J Forensic Sci, 2017

doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.13572
TECHNICAL NOTE Available online at: onlinelibrary.wiley.com

QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

Biao Li,1 M.Sc.; Guo liang Ouyang,1 M.Sc.; and Peng nan Zhao,1 M.Sc.

Preliminary Study on Determining the

Sequence of Intersecting Lines by
Fluorescence Technique

ABSTRACT: The determination of the sequence of intersecting lines is an important part of questioned document examinations. A fluores-
cence technique was used to determine the sequence of heterogeneous intersecting lines produced using inkpad ink, stamp-pad ink, ballpoint
pens, gel pens, fountain pens, colorants of carbon paper, photocopiers, laser printers, and inkjet printers. A SteREO Discovery.V20 equipped
with the ZEN Blue Lite software was chosen to perform the tests.As the results obtained from the study were positive under most conditions,
the fluorescence technique was found to be very successful in determining the sequence of intersecting lines from ballpoint pen, gel pen, foun-
tain pen, photocopier, laser and inkjet printers, and inkpad inks. The method was also successful in determining the sequence of intersecting
lines from ballpoint pen, photocopier, laser printer, and stamp-pad inks under most conditions. The technique was not successful in determining
the order of crossing lines blending together.

KEYWORDS: forensic science, questioned documents, intersecting lines, sequence of intersecting lines, ink, fluorescence technique

Inkpad seals and stamp-pad ink seals are often required on
official documents or some other important documents to prove
the authenticity and validity of the documents. Inkpad seals and
stamp-pad ink seals are also used on forged documents so that
they appear to be authentic, or the contents of a document can
be added to a blank sheet to which a genuine seal is already
affixed. The addition of an extra clause or paragraph could dra-
matically alter the terms of an agreement. If the added text over-
laps or intersects with the signature or seal on the document,
then the alteration must break the normal file writing process.
The normal writing process is that the writing or printing ink
strokes are executed first, and seals are executed later. Therefore,
determining whether the purported date of a document is consis-
tent with the age of the seal can provide important information
regarding the authenticity of the document. Determining whether
the sequence of intersecting lines is consistent with the normal
file writing process can also provide important information
regarding the authenticity of the document.
In China, determining the sequence of intersecting lines is an
important part of questioned document examinations (1). The
problem of determining the sequence of intersecting lines has
always been an absorbing challenge for forensic document
examiners. A number of techniques are available to examine
intersecting line samples. A comprehensive review of the tech-
niques is given by Poulin (2). Each of the available techniques
has various advantages and disadvantages. For forensic analysis,
a nondestructive technique is always preferred over a destructive
1
Department of Document Examination, National Police University of
China, No.83 Tawan Str., 110854 Shenyang, China.
Received 10 Mar. 2017; and in revised form 13 April 2017, 8 May 2017;
accepted 9 May 2017.
one. Optical microscopy (stereomicroscopy) is the most widely
used technique in determining the sequence of intersecting lines.
In addition to the application of optical microscopy techniques,
forensic document examiners have also exploited other nonde-
structive techniques such as IR luminescence techniques, attenu-
ated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectral imaging,
video spectral comparator (absorption spectra), and microspec-
trophotometry techniques (1–8).
In this article, a fluorescence technique is used to determine
the sequence of heterogeneous intersecting lines. A heteroge-
neous line intersection is one in which two different types of
writing instruments or printing devices have been used to pro-
duce the intersecting lines, such as a laser printer and a ballpoint
pen, or a seal and a laser printer. In this research, the sequence
of the seal and intersecting printing/copying strokes or writing
strokes is examined. The fluorescence technique is supported by
fluorescence microscopy.
A brief overview of fluorescence technique theory is as fol-
lows: most materials used to make documents are fluorescent sub-
stances, for example, inkpad ink, stamp-pad ink, ballpoint pen
ink. The fluorescence of the fluorescent materials can be excited
when they are illuminated by a suitable wavelength of light.
During the inspection process, fluorescence can only be emitted
by a matter of two kinds of materials at crossing positions by
selecting the appropriate wavelength of excitation light. The fluo-
rescence of inkpad or stamp-pad ink was excited under most con-
ditions. Under normal circumstances, the color, continuity, and
strength of the fluorescence of inkpad or stamp-pad inks clearly
differ between crossing and noncrossing positions when the
inkpad pigment is located in the lower cross-area and another pig-
ment is in the upper level, in other words, when inkpad or stamp-
pad ink lines are present below another pigment. In contrast, the

