐷1 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 + 2𝐶𝐷2 𝐶 𝐿𝑜 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 (10.59)
43
Derivatives with respect to 𝑢¤
1 𝐶𝐷,𝑢¤
𝐹𝑥𝑏 ,𝑢¤ = − 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜
𝐹𝑦𝑏 ,𝑢¤ = 0
1 𝐶 𝐿,𝑢¤
𝐹𝑧𝑏 ,𝑢¤ = − 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜 (10.63)
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 ,𝑢¤ = 0
1 𝐶𝑚,𝑢¤
𝑀 𝑦𝑏 ,𝑢¤ = 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜
𝑀𝑧𝑏 ,𝑢¤ = 0
Derivatives with respect to 𝑣¤
𝐹𝑥𝑏 , 𝑣¤ = 𝐹𝑦𝑏 , 𝑣¤ = 𝐹𝑧𝑏 , 𝑣¤ = 𝑀 𝑥𝑏 , 𝑣¤ = 𝑀 𝑦𝑏 , 𝑣¤ = 𝑀𝑧𝑏 , 𝑣¤ = 0 (10.64)
Derivatives with respect to 𝑤¤
Derivatives with respect to 𝑤¤ can be pronounced on aircraft with a traditional horizontal tail due to the time it takes
the shed vorticity from the main wing to propagate downstream to the tail. An estimate for derivatives for a conventional
aircraft can be obtained from
1 𝐶𝐷, 𝛼¤
𝐹𝑥𝑏 , 𝑤¤ = − 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜
𝐹𝑦𝑏 , 𝑤¤ = 0
1 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼¤
𝐹𝑧𝑏 , 𝑤¤ = − 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜 (10.65)
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 , 𝑤¤ = 0
1 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼¤
𝑀 𝑦𝑏 , 𝑤¤ = 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
2 𝑉𝑜
𝑀𝑧𝑏 , 𝑤¤ = 0
44
Derivatives with respect to rudder deflection
𝐹𝑥𝑏 , 𝛿𝑟 = 0
1
𝐹𝑦𝑏 , 𝛿𝑟 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤 𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑟
2
𝐹𝑧𝑏 , 𝛿𝑟 = 0
1 (10.68)
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 , 𝛿𝑟 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤 𝑏 𝑤 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟
2
𝑀 𝑦𝑏 , 𝛿𝑟 = 0
1
𝑀𝑧𝑏 , 𝛿𝑟 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 𝑆 𝑤 𝑏 𝑤 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑟
2
45
1. Nondimensional Linearized Longitudinal Equations
0 0 Δ 𝛽ˆ
0 0 0
𝑅𝜌𝑦
ˆ¯
0 −𝑅 𝑥𝑧 0 0 0 Δ
𝑅𝑥 𝑥
𝑝
ˆ
0 −𝑅 𝑥𝑧 0 0 0 Δ𝑟¯
𝑅 𝑧𝑧
Δ𝜉ˆ𝑦
0 0 0 1 0 0
ˆ
0 0 0 0 1 0
Δ𝜙
ˆ
0 0 0 0 0 1 Δ 𝜓
𝐶𝑌 ,𝛽
𝐶𝑌 , 𝑝¯ (𝐶𝑌 ,𝑟¯ − 𝑅𝜌𝑦 ) 0 𝑅𝜌𝑦 𝑅𝑔𝑦 cos 𝜃 𝑜 0 Δ𝛽
𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿
𝑎 𝐶𝑌 , 𝛿𝑟
0 0 0 Δ 𝑝¯
𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ 𝐶ℓ,𝑟¯
𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑎 𝐶ℓ, 𝛿𝑟 ( )
0 0 0 Δ𝑟¯ 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑟 Δ𝛿 𝑎
𝐶𝑛,𝛽
𝐶𝑛, 𝑝¯ 𝐶𝑛,𝑟¯
𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑎
= + (10.78)
1 0 0 0 0 cos 𝜃 𝑜
Δ𝜉 𝑦 0 0 Δ𝛿𝑟
0 1 tan 𝜃 𝑜 0 0 0 Δ𝜙 0 0
0 0 sec 𝜃 𝑜 0 0 0 Δ𝜓
0 0
Most of the required derivatives can be obtained quite simply from CFD or experimental results. The derivatives
with respect to translational acceleration can be approximated as
46
not always be given in that coordinate system. Often the information is given in a coordinate system that was convenient
for the aerodynamic and mass computations. If the information is given in another coordinate system, we must transform
the data to the correct stability axes to use the linearized equations of motion.
Any vector given in the coordinate system 𝑏 0 that shares a plane of symmetry 𝑥 − 𝑧 with the body-fixed coordinate
system can be transformed to the body-fixed coordinate system from the rotation matrix
𝑣 cos 𝜑 0 sin 𝜑 𝑣
𝑥𝑏
𝑥 𝑏0
𝑣 𝑦𝑏 = 0 1 0 𝑣 𝑦𝑏0 (10.80)
𝑣 𝑧 − sin 𝜑 0 cos 𝜑 𝑣 𝑧 0
𝑏 𝑏
Applying this rotation to the inertia tensor gives
(𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 ) 0 = 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 cos2 𝜑 + 2𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑 + 𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 sin2 𝜑
(𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 ) 0 = 𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏
(10.81)
(𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 ) 0 = 𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 cos2 𝜑 − 2𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑 + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 sin2 𝜑
(𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 ) 0 = 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 (cos2 𝜑 − sin2 𝜑) + (𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 ) cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑
Rotations can also be applied to the aerodynamic derivatives to give
(𝐶𝐷, 𝜇ˆ ) 0 = 𝐶𝐷, 𝜇ˆ cos2 𝜑 − (𝐶𝐷, 𝛼ˆ + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝜇ˆ ) cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ sin2 𝜑
(𝐶𝐷, 𝛼ˆ ) 0 = 𝐶𝐷, 𝛼ˆ cos2 𝜑 + (𝐶𝐷, 𝜇ˆ − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ ) cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝜇ˆ sin2 𝜑
(10.82)
(𝐶𝐷, 𝑞¯ ) 0 = 𝐶𝐷, 𝑞¯ cos 𝜑 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝑞¯ sin 𝜑
(𝐶𝐷, 𝛿𝑒 ) 0 = 𝐶𝐷, 𝛿𝑒 cos 𝜑 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 sin 𝜑
47
11. Linearized Dynamics
The generalized eigenproblem of a linear dynamic system can be written as
The values of 𝜆 that satisfy this equation are the eigenvalues, and the corresponding vectors 𝜒 are the eigenvectors. The
special eigenproblem of a linear dynamic system can be written as
A pair of eigenvalues exist for each degree of freedom within the dynamic system. In general, the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors must be found numerically. Once these have been found, the frequency and damping properties of each set
of eigenvalues can be obtained from
𝜆 1,2 = 𝜎 ± 𝜔 𝑑 𝑖 (11.5)
p q
undamped natural frequency ≡ 𝜔 𝑛 = 𝜆1 𝜆2 = 𝜎 2 + 𝜔2𝑑 (11.6)
𝜆1 + 𝜆2 𝜎
damping ratio ≡ 𝜁 = − √ = (11.7)
2 𝜆1𝜆2 𝜔𝑛
The damping rate can be used to obtain the following
ln(0.5)
time to half amplitude = − (11.9)
𝜎
ln(0.01)
99% damping time = − (11.10)
𝜎
ln(2)
doubling time = − (11.11)
𝜎
The damped natural frequency can be used to compute the period of the oscillation
2𝜋
period = (11.12)
𝜔𝑑
The eigenvectors contain information about the amplitude and phase of each independent variable within the
system corresponding to each mode. The amplitude and phase of each eigenvector component 𝜒𝑖 can be found from
q
amplitude = [real( 𝜒𝑖 )] 2 + [imag( 𝜒𝑖 )] 2 (11.13)
48
A. Linearized Longitudinal Dynamics
The generalized eigenproblem for longitudinal dynamics can be expressed as
Once the eigenvalues and eigenvectors have been found, the dimensional frequency and damping properties of
each mode can be obtained from
2𝑉𝑜
𝜎 = −real(𝜆) (11.16)
𝑐¯𝑤
2𝑉𝑜
𝜔 𝑑 = |imag(𝜆)| (11.17)
𝑐¯𝑤
𝜆1 + 𝜆2
𝜁 =− √ (11.18)
2 𝜆1𝜆2
2𝑉𝑜 p
𝜔𝑛 = 𝜆1𝜆2 (11.19)
𝑐¯𝑤
1. Short-Period
The short-period mode is an interchange of rotational kinetic energy and potential energy. It is usually more damped
than than the phugoid mode and typically lasts only a couple seconds before damping out. A closed-form approximation
can be obtained by approximating Δ𝜇 = 0 and setting the climb angle to 𝜃 = 0. Using these approximations in the
homogeneous form of Eq. (10.75) allows the second and third lines of that equation to decouple from the remaining
terms in the linear system and gives
" #( ) " #( )
(𝑅𝜌𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ ) 0 Δ𝛼ˆ (−𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 − 𝐶𝐷𝑜 ) (−𝐶 𝐿, 𝑞¯ + 𝑅𝜌𝑥 ) Δ𝛼
= (11.20)
−𝐶𝑚, 𝛼ˆ 𝑅 𝑦 𝑦 Δ𝑞ˆ¯ 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯ Δ𝑞¯
This formulation can be used to produce the eigenproblem
" # " #! ( ) ( )
(−𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 − 𝐶𝐷𝑜 ) (−𝐶 𝐿, 𝑞¯ + 𝑅𝜌𝑥 ) (𝑅𝜌𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ ) 0 𝜒𝛼 0
−𝜆 = (11.21)
𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯ −𝐶𝑚, 𝛼ˆ 𝑅 𝑦𝑦 𝜒𝑞¯ 0
𝐴𝑠 𝑝 𝜆2𝑠 𝑝 + 𝐵𝑠 𝑝 𝜆 𝑠 𝑝 + 𝐶𝑠 𝑝 = 0 (11.22)
where
𝐴𝑠 𝑝 = 𝑅 𝑦 𝑦 (𝑅𝜌𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ ) (11.23)
𝐵𝑠 𝑝 = 𝑅 𝑦 𝑦 (𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 + 𝐶𝐷𝑜 ) − 𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯ (𝑅𝜌𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ ) − 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼ˆ (𝑅𝜌𝑥 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝑞¯ ) (11.24)
𝐶𝑠 𝑝 = −𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯ (𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 + 𝐶𝐷𝑜 ) − 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 (𝑅𝜌𝑥 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝑞¯ ) (11.25)
49
This gives the resulting approximation for the dimensionless eigenvalues
q
−𝐵𝑠 𝑝 ± 𝐵2𝑠 𝑝 − 4𝐴𝑠 𝑝 𝐶𝑠 𝑝 𝑐¯𝑤
𝜆𝑠 𝑝 ≈ = (−𝜎𝑠 𝑝 ± 𝜔 𝑑𝑠 𝑝 𝑖) (11.26)
2𝐴𝑠 𝑝 2𝑉𝑜
2𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝐵𝑠 𝑝
𝜎𝑠 𝑝 ≈ − real(𝜆 𝑠 𝑝 ) = (11.27)
𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝐴𝑠 𝑝
q
2 − 4𝐴 𝐶
2𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝐵 𝑠𝑝 𝑠𝑝 𝑠𝑝
𝜔 𝑑𝑠 𝑝 ≈ |imag(𝜆 𝑠 𝑝 )| = (11.28)
𝑐¯𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝐴𝑠 𝑝
2. Phugoid
The phugoid mode is an interchange of translational kinetic energy and potential energy. It is typically lightly
damped and can last several minutes. A closed-form approximation for the dimensionless phugoid eigenvalue of an
aircraft in incompressible flow with constant thrust aligned with the direction of flight can be written as
𝑐¯𝑤
𝜆𝑝 ≈ (−𝜎𝑝 ± 𝜔 𝑑 𝑝 𝑖) (11.29)
2𝑉𝑜
with dimensional damping and frequency of
𝜎𝑝 ≈ 𝜎𝐷 + 𝜎𝑞 + 𝜎𝜑 (11.30)
s
2
𝑔
𝜔𝑑𝑝 ≈ 2 𝑅 𝑝𝑠 − (𝜎𝐷 + 𝜎𝑞 ) 2 (11.31)
𝑉𝑜
where
𝑔 𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝜎𝐷 ≡ phugoid drag damping = (11.32)
𝑉𝑜 𝐶 𝐿𝑜
𝑔 (𝐶 𝐿𝑜 − 𝐶𝐷, 𝛼 )𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯
𝜎𝑞 ≡ phugoid pitch damping = (11.33)
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝜌𝑥 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 + (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 )𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯
𝑔 𝑅𝜌𝑥 𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯ − 𝑅 𝑦𝑦 (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 )
𝜎𝜑 ≡ phugoid phase damping = − 𝑅𝑔𝑥 𝑅 𝑝𝑠 (11.34)
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝜌𝑥 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 + (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 )𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯
𝑅𝜌𝑥 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼
𝑅 𝑝𝑠 ≡ phugoid stability ratio = (11.35)
𝑅𝜌𝑥 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 + (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 )𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯
50
B. Linearized Lateral Dynamics
The generalized eigenproblem for lateral dynamics can be expressed as
𝐶 𝐶𝑌 , 𝑝¯ (𝐶𝑌 ,𝑟¯ − 𝑅𝜌𝑦 ) 0 𝑅𝜌𝑦 𝑅𝑔𝑦 cos 𝜃 𝑜 0
© 𝑌 ,𝛽
0 0 0
𝐶ℓ,𝛽
𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ 𝐶ℓ,𝑟¯
𝐶
𝑛,𝛽 𝐶𝑛, 𝑝¯ 𝐶𝑛,𝑟¯ 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 cos 𝜃 𝑜
0 1 tan 𝜃 𝑜 0 0 0
« 0 0 sec 𝜃 𝑜 0 0 0
𝑅𝜌𝑦
00 0 0 0 𝜒𝛽
0
ª®
0 −𝑅 𝑥𝑧
0 0 0 ® 0
𝑅𝑥 𝑥
𝜒 𝑝¯
®
0 −𝑅0 0 0 ® 0
𝜒𝑟¯
𝑥𝑧 𝑅 𝑧𝑧
− 𝜆 ® = (11.36)
0 01 0 0 ® 0 0
® 𝜒 𝜉𝑦
0 0 0
0 1 0 ®® 𝜒𝜙
0
0 0 0
0 0 1 ¬ 𝜒 𝜓 0
Once the eigenvalues and eigenvectors have been found, the dimensional frequency and damping properties of
each mode can be obtained from
2𝑉𝑜
𝜎 = −real(𝜆) (11.37)
𝑏𝑤
2𝑉𝑜
𝜔 𝑑 = |imag(𝜆)| (11.38)
𝑏𝑤
𝜆1 + 𝜆2
𝜁 =− √ (11.39)
2 𝜆1𝜆2
p 2𝑉𝑜
𝜔𝑛 = 𝜆1𝜆2 (11.40)
𝑏𝑤
1. Roll Mode
The roll mode is usually very heavily damped due to the roll damping from the wingspan of the main wing. An
approximation can be obtained by recognizing that changes in sideslip angle and yawing rate are small compared to
changes in rolling rate. Using 𝛽 = 0 and 𝑟¯ = 0 in the linearized lateral equations gives
(𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ − 𝜆𝑅 𝑥 𝑥 ) 𝜒 𝑝¯ = 0 (11.41)
This can be solved to give the dimensionless eigenvalue
𝜆𝑟 𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ /𝑅 𝑥 𝑥 (11.42)
which results in the dimensional damping rate
2𝑉𝑜 𝜌𝑆 𝑤 𝑏 3𝑤 𝜌𝑆 𝑤 𝑏 2𝑤 𝑉𝑜
𝜎𝑟 − 𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ = − 𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ (11.43)
𝑏𝑤 8𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 4𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏
2. Spiral Mode
The spiral mode is typically slowly convergent or slowly divergent. It it characterized mainly by changes in heading.
It depends on the relative roll stability and yaw stability magnitudes of the aircraft. A closed-form approximation for the
dimensionless eigenvalue can be written as
𝑔𝑏 𝑤 𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛,𝑟¯ − 𝐶ℓ,𝑟¯ 𝐶𝑛,𝛽
𝜆𝑠 − 2 (11.44)
2𝑉𝑜 𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛, 𝑝¯ − 𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ 𝐶𝑛,𝛽
which gives a dimensional damping rate of
2𝑉𝑜 𝑔 𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛,𝑟¯ − 𝐶ℓ,𝑟¯ 𝐶𝑛,𝛽
𝜎𝑠 − 𝜆𝑠 = (11.45)
𝑏𝑤 𝑉𝑜 𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛, 𝑝¯ − 𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ 𝐶𝑛,𝛽
51
3. Dutch Roll Approximation
Dutch roll is an oscillatory mode involving roll, yaw, and sideslip. An approximation for the dimensionless
eigenvalues can be written as
𝑏𝑤
𝜆 𝐷𝑅 ≈ (−𝜎𝐷𝑅 ± 𝜔 𝑑𝐷𝑅 𝑖) (11.46)
2𝑉𝑜
with dimensional damping and frequency of
𝑉𝑜 𝐶𝑌 ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛,𝑟¯ 𝐶ℓ,𝑟¯ 𝐶𝑛, 𝑝¯ 𝑅𝑔𝑦 (𝐶ℓ,𝑟¯ 𝐶𝑛,𝛽 − 𝐶ℓ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛,𝑟¯ ) 𝑅 𝐷𝑠
𝜎𝐷𝑅 − + − + − 𝑅𝑥 𝑥 (11.47)
𝑏 𝑤 𝑅𝜌𝑦 𝑅 𝑧𝑧 𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ 𝑅 𝑧𝑧 𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯ (𝐶𝑛,𝛽 + 𝐶𝑌 ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛,𝑟¯ /𝑅𝜌𝑦 ) 𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯
s 2
2𝑉𝑜 𝐶𝑌 ,𝑟¯ 𝐶𝑛,𝛽 𝐶𝑌 ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛,𝑟¯ 1 𝐶𝑌 ,𝛽 𝐶𝑛,𝑟¯
𝜔 𝑑𝐷𝑅 1− + + 𝑅 𝐷𝑠 − + (11.48)
𝑏𝑤 𝑅𝜌𝑦 𝑅 𝑧𝑧 𝑅𝜌𝑦 𝑅 𝑧𝑧 4 𝑅𝜌𝑦 𝑅 𝑧𝑧
where
𝐶ℓ,𝛽 [𝑅𝑔𝑦 𝑅𝜌𝑦 𝑅 𝑧𝑧 − (𝑅𝜌𝑦 − 𝐶𝑌 ,𝑟¯ )𝐶𝑛, 𝑝¯ ] − 𝐶𝑌 ,𝛽 𝐶ℓ,𝑟¯ 𝐶𝑛, 𝑝¯
𝑅 𝐷𝑠 ≡ Dutch roll stability ratio = (11.49)
𝑅𝜌𝑦 𝑅 𝑧𝑧 𝐶ℓ, 𝑝¯
52
12. Maneuverability
𝑆 ℎ 𝑐¯ℎ 𝑆ℎ 𝑙ℎ
𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑒 = 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝑚 ℎ , 𝛿𝑒 − 𝜂 ℎ 𝐶 𝐿ℎ , 𝛼 𝜀 𝑒 (12.12)
𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐¯𝑤
Equations (12.3) and (12.4) can be written as a system of equations as
" #( ) ( )
𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 𝛼 𝑛𝐶𝑊 − 𝐶 𝐿0 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝑞¯ 𝑞¯
= (12.13)
𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 −𝐶𝑚0 − 𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯ 𝑞¯
This can be solved directly to yield
( ) ( )
𝛼 1 (𝑛𝐶𝑊 − 𝐶 𝐿0 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝑞¯ 𝑞)𝐶
¯ 𝑚, 𝛿𝑒 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 (𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯ 𝑞)
¯
= (12.14)
𝛿𝑒 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑒 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 −(𝑛𝐶𝑊 − 𝐶 𝐿0 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝑞¯ 𝑞)𝐶
¯ 𝑚, 𝛼 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 (𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯ 𝑞)
¯
The nondimensional pitch rate can be expressed as a function of load factor as
𝑔 𝑐¯𝑤
𝑞¯ = (𝑛 − 1) 2 (12.15)
2𝑉
Using this in Eq. (12.14) gives
(𝑛𝐶𝑊 − 𝐶 𝐿0 )𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑒 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚0 + (𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯ − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝑞¯ 𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑒 ) (𝑛 − 1)𝑔 𝑐¯𝑤 /(2𝑉 2 )
𝛼= (12.16)
𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑒 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼
(𝑛𝐶𝑊 − 𝐶 𝐿0 )𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 𝐶𝑚0 + (𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 𝐶𝑚, 𝑞¯ − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝑞¯ 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 ) (𝑛 − 1)𝑔 𝑐¯𝑤 /(2𝑉 2 )
𝛿𝑒 = − (12.17)
𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑒 − 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼
53
B. Elevator Angle per 𝑔
Taking the derivative of Eq. (12.17) with respect to load factor gives the elevator angle per g
C. Dynamic Margin
The dynamic pitch rate is defined as the ratio of the centripetal acceleration to the gravitational acceleration
⌣ 𝑉𝑞 2𝑉 2
𝑞 ≡ = 𝑞¯ (12.21)
𝑔 𝑔 𝑐¯𝑤
Because 𝐶𝑊 >> 𝐶 𝐿,⌣
𝑞
, the location of the maneuver point can be estimated as
𝜔2𝑛𝑠 𝑝
Control Anticipation Parameter ≡ (12.23)
𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 /𝐶𝑊
From the closed-form approximation for the short-period mode, the undamped natural frequency can be estimated as
s s
𝐿 , 𝛼 𝑚 ,𝑞 𝑔 𝑚 , 𝛼 𝑔𝑙 𝑚 𝑝 𝐿 , 𝛼
𝜔 𝑛𝑠 𝑝 = − − = (12.24)
𝑊 𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 𝑉 𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 𝑟 2𝑦𝑦𝑏 𝑊
54
13. Flight Simulation
−1
𝑝¤
𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 −𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 −𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 0 −ℎ 𝑧𝑏 ℎ 𝑦𝑏 𝑝
©
𝑞¤ = −𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 −𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 ℎ 𝑧𝑏 0 −ℎ 𝑥𝑏 𝑞
𝑟¤
−𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 −𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 « −ℎ 𝑦𝑏 ℎ 𝑥𝑏 0
𝑟
𝑀 + (𝐼 𝑦 𝑦𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 )𝑞𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 (𝑞 2 − 𝑟 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 𝑝𝑞 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 𝑝𝑟
𝑥𝑏
2 2
+ 𝑀 𝑦𝑏 + (𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 ) 𝑝𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 (𝑟 − 𝑝 ) + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 𝑞𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 𝑝𝑞
𝑀𝑧 + (𝐼 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑦 ) 𝑝𝑞 + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 ( 𝑝 2 − 𝑞 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑝𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 𝑞𝑟
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑥¤ 𝐶 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝐶𝜓 − 𝐶𝜙 𝑆 𝜓 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝐶 𝜓 + 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜓 𝑢 𝑉 𝑤 𝑥 𝑓
𝑓
𝑦¤ 𝑓 = 𝐶 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 + 𝐶𝜙𝐶𝜓 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 𝑆 𝜓 − 𝑆 𝜙 𝐶 𝜓 𝑣 + 𝑉𝑤 𝑦 𝑓
𝑧¤ 𝑓
−𝑆 𝜃
𝑆 𝜙𝐶𝜃 𝐶𝜙𝐶𝜃
𝑤 𝑉𝑤 𝑧 𝑓
𝜙¤
1 𝑆 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 /𝐶 𝜃 𝐶 𝜙 𝑆 𝜃 /𝐶 𝜃
𝑝
𝜃¤ = 0 𝐶𝜙 −𝑆 𝜙 𝑞
𝜓¤
0 𝑆 𝜙 /𝐶 𝜃 𝐶 𝜙 /𝐶 𝜃
𝑟
B. Euler Axis
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸𝑥
𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑏
𝐸𝑦𝑓 = 𝐸 𝑦𝑏 ≡ 𝐸 𝑦 (13.1)
𝐸𝑧
𝐸 𝑧𝑏 𝐸 𝑧
𝑓
𝐸 𝑥2 + 𝐸 𝑦2 + 𝐸 𝑧2 ≡ 1 (13.2)
𝑣 𝐸 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝐶Θ 𝐸 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝐸 𝑧 𝑆Θ 𝐸 𝑥𝑧 − 𝐸 𝑦 𝑆Θ 𝑣
𝑥𝑏 𝑥𝑓
𝑣 𝑦𝑏 = 𝐸 𝑥 𝑦 − 𝐸 𝑧 𝑆Θ 𝐸 𝑦𝑦 + 𝐶Θ 𝐸 𝑦𝑧 + 𝐸 𝑥 𝑆Θ 𝑣 𝑦 𝑓 (13.3)
𝑏 𝐸 𝑥𝑧 + 𝐸 𝑦 𝑆Θ 𝐸 𝑦𝑧 − 𝐸 𝑥 𝑆Θ 𝐸 𝑧𝑧 + 𝐶Θ
𝑣𝑧
𝑣𝑧 𝑓
where 𝐸 𝑖 𝑗 = 𝐸 𝑖 𝐸 𝑗 (1 − 𝐶Θ ).
¤
Θ 2𝐸 𝑥 2𝐸 𝑦 2𝐸 𝑧
𝑝
𝐸¤ 𝑥
1 𝐸 𝑥0 𝑥 + (𝐶Θ/2 )/(𝑆Θ/2 ) 𝐸 𝑥0 𝑦 0
− 𝐸𝑧 + 𝐸𝑦
𝐸 𝑥𝑧
= 𝑞 (13.4)
𝐸¤ 𝑦
2 𝐸 𝑥0 𝑦 + 𝐸 𝑧 0
𝐸 𝑦𝑦 + (𝐶Θ/2 )/(𝑆Θ/2 ) 0
𝐸 𝑦𝑧− 𝐸𝑥
𝑟
𝐸¤
0 −𝐸
𝐸 𝑥𝑧 0 +𝐸
𝐸 𝑦𝑧 0
𝐸 𝑧𝑧 + (𝐶Θ/2 )/(𝑆Θ/2 )
𝑧 𝑦 𝑥
55
C. Euler-Rodriquez Quaternion
𝑒0
cos(Θ/2)
𝑒 𝑥
𝐸 𝑥 sin(Θ/2)
≡ (13.5)
𝑒𝑦
𝐸 𝑦 sin(Θ/2)
𝑒 𝐸 sin(Θ/2)
𝑧 𝑧
𝑒 20 + 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 2𝑦 + 𝑒 2𝑧 = 1 (13.6)
𝑊 2(𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑦 𝑒 0 )
𝑥𝑏
𝑊 𝑦𝑏 = 𝑊 2(𝑒 𝑦 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 0 ) (13.9)
𝑊𝑧
𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝑒 2 − 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 2𝑦
𝑏 0
𝑥¤ 𝑉 𝑒 2 + 𝑒 2 − 𝑒 2 − 𝑒 2 2(𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑧 𝑒 0 ) 2(𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑦 𝑒 0 ) 𝑢
𝑓 𝑤𝑥𝑓 0
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑦¤ 𝑓 = 𝑉𝑤 𝑦 𝑓 + 2(𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑧 𝑒 0 ) 𝑒 2𝑦 + 𝑒 20 − 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 2𝑧 2(𝑒 𝑦 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 0 ) 𝑣 (13.10)
𝑧¤ 𝑓 2(𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑦 𝑒 0 ) 2(𝑒 𝑦 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 0 ) 𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝑒 20 − 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 2𝑦
𝑉𝑤 𝑧 𝑓 𝑤
𝑒¤0
−𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 𝑧
𝑝
𝑒¤𝑥
1 𝑒 0
−𝑒 𝑧
𝑒 𝑦
= 𝑞 (13.11)
2 𝑒𝑧
𝑒¤𝑦 𝑒0 −𝑒 𝑥
𝑟
𝑒¤ −𝑒 𝑦 𝑒𝑥 𝑒 0
𝑧
D. Quaternion Algebra
{Q} ≡ 𝑄 0 + 𝑄 𝑥 i 𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑦 i 𝑦 + 𝑄 𝑧 i𝑧 (13.12)
i 𝑥 ⊗ i 𝑥 ≡ −1, i 𝑥 ⊗ i 𝑦 ≡ i𝑧 , i 𝑥 ⊗ i𝑧 ≡ −i 𝑦 ,
i 𝑦 ⊗ i 𝑥 ≡ −i𝑧 , i 𝑦 ⊗ i 𝑦 ≡ −1, i 𝑦 ⊗ i𝑧 ≡ i 𝑥 , (13.13)
i𝑧 ⊗ i 𝑥 ≡ i 𝑦 , i𝑧 ⊗ i 𝑦 ≡ −i 𝑥 , i𝑧 ⊗ i𝑧 ≡ −1
A ⊗ B = −( 𝐴 𝑥 𝐵 𝑥 + 𝐴 𝑦 𝐵 𝑦 + 𝐴 𝑧 𝐵 𝑧 )
+ ( 𝐴 𝑦 𝐵 𝑧 − 𝐴 𝑧 𝐵 𝑦 )i 𝑥
(13.15)
+ ( 𝐴 𝑧 𝐵 𝑥 − 𝐴 𝑥 𝐵 𝑧 )i 𝑦
+ ( 𝐴 𝑥 𝐵 𝑦 − 𝐴 𝑦 𝐵 𝑥 )i𝑧 = −A · B + A × B
56
q
|{Q}| ≡ 𝑄 20 + 𝑄 2𝑥 + 𝑄 2𝑦 + 𝑄 2𝑧 (13.16)
{Q}∗ ≡ 𝑄 0 − 𝑄 𝑥 i 𝑥 − 𝑄 𝑦 i 𝑦 − 𝑄 𝑧 i𝑧 (13.17)
𝑒0
𝐶 𝜙/2 𝐶 𝜃/2 𝐶 𝜓/2 + 𝑆 𝜙/2 𝑆 𝜃/2 𝑆 𝜓/2
𝑒 𝑥
𝑆 𝜙/2 𝐶 𝜃/2 𝐶 𝜓/2 − 𝐶 𝜙/2 𝑆 𝜃/2 𝑆 𝜓/2
=± (13.20)
𝑒𝑦
𝐶 𝜙/2 𝑆 𝜃/2 𝐶 𝜓/2 + 𝑆 𝜙/2 𝐶 𝜃/2 𝑆 𝜓/2
𝑒
𝑧
𝐶 𝐶 𝑆
𝜙/2 𝜃/2 𝜓/2 − 𝑆 𝑆 𝐶
𝜙/2 𝜃/2 𝜓/2
if(𝑒 0 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑧 = 0.5)
𝜙
2 sin−1 [𝑒 𝑥 /cos(𝜋/4)] + 𝜓
𝜃 = 𝜋/2
arbitrary
𝜓
if(𝑒 0 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑧 = −0.5)
𝜙
2 sin−1 [𝑒 𝑥 /cos(𝜋/4)] − 𝜓
(13.21)
𝜃 = −𝜋/2
arbitrary
𝜓
else
𝜙
atan2[2(𝑒 0 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑦 𝑒 𝑧 ), (𝑒 20 + 𝑒 2𝑧 − 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 2𝑦 )]
𝜃 = sin−1 [2(𝑒 0 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑧 )]
2 2 2 2
atan2[2(𝑒 0 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 ), (𝑒 0 + 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑧 )]
𝜓
F. Quaternion Renormalization
1. Exact Solution
{e} {e}
{e}𝑟 = =q (13.22)
|{e}|
𝑒 20 + 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 2𝑦 + 𝑒 2𝑧
57
2. Approximate Solution
−1
𝑝¤
𝐼𝑥 𝑥
𝑏 −𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 −𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 0 −ℎ 𝑧𝑏 ℎ 𝑦𝑏
𝑝
©
𝑞¤ = −𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 𝐼 𝑦𝑦𝑏 −𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 ℎ 𝑧𝑏 0 −ℎ 𝑥𝑏 𝑞
𝑟¤
−𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 −𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 « −ℎ 𝑦𝑏 ℎ 𝑥𝑏 0
𝑟
(13.25)
2 2
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 + (𝐼 𝑦 𝑦𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 )𝑞𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 (𝑞 − 𝑟 ) + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 𝑝𝑞 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 𝑝𝑟
+ 𝑀 𝑦𝑏 + (𝐼 𝑧𝑧𝑏 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥𝑏 ) 𝑝𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧𝑏 (𝑟 2 − 𝑝 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦𝑏 𝑞𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑧𝑏 𝑝𝑞
𝑀𝑧 + (𝐼 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑦 ) 𝑝𝑞 + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 ( 𝑝 2 − 𝑞 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑝𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 𝑞𝑟
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑒0
0
𝑒0
𝑥¤ © ª
𝑉 𝑤 𝑥 𝑓
𝑓
𝑒 𝑥
𝑢
−𝑒 𝑥
®
𝑦¤ 𝑓 = ⊗
⊗ ® + 𝑉𝑤 𝑦 𝑓 (13.26)
𝑒𝑦 𝑣 −𝑒 𝑦 ®
𝑧¤ 𝑓
®
𝑉𝑤 𝑧
𝑒
𝑤 −𝑒 𝑓
𝑧 « 𝑧 ¬
𝑒¤0
−𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 𝑧
𝑝
𝑒¤𝑥
1 𝑒 0
−𝑒 𝑧
𝑒 𝑦
= 𝑞 (13.27)
𝑒¤ 𝑦
2 𝑒𝑧 𝑒0 −𝑒 𝑥
𝑟
𝑒¤ −𝑒 𝑦 𝑒𝑥 𝑒0
𝑧
H. Geographic Coordinates
Φ¤ 𝑥¤ 𝑓 /(𝑅 𝑥 + 𝐻)
Ψ¤ = 𝑦¤ 𝑓 /[(𝑅 𝑦 + 𝐻)cosΦ] (13.28)
𝐻¤
−𝑧¤ 𝑓
Φ
atan2[ẑ, (1 − 𝜀 ) ( 𝑥ˆ + 𝑦ˆ ) 1/2 ]
2 2 2
2
Ψ2 Ψ1 + atan2( 𝑦ˆ , 𝑥) ˆ (13.29)
𝐻1 − Δ𝑧 𝑓
𝐻2
Φ¤ 𝑥¤ 𝑓 /(𝑅 𝐸 + 𝐻)
¤
𝑅 𝐸 ≡ 6, 336.707km, Ψ = 𝑦¤ 𝑓 /[(𝑅 𝐸 + 𝐻)cosΦ] (13.30)
𝐻¤
−𝑧¤ 𝑓
58
q
𝑑= Δ𝑥 2𝑓 + Δ𝑦 2𝑓
if(𝑑 < 𝜀 𝑡 )then
Φ2 = Φ1
Ψ2 = Ψ1
Δ𝜓𝑔 = 0
else
Θ = 𝑑/(𝑅 𝐸 + 𝐻1 − Δ𝑧 𝑓 /2)
𝜓𝑔1 = atan2(Δ𝑦 𝑓 , Δ𝑥 𝑓 )
𝑥ˆ = cosΦ1 cosΘ − sinΦ1 sinΘcos𝜓𝑔1
𝑦ˆ = sinΘsin𝜓𝑔1
𝑧ˆ = sinΦ1 cosΘ + cosΦ1 sinΘcos𝜓𝑔1
𝑥ˆ 0 = −cosΦ1 sinΘ − sinΦ1 cosΘcos𝜓𝑔1
𝑦ˆ 0 = cosΘsin𝜓𝑔1 𝑧ˆ 0 = −sinΦ1 sinΘ + cosΦ1 cosΘcos𝜓𝑔1
q 2
𝑟ˆ = 𝑥ˆ 2 + 𝑦ˆ
Φ2 = atan2( 𝑧ˆ, 𝑟)
ˆ
Ψ2 = Ψ1 + atan2( 𝑦ˆ , 𝑥)
ˆ
𝐶 = 𝑥ˆ 2 𝑦ˆ 0
𝑆 = ( 𝑥ˆ 𝑦ˆ 0 − 𝑦ˆ 𝑥ˆ 0)cos2 Φ2 cos2 Ψ2
Δ𝜓𝑔 = atan2(𝑆, 𝐶) − 𝜓𝑔1
end if
𝐻2 = 𝐻1 − Δ𝑧 𝑓
(13.31)
𝑒0
𝑒0
−𝑒 𝑧
−𝑒 𝑦
𝑒𝑥
𝑒𝑥
= cos(Δ𝜓𝑔 /2) + sin(Δ𝜓𝑔 /2) (13.32)
𝑒𝑦
𝑒𝑦
𝑒𝑥
𝑒
𝑒
𝑒
𝑧
geographic 𝑧
flat Earth 0 flat Earth
(13.34)
(13.35)
59
60
14. Aerodynamic Coordinate Transformations
xb
a
a
b xs
yw b xw
b
yb, ys
zs, zw zb
61
C. Wind Coordinate System
The wind coordinate system is obtained by rotating the stability coordinate system about the 𝑧 𝑠 -axis by the sideslip
angle 𝛽. The transformation of an arbitrary vector in the stability coordinate system to the wind coordinate system is
𝑣 𝑐 𝛽 𝑠𝛽 0 𝑣
𝑥𝑤 𝑥𝑠
𝑣 𝑦𝑤 = −𝑠 𝛽 𝑐𝛽 0 𝑣 𝑦𝑠 (14.5)
𝑤 0 0 1
𝑣𝑧
𝑣 𝑧𝑠
Combining Eqs. (14.4) and (14.6), the transformation of a vector from the wind coordinate system to the body-fixed
coordinate system is
𝑣 𝑐 𝛼 0 −𝑠 𝛼 𝑐 𝛽 −𝑠 𝛽 0 𝑣 𝑐 𝑐 −𝑐 𝛼 𝑠 𝛽 −𝑠 𝛼 𝑣
𝑥𝑏 𝑥𝑤 𝛼 𝛽 𝑥𝑤
𝑣 𝑦𝑏 = 0 1 0 𝑠𝛽 0 𝑣 𝑦𝑤 = 𝑠 𝛽 0 𝑣 𝑦𝑤 (14.8)
𝑐𝛽 𝑐𝛽
0 𝑐 𝛼 0 0 1 −𝑠 𝛼 𝑠 𝛽
𝑣𝑧
𝑏 𝑠 𝛼 𝑣 𝑧𝑤 𝑠 𝛼 𝑐 𝛽 𝑐 𝛼 𝑣 𝑧𝑤
1. Velocity Components
Equation (14.8) can be used to compute the velocity vector in the body-fixed coordinate system from a velocity
magnitude in the wind coordinate system and the two aerodynamic angles. This gives
𝑢 𝑉𝑥𝑏
𝑐 𝑐 −𝑐 𝛼 𝑠 𝛽 −𝑠 𝛼 𝑉 𝑐 𝑐
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼 𝛽
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑦𝑏 = 𝑠 𝛽 𝑐𝛽 0 0 = 𝑉 𝑠𝛽 (14.9)
−𝑠 𝛼 𝑠 𝛽 0
𝑤
𝑠𝛼𝑐𝛽
𝑉𝑧𝑏 𝑠 𝛼 𝑐 𝛽 𝑐 𝛼
D. Flank Angle
The sideslip angle defined in Eq. (14.2) is not the only method for defining sideslip. The traditional definition
given in Eq. (14.2) is useful for defining the wind coordinate system relative to the stability coordinate system. It is
often used in wind-tunnel testing. Because this traditional definition is the angle between the stability coordinate system
and the wind coordinate system, it is not a direct analog to angle of attack, which is relative to the body-fixed coordinate
system. The sideslip angle of the freestream velocity vector relative to the body-fixed coordinate system is sometimes
known as the flank angle [5], and is defined as
𝑣
𝛽 𝑓 ≡ tan−1 (14.10)
𝑢
Notice that Eq. (14.10) is a direct analog to the definition of angle of attack given in Eq. (14.1). This is because both the
angle of attack and flank angle are measured relative to the body-fixed coordinate system. The flank angle is sometimes
the sideslip angle of choice in analytic work or numerical simulations. It is also the angle usually measured by a wind
vane in a flight test.
The freestream velocity vector given in Eq. (14.9) is shown as a function of the angle of attack and traditional
sideslip angle. This vector can also be expressed in terms of the angle of attack and flank angle. The velocity magnitude
is related to the velocity components in the body-fixed coordinate system according to
𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 (14.11)
62
From the definitions of angle of attack and flank angle given in Eqs. (14.1) and (14.10), we can write
𝑣 = 𝑢 tan 𝛽 𝑓 (14.12)
𝑤 = 𝑢 tan 𝛼 (14.13)
Using Eqs. (14.12) and (14.13) in Eq. (14.11), applying trigonometric identities, and applying the result to Eqs. (14.12)
and (14.13) gives
𝑢
𝑐 𝛼 𝑐𝛽 𝑓
𝑉
𝑣 =q 𝑐 𝛼 𝑠𝛽 𝑓 (14.14)
1 − 𝑠 2 𝑠2
𝑤 𝛼 𝛽 𝑓 𝑠𝛼𝑐𝛽
𝑓
The relationship between the traditional sideslip angle and the flank angle can be found by applying the velocity
components given in Eq. (14.9) to Eq. (14.10). This gives
tan 𝛽
tan 𝛽 𝑓 = (14.15)
cos 𝛼
At small angles of attack, the traditional sideslip angle and the flank angle are very nearly equal, and at an angle of attack
of zero, the sideslip and flank angles are identical. However, at large angles of attack, these two angles are significantly
different. Both angles are useful in different situations. The key is to be aware of how the angle is defined for any
analysis, and to be consistent in application. In any case, if the angle of attack and one definition of sideslip angle is
known, the other definition of sideslip angle can be found from Eq. (14.15).
63
Table 14.2 Force components in the stability coordinate system.
as well. In the body-fixed coordinate system, these components are referred to as rolling, pitching, and yawing moments.