© 2017 American Academy of Forensic Sciences 1

2 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
color, continuity, and strength of the fluorescence of inkpad or
stamp-pad ink between crossing positions and noncrossing posi-
tions are similar when the inkpad pigment is located in the upper
cross-area and another pigment lies in the lower level.
Materials and Methods
Sampling
Many experimental materials were used to produce heteroge-
neous intersecting line samples including inkpads, stamp-pad
inks, blue ballpoint pens, gel pens, fountain pens, laser printers,
photocopiers, and inkjet printers. The sequences of intersecting
lines were known for all samples. All intersecting line samples
were formed on white copy papers with a basis weight of 70 g/
m2 (Yalong Paper Products Co., Ltd., Kunshan City, China).
Samples were prepared as follows. In the first set of samples,
many seals were stamped on white copy papers using different
brands of inkpad and stamp-pad inks. All specimens were
stamped by the same person with similar and normal pressure
(in accordance with usual habits, rather than making a particular
effort to increase the pressure) with no other specific require-
ments. Lines executed later using ballpoint pens, gel pens, foun-
tain pens, laser printers, inkjet printers, and photocopiers
overlapped the top of the seals after the seals had dried. In the
second set of samples, a series of ink lines or strokes were made
first using ballpoint pens, gel pens, fountain pens, laser printers,
inkjet printers, and photocopiers. The seals were then stamped
later over the lines and strokes produced using writing pens and
printing devices. In this way, a total of 220 types of intersecting
line samples were prepared for the study (8).
Apparatus and Operations
A SteREO Discovery.V20 stereomicroscope (Carl Zeiss, Jena,
Germany) equipped with ZEN Blue Lite software was chosen to
perform the tests.
The SteREO Discovery.V20 stereomicroscope was set to the
following conditions for the fluorescence method: field: 3.0 mm,
MAG: 709, resolution: 1.7 lm, depth of field: 59 lm, exposure
time: 300 ms, color temperature value: medium, saturation value:
medium, light source: CL6000 LED (470 nm), light: 60, fluor.
filter: LED Epodye (590 nm).
White balance compensation was executed before the observa-
tions of the materials at the crossing positions began. All images
were collected and analyzed using ZEN Blue Lite software (Carl
Zeiss. Jena, Germany). These fluorescence images were also pho-
tographed and stored in the computer according to the conditions
for the fluorescence method (9).
Results and Discussion
Selection of Measuring Point
For the fluorescence method, the selection of the measuring
points of the crossing area is crucial. The two heterogeneous
lines at a crossing position considered as a measuring site should
be continuous and complete, and the distribution of ink should
be uniform. Otherwise, leaked inkpad or stamp-pad ink could
interfere with the determination of the sequence of intersecting
lines (8). These misleading results are obtained when writing
and printing inks intersect strokes of inkpad ink (oily nature); a
gap or very thin layer of writing or printing ink is present due to
the skipping of ink at the point of intersection. Skipping and
gaps (with minimal ink deposits) of ink can occur when a water-
based ink intersects an oil-based ink. To reduce the influence of
gaps and skipping of strokes on the results, sites where the dis-
tribution of ink is uniform and the ink strokes are continuous
can be considered as the measuring points (8).
Examination of the Sequence of Intersecting Inkpad/Stamp-pad
Ink Seal and Laser Printing Line/Photocopying Line
Inkpad ink is an oil-based ink. Two events occur after inkpad
ink has been affixed on the surface of paper. One is that parti-
cles of inkpad ink penetrate deeply into the paper and integrate
themselves into the fiber of the paper, and another is that a very
thin layer or membrane is formed on the surface of the paper.
Stamp-pad ink is a water-based ink. Particles of stamp-pad ink
penetrate deeply into the gaps between paper fibers and integrate
themselves into the fibers of the paper after stamp-pad ink has
been affixed on the surface of the paper. In contrast to the
inkpad deposit, no layer or membrane is typically formed on the
surface of the paper (9).
Toner is a main consumable in laser printer and photocopier
image development processes. Toner can be divided into one-
component toner and two-component toner. The main ingredi-
ents of toner are hot melt resin, colorants, charge regulator, and
auxiliary additives. The role of hot melt resin is to ensure that
the toner components can be fixed on the surface of the paper
by heat and pressure (9).
For the fluorescence method, a particular distinguishing feature
was noted between the materials produced in both sequences. The
fluorescence intensity of inkpad or stamp-pad ink strokes at inter-
secting parts was the same as at nonintersecting parts when the
seal lay above the printing or photocopying toner line. In contrast,
the fluorescence intensity of the inkpad or stamp-pad ink stroke
at intersecting parts was weaker than at nonintersecting parts
when the seal lay below the printing or photocopying toner line.
In fact, the fluorescence of inkpad or stamp-pad ink strokes at
intersecting parts could not be observed. These differences were
likely caused by the absorption of toner particles. The number of
photons absorbed by inkpad or stamp-pad ink particles at inter-
secting parts was less than at nonintersecting parts when the print-
ing toner line was above the seal, weakening the intensity of the
fluorescence emitted by inkpad or stamp-pad ink at the intersect-
ing parts. In contrast, the intensity of the fluorescence emitted by
inkpad or stamp-pad ink at the intersecting parts is the same as at
the nonintersecting parts when the seal was above the printing
toner line. Typical images of the fluorescence intensity of inkpad
or stamp-pad ink strokes under different conditions are shown in
Figs 1–4. The change in the fluorescence intensity between inter-
secting parts and nonintersecting parts is similar to the laser print-
ing line when inkpad or stamp-pad ink stroke intersects a
photocopier copying line.
Examination of the Sequence of Intersecting Inkpad/Stamp-pad
Ink Seal and Ballpoint Pen Stroke
Ballpoint pen ink consists of solvents, dyes/pigments, and
synthetic resin. Three types of changes can occur after ballpoint
pen ink has been deposited on a paper surface—the polymeriza-
tion and hardening of resins, the loss of solvents, and the degra-
dation of dyes. Adsorption occurs between ballpoint pen inks
and paper fiber after ballpoint ink has been deposited on the
paper surface. Some particles of the resins adhere to the surface