Here we will use this terminology for all three coordinate systems, and use subscripts to denote which coordinate
system the moment components pertain to. These moment components are defined in Tables 14.4–14.6. Using Eqs.
(14.2)–(14.8), the moments in any of the three coordinate systems can be computed from known moment components in
one of the other coordinate systems.
64
traditional aerodynamic angles given in Eqs. (14.1) and (14.2), from the results shown in Table 14.1, the aerodynamic
forces including thrust can be expressed in the body-fixed coordinate system as
𝐹 𝐹𝑃𝑥 −𝐶
𝑥𝑏 𝐴
1 2
𝐹𝑦𝑏 = 𝐹𝑃𝑦 + 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝐶𝑌
2
𝐹𝑧
−𝐶 𝑁
𝑏 𝐹𝑃𝑧
𝐹 𝐶 𝑠 − 𝐶 𝐷𝑠 𝑐 𝛼
𝑃𝑥 𝐿 𝛼
1 2
= 𝐹𝑃𝑦 + 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝐶𝑌 (14.16)
2
𝐹𝑃 −𝐶 𝐿 𝑐 𝛼 − 𝐶𝐷 𝑠 𝛼
𝑧 𝑠
𝐹 𝐶 𝑠 − 𝐶 𝑆 𝛼 𝛽 − 𝐶𝐷 𝑐 𝛼 𝑐 𝛽
𝑐 𝑠
𝑃𝑥 𝐿 𝛼
1 2
= 𝐹𝑃𝑦 + 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝐶𝑆 𝑐 𝛽 − 𝐶 𝐷 𝑠 𝛽
2
𝐹𝑃 −𝐶 𝐿 𝑐 𝛼 − 𝐶𝑆 𝑠 𝛼 𝑠 𝛽 − 𝐶𝐷 𝑠 𝛼 𝑐 𝛽
𝑧
where 𝐹𝑃𝑥 , 𝐹𝑃𝑦 , and 𝐹𝑃𝑧 are the propulsion force components in the body-fixed coordinate system, and all aerodynamic
force coefficients are nondimensionalized by the dynamic pressure and wing area.
The aerodynamic moment vector can be evaluated in any of the three coordinate systems considered, but are
usually applied to the equations of motion in the body-fixed coordinate system. Using the results shown in Table 14.4,
the aerodynamic moment components including thrust can be expressed in the body-fixed coordinate system as
𝑀 𝑀 𝑃𝑥 𝑏 𝐶
𝑥𝑏 𝑤 ℓ
1 2
𝑀 𝑦𝑏 = 𝑀 𝑃𝑦 + 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐 𝑤 𝐶𝑚
2
𝑀𝑧 𝑏 𝑤 𝐶𝑛
𝑏 𝑀 𝑃𝑧
𝑀 𝑏 (𝐶 𝑐 − 𝐶 𝑛𝑠 𝑠 𝛼 )
𝑃𝑥 𝑤 ℓ𝑠 𝛼
1 2
= 𝑀 𝑃𝑦 + 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝑐 𝑤 𝐶 𝑚𝑠 (14.17)
2
𝑀𝑃
𝑏 𝑤 (𝐶ℓ 𝑠 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑛 𝑐 𝛼 )
𝑧 𝑠 𝑠
𝑀 𝑏 (𝐶 𝑐 𝑐 − 𝐶 𝑛 𝑤 𝑠 𝛼 ) − 𝑐 𝑤 𝐶𝑚 𝑤 𝑐 𝛼 𝑠 𝛽
𝑃𝑥 𝑤 ℓ𝑤 𝛼 𝛽
1 2
= 𝑀 𝑃𝑦 + 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝑏 𝑤 𝐶ℓ𝑤 𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐 𝑤 𝐶𝑚𝑤 𝑐 𝛽
2
𝑀𝑃 𝑏 𝑤 (𝐶ℓ 𝑠 𝛼 𝑐 𝛽 + 𝐶𝑛 𝑐 𝛼 ) − 𝑐 𝑤 𝐶𝑚 𝑠 𝛼 𝑠 𝛽
𝑧 𝑤 𝑤 𝑤
where 𝑀 𝑃𝑥 , 𝑀 𝑃𝑦 , and 𝑀 𝑃𝑧 are the propulsion moment components in the body-fixed coordinate system, and all
aerodynamic moment coefficients are nondimensionalized by the dynamic pressure, wing area, and longitudinal or
lateral reference length.
65
15. Aerodynamic Models
The aerodynamic forces and moments acting on an aircraft depend on many parameters including the velocity
vector, velocity magnitude, angular rates, translational accelerations, and control-surface deflections. The velocity
vector is defined relative to the body-fixed coordinate system using aerodynamic angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and/or 𝛽 𝑓 . The velocity
magnitude is defined in terms of two nondimensional numbers known as the Reynolds number
𝜌𝑉 𝑐¯
𝑅𝑒 ≡ (15.1)
𝜇
and Mach number
𝑉
𝑀≡ (15.2)
𝑎
where 𝑎 is the speed of sound. Because the aerodynamic forces and moments are proportional to the dynamic pressure,
these forces and moments are traditionally written in dimensionless form in terms of coefficients that are normalized by
the dynamic pressure. At high Reynolds numbers and Mach numbers below 0.3, the aerodynamic force and moment
coefficients are nearly independent of velocity magnitude. The angular rates are traditionally written in nondimensional
form as
𝑝𝑏
𝑝≡ (15.3)
2𝑉
𝑞𝑐 𝑤
𝑞≡ (15.4)
2𝑉
𝑟𝑏
𝑟≡ (15.5)
2𝑉
and the translational accelerations are usually written in nondimensional form as
¤ 𝑤
𝛼𝑐
𝛼ˆ ≡ (15.6)
2𝑉
¤
𝛽𝑏
𝛽ˆ ≡ (15.7)
2𝑉
Finally, the control-surface deflections vary widely depending on aircraft. However, the traditional controls included on
most aircraft are an aileron, elevator, and rudder.
66
𝑁𝑐
Õ
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑚,𝛽 𝛽 + 𝐶𝑚, 𝑝 𝑝 + 𝐶𝑚,𝑞 𝑞 + 𝐶𝑚,𝑟 𝑟 + 𝐶𝑚, 𝛼ˆ 𝛼ˆ + 𝐶𝑚, 𝛽ˆ 𝛽ˆ + 𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑖 𝛿𝑖 (15.12)
𝑖=1
𝑁𝑐
Õ
𝐶𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛0 + 𝐶𝑛, 𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑛,𝛽 𝛽 + 𝐶𝑛, 𝑝 𝑝 + 𝐶𝑛,𝑞 𝑞 + 𝐶𝑛,𝑟 𝑟 + 𝐶𝑛, 𝛼ˆ 𝛼ˆ + 𝐶𝑛, 𝛽ˆ 𝛽ˆ + 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑖 𝛿𝑖 (15.13)
𝑖=1
where 𝐶ℓ0 , 𝐶𝑚0 , and 𝐶𝑛0 are the rolling, pitching, and yawing moment coefficients at zero angle of attack, zero sidelip
angle, zero rotational rates, zero translation acceleration, and zero control surface deflection.
These equations can be further simplified and refined for many common aircraft designs. For example, many
aircraft have only three control surfaces including an elevator 𝛿𝑒 , aileron 𝛿 𝑎 , and rudder 𝛿𝑟 . Furthermore, most aircraft
are very nearly symmetrical. For the case of a symmetric aircraft at small sideslip angles, the change in longitudinal
aerodynamic forces and moments with respect to the sideslip angle and lateral accelerations, rotation rates, and control
surfaces are very nearly zero
𝐶 𝐿,𝛽 ≈ 𝐶 𝐿, 𝑝 ≈ 𝐶 𝐿,𝑟 ≈ 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛽ˆ ≈ 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑎 ≈ 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑟 ≈ 0
𝐶𝐷,𝛽 ≈ 𝐶𝐷, 𝑝 ≈ 𝐶𝐷,𝑟 ≈ 𝐶𝐷, 𝛽ˆ ≈ 𝐶𝐷, 𝛿𝑎 ≈ 𝐶𝐷, 𝛿𝑟 ≈ 0 (15.14)
𝐶𝑚,𝛽 ≈ 𝐶𝑚, 𝑝 ≈ 𝐶𝑚,𝑟 ≈ 𝐶𝑚, 𝛽ˆ ≈ 𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑎 ≈ 𝐶𝑚, 𝛿𝑟 ≈ 0
These terms are exactly zero or very nearly zero due to the fact that changes in the lateral terms will have an identical
effect on the longitudinal forces and moments whether they are positive or negative. For example, the change in drag
with respect to sideslip angle may be nonzero. However, since we are using a linear model relative to the case of no
sideslip, for a symmetric aircraft a positive sideslip angle will produce the same change in drag as a negative sideslip
angle. Therefore, the first derivative of the drag with respect to sideslip angle is zero.
Additionally, due to symmetry, the change in lateral aerodynamic forces and moments with respect to the angle of
attack and lateral accelerations, rotation rates, and elevator deflection are nearly zero
Finally, the following terms are also zero for a perfectly symmetric aircraft
𝐶 𝐿 = 𝐶 𝐿0 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶 𝐿,𝑞 𝑞 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ 𝛼ˆ + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (15.17)
67
where 𝐶𝐷𝐿0 is the drag at zero lift. Notice that we have not included the linear term 𝐶𝐷,𝑆 𝐶𝑆 due to the assumption that
the aircraft is symmetric about the 𝑥 − 𝑧 plane. Equation (15.23) can be used to develop a drag model superior to that
given in Eq. (15.19) and account for the changes in drag that can be expected due to angle of attack, pitch rate, normal
acceleration, and elevator deflection. Applying Eq. (15.17) to Eq. (15.23) gives
To assist in this analysis, we define a pseudo lift coefficient that neglects changes in lift due to pitch rate, normal
acceleration, or elevator deflection
𝐶 𝐿1 = 𝐶 𝐿0 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼 𝛼 (15.25)
Using this definition in Eq. (15.24) and rearranging gives
Since 𝐶 𝐿,𝑞 , 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ , 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 , 𝐶𝐷,𝐿 , and 𝐶𝐷,𝐿 2 are constants, combinations of these constants can be renamed. Additionally,
we will drop the interaction terms 𝑞 𝛼, ˆ 𝑒 and assume the nonlinear terms 𝑞 2 and 𝛼ˆ 2 are small and can be
ˆ 𝑞𝛿𝑒 , and 𝛼𝛿
neglected in comparison to other terms. Dropping these terms and combining constants gives
This form of the drag model can be significantly more accurate than that given in Eq. (15.19).