FIG. 1––The fluorescence intensity of inkpad stroke between intersecting
parts and nonintersecting parts when seal was present above the laser
printing lines.
FIG. 2––The fluorescence intensity of inkpad stroke between intersecting
parts and nonintersecting parts when seal was present below the laser
printing lines.
of the paper and form a very thin layer or membrane. The fluo-
rescence intensity of inkpad or stamp-pad ink strokes between
crossing positions and noncrossing positions is clearly different
when inkpad pigment is located in the lower crossing area and
ballpoint pen ink is in the upper level. The fluorescence intensity
of inkpad or stamp-pad ink strokes at crossing positions was the
same as (or similar to) the nonintersecting positions when the
seal was above the ballpoint pen ink stroke. At the same time,
inkpad or stamp-pad ink particles can be found on the surface of
the ballpoint pen ink strokes. Typical images of the fluorescence
intensity of inkpad or stamp-pad ink strokes under different con-
ditions are shown in Figs 5 and 6.
LI ET AL. . THE SEQUENCE OF INTERSECTING LINES 3
FIG. 3––The fluorescence intensity of stamp-pad ink stroke between
intersecting parts and nonintersecting parts when stamp-pad ink was present
above the laser printing lines.
FIG. 4––The fluorescence intensity of stamp-pad ink stroke between
intersecting parts and nonintersecting parts when stamp-pad ink was present
below the laser printing lines.
An examination of the sequence of intersecting lines between
inkpad ink and ballpoint pen ink is easier than stamp-pad ink
under normal circumstances because inkpad ink is an oil-based
ink, while stamp-pad ink is a water-based ink. Inkpad ink and
ballpoint pen ink are both oil-based inks. A very thin layer or
membrane is formed after inkpad ink and ballpoint pen ink have
been affixed to the surface of the paper. The three-dimensional
layered structure of these two kinds of pigments at the crossing
positions on the paper surface is obvious before they have
blended together. Stamp-pad ink is a water-based ink. In contrast
to the inkpad deposit, a layer or membrane is not typically
formed on the surface of the paper.
Examination of the Sequence of Intersecting Inkpad/Stamp-pad
Ink Seal and Gel Pen/Fountain Pen/Inkjet Printer Stroke
Gel ink generally contains dyes or pigments, solvents, resins,
viscosity adjustors, and lubricants. However, ink compositions
4 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
FIG. 5––The fluorescence intensity of inkpad stroke between intersecting
parts and nonintersecting parts when seal was present above the ballpoint
pen ink stroke.
FIG. 6––The fluorescence intensity of inkpad stroke between intersecting
parts and nonintersecting parts when seal was present below the ballpoint
pen ink stroke.
may vary by manufacturer. The chemical compositions of gel
inks resemble the compositions of inkjet printer inks in China.
Both are water-based inks. Fountain pen ink is also a water-
based ink, although its composition is different from inkjet print-
ing ink and gel pen ink.
The fluorescence intensity of inkpad strokes clearly differs
between crossing positions and noncrossing positions when the
inkpad pigment is located in the lower crossing level and water-
based ink in the upper level. The fluorescence intensity of the
inkpad strokes at crossing positions was the same as (or similar to)
the nonintersecting positions when the seal was above the water-
based ink stroke. Typical images are shown in Figs 7 and 8.
Examination of the sequence of intersecting lines between
stamp-pad ink and water-based ink is very difficult because of
FIG. 7––The fluorescence intensity of inkpad stroke between intersecting
parts and nonintersecting parts when seal was present above the jet-printer
ink line.
FIG. 8––The fluorescence intensity of inkpad stroke between intersecting
parts and nonintersecting parts when seal was present below the jet-printer
ink line.
the characteristics of water-based ink. Particles of water-based
ink penetrate deeply into the gaps between paper fibers and inte-
grate themselves into the fibers of the paper after water-based
ink is affixed to the surface of paper. In contrast to inkpad and
ballpoint pen ink deposits, a layer or membrane is not typically
formed on the surface of the paper. Based on the above reasons,
the determination of the sequence between stamp-pad ink and
gel pen ink, inkjet printer ink, and fountain pen ink lines is more
difficult than for inkpad ink. At the same time, particles of
water-based ink mutually blend together because of the polar
similarities when a line crosses another line in both sequences.
Therefore, the fluorescence intensity of the intersecting area is
similar to the fluorescent intensity of the nonintersecting area in
both sequences. Typical images are shown in Figs 9 and 10.
Examination of the Sequence of Intersecting Inkpad/Stamp-pad
Ink Seal and Colorants Stroke of Carbon Paper
The colorants of carbon paper are oil-based materials. Skip-
ping and ink gaps (with little ink deposits) can occur when the
 LI ET AL. . THE SEQUENCE OF INTERSECTING LINES 5