From lifting-line theory it can be shown that the effects of rolling rate and aileron deflection on the yawing moment
can each be approximated is a linear function of lift. Hence, the influence of rolling rate on yawing moment can be
approximated as (𝐶𝑛,𝐿 𝑝 𝐶 𝐿1 + 𝐶𝑛, 𝑝 ) 𝑝, and the influence of aileron deflection on yawing moment can be approximated
as (𝐶𝑛,𝐿 𝛿𝑎 𝐶 𝐿1 + 𝐶𝑛, 𝛿𝑎 )𝛿 𝑎 . Additionally, an analytic approximation by Phillips [] shows that the change in rolling
moment with respect to yawing rate depends in a linear fashion on the lift coefficient of the main wing. This can be
approximated as (𝐶ℓ,𝐿𝑟 𝐶 𝐿1 + 𝐶ℓ,𝑟 )𝑟. Applying these approximations along with the result given in Eq. (15.27) to Eqs.
(15.17)–(15.22) gives the simplified aerodynamic model below stall
𝐶 𝐿 = 𝐶 𝐿1 + 𝐶 𝐿,𝑞 𝑞 + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ 𝛼ˆ + 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (15.28)
68
B. Aerodynamic Coefficient Estimation
Most aerodynamic coefficients needed for Eqs. (15.22)–(15.27) can be obtained through relatively straight-forward
processes from wind-tunnel testing or computational fluid dynamics. Note that the coefficients needed in Eqs. (15.22)–
(15.24) are defined in the wind coordinate system, and those needed in Eqs. (15.25)–(15.27) are defined in the body-fixed
coordinate system. These coefficients can be obtained from measurements in any coordinate system by use of the
transformation equations given in Tables 14.1–14.6.
The derivatives with respect to translational accelerations needed in Eqs. (15.22)–(15.27) can be a bit more difficult
to evaluate. In general, these coefficients must be obtained through an unsteady flow analysis. As a first approximation,
Phillips [6] provides an estimate for the change in lift and pitching moment with respect to the vertical acceleration 𝛼.¤
In nondimensional form, this can be written as
4𝑆 ℎ 𝑙 𝑤𝑡 𝜕𝐶 𝐿𝑤 𝜕𝐶 𝐿ℎ
𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ ≈ 𝜂 ℎ
𝜋𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼 (15.34)
𝑥 𝑏ℎ
𝐶𝑚, 𝛼ˆ ≈− 𝐶 𝐿, 𝛼ˆ
𝑐𝑤
where (
1.1(𝑥 𝑏wingtip − 𝑥 𝑏ℎ ), 𝑥 𝑏wingtip > 𝑥 𝑏ℎ
𝑙 𝑤𝑡 = (15.35)
0.0, 𝑥 𝑏ℎ > 𝑥 𝑏wingtip
Phillips [6] suggests that, as a first approximation, all other changes in forces and moments with respect to changes in
translational acceleration are zero or negligible. This gives
C. Ground Effect
When a wing comes in the presence of the ground, the downwash is reduced across the wing. This produces an
increase in lift and a decrease in induced drag. One estimate that can be used for the influence of ground effect on lift is
the ratio of the lift in ground effect to that of the lift out of ground effect, both computed at the same angle of attack
[𝐶 𝐿 (𝛼)] ℎ
lift influence ratio = (15.37)
[𝐶 𝐿 (𝛼)] ∞
where ℎ is the height of the wing above ground. Since the induced-drag coefficient for a wing without twist is proportional
to the lift coefficient squared, a common measure of the influence of the ground on induced drag is computed by the
ratio of the induced drag divided by the square of the lift coefficient evaluated in ground effect to that of the same ratio
out of ground effect
(𝐶𝐷𝑖 /𝐶 𝐿2 ) ℎ
induced-drag influence ratio = (15.38)
(𝐶𝐷𝑖 /𝐶 𝐿2 )∞
(𝐶𝐷𝑖 /𝐶 𝐿2 ) ℎ
𝑅𝐷 ≡ = {1 − 𝛿 𝐷 exp[−4.74(ℎ/𝑏) 0.814 ] − (ℎ/𝑏) 2 exp[−3.88(ℎ/𝑏) 0.758 }𝛽 𝐷 (15.40)
(𝐶𝐷𝑖 /𝐶 𝐿2 )∞
69
where
0.269𝐶 𝐿1.45
𝛽𝐿 = 1 + ℎ
(15.41)
𝑅 3.18
𝐴 (ℎ/𝑏)
1.12
0.0361𝐶 𝐿1.21
𝛽𝐷 = 1 + ℎ
(15.42)
𝑅 1.19
𝐴 (ℎ/𝑏)
1.51
and 𝐶 𝐿ℎ is the lift coefficient in ground effect. For an elliptic wing, 𝛿 𝐿 = 𝛿 𝐷 = 1.0. For linearly tapered wings,
(𝐶 𝐿1 ) ℎ = 𝑅 𝐿 (𝐶 𝐿1 )∞ (15.45)
The quantity (𝐶 𝐿1 ) ℎ is then used in Eqs. (15.28), (15.30), (15.31), and (15.33) for every occurrence of the term 𝐶 𝐿1 .
Additionally, we will assume that the induced drag is the dominant effect in the term 𝐶𝐷,𝐿 2 which appears in Eq. (15.30).
Hence, we can simply use Eq. (15.40) directly in Eq. (15.30) to yield an estimate for the total drag in ground effect
To include an approximation for ground effect on drag, Eq. (15.46) can be used instead of Eq. (15.30).
70
E. Propulsion Model
The total propulsive force on an aircraft is a summation of those from the individual propulsive elements including
jet engines, propellers, and exhaust nozzles, and can be expressed as
𝐹
𝑃𝑥
𝑁𝑃
Õ
𝐹𝑃𝑦 = F 𝑃𝑖 (15.47)
𝑖=1
𝐹𝑃
𝑧
where 𝑁 𝑃 is the number of propulsive elements. The propulsive force from a single propulsive element F 𝑃 depends on
both thrust produced by the element and the drag on the element, and can be written as
F 𝑃 = (𝑇u 𝑃 + 𝐷 𝑃 u∞ ) (15.48)
where 𝑇 and 𝐷 𝑃 are the thrust and drag of propulsive element, and u 𝑃 is the unit vector in the direction of the thrust of
propulsive element. The thrust from various propulsion methods can often be closely modeled as a quadratic function
of velocity and is proportional to the density. This can be written as
𝑇 = 𝜏(𝜌/𝜌0 ) 𝑎 𝑇0 + 𝑇1𝑉 + 𝑇2𝑉 2 (15.49)
where 𝑇0 , 𝑇1 , and 𝑇2 are the constants of the parabolic function, 𝑎 is a constant related to the density ratio, and 𝜏 is the
throttle setting, and 𝜌0 is the standard sea-level density. The constants required in Eq. (15.33) can be found by fitting
the equation to predicted or measured thrust data from a propulsive element. The drag on a propulsive element can be
modeled as
1
𝐷 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 𝑃 𝐶𝐷 𝑃 (15.50)
2
where 𝑆 𝑃 is the characteristic area and 𝐶𝐷 𝑃 is the drag coefficient of the propulsive element. The drag coefficient for
the propulsive element can also be obtained from predicted or measured data. Once the propulsion model has been
constructed, these results can be used in Eqs. (15.31) and (15.32) to predict the total propulsive force vector on the
system.
The total propulsive moment vector can be obtained from
𝑀
𝑃𝑥 𝑁𝑃
Õ
𝑀 𝑃𝑦 = (r 𝑃𝑖 × F 𝑃𝑖 ) (15.51)
𝑀𝑃 𝑖=1
𝑧
where r 𝑃𝑖 is the vector from the aircraft center of gravity to propulsive element 𝑖.
71
16. Six-Degree-of-Freedom Static Trim
In general, for a flight condition specified by the altitude, velocity, climb angle, and type of trim, we wish to find
the states of the aircraft that will produce a trim condition. This includes solving for the angle of attack, sideslip angle,
elevation angle, bank angle, roll rate, pitch rate, yaw rate, control-surface deflections, and thrust required to maintain
trim. We begin by considering the governing equations of motion for a rigid-body aircraft.
𝐼𝑥 𝑥 −𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 −𝐼 𝑥𝑧
𝑝¤
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 0 −ℎ 𝑧 ℎ 𝑦 𝑝
−𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 −𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑞¤ = 𝑀 𝑦𝑏 + ℎ 𝑧 0 −ℎ 𝑥 𝑞
𝐼𝑦 𝑦
−𝐼 𝑥𝑧 −𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑟¤ 𝑀𝑧𝑏 −ℎ 𝑦 ℎ 𝑥 0
𝐼 𝑧𝑧
𝑟
(16.2)
(𝐼 𝑦𝑦 − 𝐼 𝑧𝑧 )𝑞𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 (𝑞 2 − 𝑟 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 𝑝𝑞 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 𝑝𝑟
+ (𝐼 𝑧𝑧 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥 ) 𝑝𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 (𝑟 2 − 𝑝 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 𝑞𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑝𝑞
(𝐼 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑦 ) 𝑝𝑞 + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 ( 𝑝 2 − 𝑞 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑝𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 𝑞𝑟
For the purposes of considering a trim condition, we have chosen to apply the Euler-angle formulation. Applying a local
flat-earth approximation, the change in earth-fixed coordinates can be written as
𝑥¤ 𝑐 𝜃 𝑐 𝜓 𝑠𝜙 𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜓 − 𝑐 𝜙 𝑠𝜓 𝑐 𝜙 𝑠 𝜃 𝑐 𝜓 + 𝑠 𝜙 𝑠 𝜓 𝑢 𝑉𝑤 𝑥 𝑓
𝑓
𝑦¤ 𝑓 = 𝑐 𝜃 𝑠 𝜓 𝑠𝜙 𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝜓 + 𝑐 𝜙𝑐𝜓 𝑐 𝜙 𝑠 𝜃 𝑠 𝜓 − 𝑠 𝜙 𝑐 𝜓 𝑣 + 𝑉𝑤 𝑦 𝑓 (16.3)
𝑧¤ 𝑓
−𝑠 𝜃
𝑠𝜙𝑐𝜃 𝑐𝜙𝑐𝜃
𝑤 𝑉𝑤 𝑧 𝑓
Using the Euler-angle formulation, the change in aircraft orientation can be written as
𝜙¤
1 𝑠𝜙𝑡 𝜃 𝑐 𝜙 𝑡 𝜃
𝑝
𝜃¤ = 0 𝑐𝜙 −𝑠 𝜙 𝑞 (16.4)
𝜓¤
0 𝑠 𝜙 /𝑐 𝜃 𝑐 𝜙 /𝑐 𝜃
𝑟
In a trim state, the equations of motion must be satisfied such that the aerodynamic velocities and rotation rates do
not change with time. This requires that the left-hand side of Eqs. (16.1) and (16.2) are zero. Additionally, there must be
no changes in the bank and elevation angles with time. Therefore, the first two equations within the system of equations
given in Eq. (16.4) are zero. Applying these constraints, Eqs. (16.1), (16.2), and (16.4) can be rearranged to yield
𝐹 −𝑠 𝑟𝑣 − 𝑞𝑤
𝑥𝑏 𝜃
𝑊
𝐹𝑦𝑏 = −𝑊 𝑠 𝜙 𝑐 𝜃 − 𝑝𝑤 − 𝑟𝑢 (16.5)
𝑔
𝐹𝑧
𝑐 𝜙 𝑐 𝜃
𝑞𝑢 − 𝑝𝑣
𝑏
𝑀 0 −ℎ 𝑧 ℎ 𝑦 𝑝 (𝐼 𝑦𝑦 − 𝐼 𝑧𝑧 )𝑞𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 (𝑞 2 − 𝑟 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 𝑝𝑞 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 𝑝𝑟
𝑥𝑏
𝑀 𝑦𝑏 = − ℎ 𝑧
0
2 2
−ℎ 𝑥 𝑞 − (𝐼 𝑧𝑧 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥 ) 𝑝𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 (𝑟 − 𝑝 ) + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 𝑞𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑝𝑞 (16.6)
𝑀𝑧 −ℎ 𝑦 ℎ𝑥 0 𝑟 (𝐼 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑦 ) 𝑝𝑞 + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 ( 𝑝 2 − 𝑞 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑝𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 𝑞𝑟
𝑏
𝑝 = −(𝑞𝑠 𝜙 + 𝑟𝑐 𝜙 )𝑡 𝜃 (16.7)
𝑞 = 𝑟𝑡 𝜙 (16.8)
Equations (16.5)–(16.8) represent our core system of equations for trim. Each of these relations must be true for an
aircraft to be in a trim state. Because we have eight equations, these can be used to solve for eight unknowns. Given
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mass, propulsion, gyroscopic, and aerodynamic information for a traditional aircraft, the unknowns in these equations
include the angle of attack, sideslip angle, elevation angle, bank angle, roll rate, pitch rate, yaw rate, aileron deflection,
elevator deflection, rudder deflection, and throttle setting. Since we have eleven unknowns and only eight equations,
additional information is required to close this system of equations. Two of these additional relations usually come in
the form of a specified state of the aircraft, and the final constraint comes from the type of trim.
For example, the elevation angle and bank angle could be specified by the user. This leaves one final constraint that
depends on the type of trim. The elevation angle and bank angles can be specified directly. However, these are directly
related to the climb rate and the normal load factor, which are perhaps more useful input parameters.
B. Climb Rate
It is often convenient to specify the state of an aircraft in terms of the climb rate 𝑉𝑐 or climb angle 𝛾 rather than an
elevation angle 𝜃. The climb rate is defined as the change in vertical location with respect to time, i.e. 𝑉𝑐 ≡ −𝑧¤ 𝑓 . The
climb angle is related to the climb rate according to
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉 𝑠 𝛾 = −𝑧¤ 𝑓 (16.9)
The climb rate can be related to the aircraft orientation and velocity components using the third equation within Eq.
(16.3),
𝑧¤ 𝑓 = −𝑠 𝜃 𝑢 + 𝑠 𝜙 𝑐 𝜃 𝑣 + 𝑐 𝜙 𝑐 𝜃 𝑤 + 𝑉𝑤 𝑧 𝑓 (16.10)
Neglecting any vertical component of wind (i.e. 𝑉𝑤 𝑧 𝑓 = 0) and using Eq. (16.9) in Eq. (16.10) gives a relationship
between the climb angle, bank angle, elevation angle, and body-fixed velocity components
𝑉 𝑠 𝛾 = 𝑢𝑠 𝜃 − (𝑣𝑠 𝜙 + 𝑤𝑐 𝜙 )𝑐 𝜃 (16.11)
1. General Solution
It is sometimes convenient to specify a normal load factor for the trim condition rather than a bank angle. The
term load factor is nearly universally defined as the ratio of lift to weight, i.e. 𝐿/𝑊. Note that this is the ratio of the
aerodynamic force perpendicular to the direction of flight in the plane of symmetry of the aircraft to the aircraft weight.
However, in application and discussion, it is treated nearly universally as the ratio of pseudo aerodynamic force in the
lift direction to the weight. This is an important difference, since the pseudo aerodynamic force includes thrust, whereas
the lift is the aerodynamic force without thrust. Therefore, the load factor can be more accurately defined as
−𝐹𝑧𝑠 −𝐹𝑧𝑤 −𝐹𝑧𝑏 𝑐 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝑠 𝛼
𝑛𝑎 ≡ = = (16.15)
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
Solving for 𝐹𝑧𝑏 in terms of the load factor gives
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The load factor can be related to the bank angle through the third equation in Eq. (16.5). Using Eq. (16.16) in the third
equation in Eq. (16.5) and solving for the bank angle gives
𝑛 𝑎 − 𝐹𝑥𝑏 𝑠 𝛼 /𝑊 − (𝑞𝑢 − 𝑝𝑣)𝑐 𝛼 /𝑔
𝜙 = cos−1 (16.17)
𝑐𝜃𝑐𝛼
This is the general solution for the bank angle as a function of load factor.
2. Traditional Approximation
The general relationship between bank angle and load factor shown in Eq. (16.17) is slightly different from the
commonly used relationship that is discussed in many text books. The most commonly used relationship between bank
angle and load factor can be obtained from Eq. (16.17) by applying the assumptions that the body-fixed coordinate
system and thrust are aligned with the direction of flight, and that the aircraft is in a steady-coordinated turn. For the
special case when the body-fixed coordinate system is aligned with the direction of flight, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝑣 = 𝑤 = 0 and
𝑢 = 𝑉). If the thrust is aligned with the direction of flight and the body-fixed 𝑥 𝑏 axis, 𝐹𝑃𝑧 = 0. Hence, for this special
case, Eq. (16.15) simplifies to the traditional approximation
𝐿
𝑛𝑎 = (16.18)
𝑊
Furthermore, for this special case, Eq. (16.11) simplifies to
𝛾=𝜃 (16.19)
Additionally, as will be shown in a following section, for the case of a steady coordinated turn, the pitch rate is
𝑔𝑠2𝜙 𝑐 𝜃
𝑞= (16.20)
𝑉𝑐𝜙
Hence, for this special case, Eq. (16.17) reduces to
𝑐𝛾
𝜙 = cos−1 (16.21)
𝑛𝑎
Although Eq. (16.21) is widely used as the correct relationship between load factor, bank angle, and climb angle, it is
technically only true for the special case when the body-fixed coordinate system and thrust are aligned with the direction
of flight, and the aircraft is in a steady-coordinated turn. For most cases, the general solution given in Eqs. (16.17)
should be used.
D. Steady-Coordinated Turn
In order to close the formulation for trim in a steady-coordinated turn, we need one additional constraint to our
equations of motion. In a steady coordinated turn, the side force due to gravity and the bank angle perfectly balance the
side force produced by rotational velocities. Therefore, the aerodynamic side force on the vehicle is zero, i.e. 𝐹𝑦𝑏 = 0.
From Eq. (16.5), this requires
𝑔𝑠 𝜙 𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑢 − 𝑝𝑤 (16.22)
This is our final constraint. Combining Eqs. (16.7), (16.8), and (16.22) gives three equations that can be solved for the
rotation rates in the steady-coordinated turn as a function of the freestream velocities and orientation. This gives
𝑝 −𝑠
𝜃
𝑔𝑠 𝜙 𝑐 𝜃
𝑞 = 𝑠𝜙𝑐𝜃 (16.23)
𝑢𝑐 𝜃 𝑐 𝜙 + 𝑤𝑠 𝜃
𝑟
𝑐 𝜙 𝑐 𝜃
Equations (16.5), (16.6), and (16.23) comprise our full set of nine equations for a steady-coordinated turn. Given
an elevation angle and bank angle, these can be solved for the nine unknowns, which are angle of attack, sideslip angle,
rolling rate, pitching rate, yawing rate, aileron deflection, elevator deflection, rudder deflection, and thrust or throttle
setting. If a climb angle or load factor are given instead of an elevation angle and bank angle, Eqs. (16.14) and (16.17)
can be used to compute the appropriate elevation and bank angles.
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E. Steady-Heading Sideslip
Steady-heading sideslip is a trim condition in which the aircraft is sustaining some sideslip and maintaining
heading. This case can be specified by either a sideslip angle 𝛽 or a bank angle 𝜙. However, once one of these angles is
specified, the other becomes a dependent variable and is fixed. For the case of steady-heading sideslip, the aircraft has
no rotational velocity. Therefore,
𝑝
𝑞 =0 (16.24)
𝑟
Equations (16.5), (16.6), and (16.24) comprise our full set of nine equations for steady-heading sideslip. Given an
elevation angle and either bank angle or sideslip angle, these can be solved for the nine remaining unknowns, which
are angle of attack, sideslip angle or bank angle, rolling rate, pitching rate, yawing rate, aileron deflection, elevator
deflection, rudder deflection, and thrust or throttle setting. If a climb angle is given instead of an elevation angle, Eq.
(16.14) can be used to compute the appropriate elevation angle.
G. Solution Process
A trim algorithm can be used to solve for the trim state of an aircraft in a steady-coordinated turn or with
steady-heading sideslip. The flight condition is specified by a freestream velocity, altitude, heading, and either a climb
angle or elevation angle for both cases. Additionally, for the steady-coordinated turn, the load factor or bank angle must
be specified, whereas for the case of steady-heading sideslip, the bank angle or sideslip angle must be specified. With
this information, the following algorithm can be used to compute the trim state of a traditional aircraft:
1) Begin with the initial guess of all aerodynamic angles and controls set to zero (𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛿 𝑎 = 𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑟 = 𝜏 = 0).
2) Initialize the rotation rates to zero (𝑝 = 𝑞 = 𝑟 = 0).
3) For the case of steady-heading sideslip, set the bank angle or sideslip angle according to the user input.
4) Calculate the body-fixed velocities from Eq. (14.9) for the traditional definition of sideslip, or (14.14) if sideslip
is defined as the flank angle.
5) If the climb angle is specified instead of the elevation angle, calculate the elevation angle from Eq. (16.14).
6) For the case of a steady-coordinated turn, if the load factor is specified instead of the bank angle, calculate the
bank angle from Eq. (16.17).
7) For the case of a steady-coordinated turn, use Eq. (16.23) to compute the rotation rates.
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8) For the case of a vertical barrel roll, use Eq. (16.27) to compute the rotation rates.
9) For the case of a steady-coordinated turn, vertical barrel roll, or for the case of a steady-heading sideslip with
bank angle specified, use the aerodynamic model or database to find the aerodynamic angles, thrust, and
control-surface deflections that satisfy Eqs. (16.5) and (16.6).
10) For the case of a steady-heading sideslip with sideslip angle specified, use the aerodynamic model or database
to find the angle of attack, bank angle, thrust, and control-surface deflections that satisfy Eqs. (16.5) and (16.6).
11) Using the updated values for the orientation, aerodynamic angles, thrust, and control-surface deflections, repeat
steps 4–10 until the solution converges.
Note that either Step 9 or Step 10 will be executed for a given trim condition. For an aircraft with only three control
surfaces (aileron, elevator, and rudder), Steps 9 and 10 provide six equations and six unknowns. The six equations in
Steps 8 and 9 are given in Eqs. (16.5) and (16.6). The six unknowns for Step 9 are the angle of attack, sideslip or flank
angle, thrust, aileron deflection, elevator deflection, and rudder deflection. The six unknowns for Step 10 are the bank
angle, angle of attack, thrust, aileron deflection, elevator deflection, and rudder deflection. Within the nearly linear
aerodynamics usually encountered for trim conditions below stall, Step 9 or 10 results in only a single solution. This
can be solved a number of ways including various linear algebra methods and optimization techniques. Perhaps the
simplest method is by fixed-point iteration.
1. Fixed-Point Iteration
Fixed-point iteration can be used to solve the system of six equations given in Eqs. (16.5) and (16.6) along with a
traditional aerodynamic model below stall. This is accomplished by using each equation in succession to solve for the
unknown that is dominant in that particular equation. Table 16.1 shows the dominant terms for each of the pseudo
aerodynamic forces and moments of traditional aircraft.
Table 16.1 Dominant terms in the pseudo aerodynamic forces and moments.
For example, the thrust or throttle setting is typically dominant in the first equation within Eq. (16.5). Hence, we
will use the first equation in Eq. (16.5)
𝐹𝑥𝑏 = 𝑊 𝑠 𝜃 − (𝑟𝑣 − 𝑞𝑤)𝑊/𝑔 (16.28)
to solve for the thrust. Using Eq. (14.16) in Eq. (16.26) and rearranging gives
𝐹𝑃𝑥 = 𝑊 𝑠 𝜃 − (𝑟𝑣 − 𝑞𝑤)𝑊/𝑔 + 𝐷𝑐 𝛼 𝑐 𝛽 + 𝑆𝑐 𝛼 𝑠 𝛽 − 𝐿𝑠 𝛼 (16.29)
Any root finding method could be used to solve Eq. (16.28) for the thrust or throttle setting. Using Eqs. (15.37) –
(15.39) can be used in Eq. (16.28) and rearranged to yield
Í 𝑁𝑃
𝑊 𝑠 𝜃 − (𝑟𝑣 − 𝑞𝑤)𝑊/𝑔 + 𝐷𝑐 𝛼 𝑐 𝛽 + 𝑆𝑐 𝛼 𝑠 𝛽 − 𝐿𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑖=1 𝐷 𝑃𝑖 𝑢 ∞ 𝑥
𝜏= (16.30)
2
Í 𝑁𝑃
𝑖=1 (𝜌/𝜌0 ) 0𝑖 + 𝑇1𝑖 𝑉 + 𝑇2𝑖 𝑉 𝑢 𝑃𝑥𝑖
𝑎𝑖 𝑇
Closed-form solutions for this fixed-point iteration scheme can also be obtained for the remaining unknowns by applying
the aerodynamic model given in Eqs. (15.28) – (15.33). For example, the dominant term in the pseudo aerodynamic
side force is typically the sideslip angle. Recall that for a steady-coordinated turn, 𝐹𝑦𝑏 = 0. Again, any root finding
method could be used to solve this expression for the sideslip angle. Using Eq. (14.16) and rearranging gives
𝐹𝑃𝑦
𝐶𝑆 𝑐 𝛽 = 𝐶 𝐷 𝑠 𝛽 − 1
(16.31)
2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤
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Applying the aerodynamic model given in Eq. (15.29) and solving for 𝛽 gives
" #
𝐶𝐷 𝑠 𝛽 𝐹𝑃𝑦
𝛽= − 1 ˆ
− 𝐶𝑆, 𝑝 𝑝 − 𝐶𝑆,𝑟 𝑟 − 𝐶𝑆, 𝛽ˆ 𝛽 − 𝐶𝑆, 𝛿𝑎 𝛿 𝑎 − 𝐶𝑆, 𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟 𝐶𝑆,𝛽 (16.32)
𝑐𝛽 𝑐 𝛽 2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 𝑤
A similar process can be used to obtain solutions for the remaining unknowns given in Table 16.1. However, a perhaps
more general and simple iterative process can be developed by using information from the previous iteration. At any
point in the iterative scheme we have an estimate for each of the unknowns given in Table 6. Therefore, we can also
obtain an estimate for each of the pseudo aerodynamic forces and moments and use this in the iterative scheme. For
example, rearranging Eq. (16.29) gives
𝐹𝑥𝑏 − 𝑊 𝑠 𝜃 + (𝑟𝑣 − 𝑞𝑤)𝑊/𝑔
𝜏𝑖+1 = 𝜏𝑖 − Í 𝑁 (16.33)
𝑎𝑖 𝑇 + 𝑇 𝑉 + 𝑇 𝑉 2 𝑢
𝑖=1 (𝜌/𝜌0 )
𝑃
0𝑖 1𝑖 2𝑖 𝑃𝑥𝑖
where the right-hand side has been computed using the current estimate for the throttle setting 𝜏𝑖 . A similar process can
be followed to obtain improved estimates for the other unknowns
𝐹𝑦𝑏 + 𝑊 𝑠 𝜙 𝑐 𝜃 + ( 𝑝𝑤 − 𝑟𝑢)𝑊/𝑔
𝛽𝑖+1 = 𝛽𝑖 − 1
(16.34)
2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑤 𝐶𝑆,𝛽 𝑐 𝛽
2. Newton’s Method
Newton’s method can also be used to solve the system of equations given in Eqs. (16.5) and (16.6). Newton’s
method can require less iterations but in general uses more computational power per iteration. Equation (16.5) and
(16.6) can be written in the form
𝐹𝑥𝑏 − 𝑊 𝑠 𝜃 + (𝑟𝑣 − 𝑞𝑤)𝑊/𝑔
𝐹𝑦𝑏 + 𝑊 𝑠 𝜙 𝑐 𝜃 + ( 𝑝𝑤 − 𝑟𝑢)𝑊/𝑔
𝐹𝑧𝑏 + 𝑊 𝑐 𝜙 𝑐 𝜃 + (𝑞𝑢 − 𝑝𝑣)𝑊/𝑔
f (G) = 2 2
=R (16.39)
𝑀 𝑥𝑏 − ℎ 𝑧 𝑞 + ℎ 𝑦 𝑟 + (𝐼 𝑦𝑦 − 𝐼 𝑧𝑧 )𝑞𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 (𝑞 − 𝑟 ) + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 𝑝𝑞 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 𝑝𝑟
𝑀 𝑦𝑏 + ℎ 𝑧 𝑝 − ℎ 𝑥 𝑟 + (𝐼 𝑧𝑧 − 𝐼 𝑥 𝑥 ) 𝑝𝑟 + 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 (𝑟 2 − 𝑝 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 𝑞𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑝𝑞
𝑀𝑧 − ℎ 𝑦 𝑝 + ℎ 𝑥 𝑞 + (𝐼 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝐼 𝑦𝑦 ) 𝑝𝑞 + 𝐼 𝑥 𝑦 ( 𝑝 2 − 𝑞 2 ) + 𝐼 𝑦𝑧 𝑝𝑟 − 𝐼 𝑥𝑧 𝑞𝑟
𝑏
where G represents a vector containing the unknowns and R is the residual. We seek the solution to G such that each
component in R goes to zero. Therefore, we wish the change in the residual to be −R. Beginning with an estimate for
the unknowns G, we can estimate the change in the residual using the Jacobian
𝜕 𝑓𝑖
𝐽𝑖 𝑗 = (16.40)
𝜕𝐺 𝑗
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For example, if the vector of unknowns is G = {𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛿 𝑎 , 𝛿𝑒 , 𝛿𝑟 , 𝜏}, the Jacobian matrix is constructed from the following
partial derivatives
𝜕 𝑓1 𝜕 𝑓1 𝜕 𝑓1 𝜕 𝑓1 𝜕 𝑓1 𝜕 𝑓1
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛽 𝜕 𝛿𝑎 𝜕 𝛿𝑒 𝜕 𝛿𝑟 𝜕𝜏
𝜕 𝑓2 𝜕 𝑓2 𝜕 𝑓2 𝜕 𝑓2 𝜕 𝑓2 𝜕 𝑓2
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛽 𝜕 𝛿 𝜕 𝛿𝑒 𝜕 𝛿𝑟 𝜕𝜏
𝑎
𝜕 𝑓3 𝜕 𝑓3 𝜕 𝑓3 𝜕 𝑓3 𝜕 𝑓3 𝜕 𝑓3
[J] = 𝜕𝜕𝛼𝑓4 𝜕𝜕𝛽𝑓4 𝜕𝜕𝛿𝑓4𝑎 𝜕𝜕𝛿𝑓4𝑒 𝜕𝜕𝛿𝑓4𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜏𝑓4 (16.41)
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛽 𝜕 𝛿 𝜕 𝛿𝑒 𝜕 𝛿𝑟 𝜕𝜏
𝑎
𝜕 𝑓5 𝜕 𝑓5 𝜕 𝑓5 𝜕 𝑓5 𝜕 𝑓5 𝜕 𝑓5
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛽 𝜕 𝛿𝑎 𝜕 𝛿𝑒 𝜕 𝛿𝑟 𝜕𝜏
𝜕 𝑓6 𝜕 𝑓6 𝜕 𝑓6 𝜕 𝑓6 𝜕 𝑓6 𝜕 𝑓6
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛽 𝜕 𝛿 𝜕 𝛿𝑒 𝜕 𝛿𝑟 𝜕𝜏
𝑎
The partial derivatives can be estimated through finite differencing. The Jacobian can then be used in Newton’s method
to obtain the change in G from the equation
𝚫G = −[J] −1 R (16.42)
The estimate for G is updated with each iteration using a relaxation factor Γ through the equation
This process is repeated until the solution converges. Convergence can be measured by computing the length of the
residual vector R after each iteration. Alternately, it can also be computed by simply using the largest component of R.
Once the length or the largest component of R is below some tolerance, the solution is considered to be converged.
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