FIG. 9––The fluorescence intensity of stamp-pad ink stroke between intersecting

parts and nonintersecting parts when stamp-pad ink was present above the gel
pen ink line.

FIG. 11––The fluorescence intensity of inkpad stroke between intersecting

parts and nonintersecting parts when inkpad was present above the
colorants stroke of carbon paper.

FIG. 10––The fluorescence intensity of stamp-pad ink stroke between

intersecting parts and nonintersecting parts when stamp-pad ink was present below
the gel pen ink stroke.

colorants of carbon paper intersect inkpad or stamp-pad ink

strokes. Therefore, the fluorescence intensity of the intersecting
area is similar to the fluorescence intensity of the nonintersecting
area in both sequences. Typical images are shown in Figs 11
and 12. Under these conditions, the distinguishing features are
the defects in the colorant line. Defects in the carbon paper lines
were found when the carbon paper line was present above the FIG. 12––The fluorescence intensity of inkpad stroke between intersecting
parts and nonintersecting parts when inkpad was present below the
inkpad or stamp-pad ink seal line. In contrast, a full line with no colorants stroke of carbon paper.
skipping or gap defects can be found to be present below the
inkpad or stamp-pad ink seal line. For this type of intersection,
the observation of physical characteristics is a better way to
determine the sequence of strokes than the fluorescence method. unknown to the testers prior to examination, were conducted.
The methods were explained to these participants, including the
basis of the examination, the operational steps, and the sequen-
Blind Testing
tial features. In addition, the participants were provided the
Six examiners of questioned documents participated in the aforementioned criteria for determining the sequence. The partic-
study. Fifteen blind tests, where the order of strokes was ipants were asked to examine the specimens with the same
6 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

TABLE 1––Blind testing results.*

Blind Sample Correct Order FDE1 FDE2 FDE3 FDE4 FDE5 FDE6
BS1 Inkpad over inkjet printing ink √ √ √ √ √ √
BS2 Inkpad over laser printing toner √ √ √ √ √ √
BS3 Inkpad over gel ink √ √ √ √ √ √
BS4 Inkpad over photocopying toner √ √ √ √ √ √
BS5 Inkpad under gel ink √ √ √ √ √ √
BS6 Inkpad under laser printing toner √ √ √ √ √ √
BS7 Inkpad under inkjet printing ink √ √ √ √ √ √
BS8 Stamp-pad ink over laser printing toner √ √ √ √ √ √
BS9 Stamp-pad ink over photocopying toner √ √ √ √ √ √
BS10 Stamp-pad ink under ballpoint ink √ √ √ √ √ √
BS11 Stamp-pad ink under laser printing toner √ √ √ √ √ √
BS12 Stamp-pad ink over gel ink √ Inconclusive Inconclusive √ √ Inconclusive
BS13 Stamp-pad ink over fountain pen ink √ √ 9 Inconclusive 9 √
BS14 Stamp-pad ink under fountain pen ink Inconclusive 9 √ 9 √ √
BS15 Stamp-pad ink under gel ink 9 √ 9 √ √ Inconclusive
*BS denotes blind sample; FDE denotes forensic document examiners invited to execute blind testing.

attention they would provide to normal casework. Each partici-
pant examined all 15 specimens using the fluorescence method.
The results are listed in Table 1. The results indicated that the
conclusions of the five experienced forensic document examiners
were deterministic and correct when inkpad ink was one of the
materials at the intersecting positions, indicating that these exam-
iners achieved 100% accuracy. However, incorrect determina-
tions and inconclusive determinations were made by some of the
document examiners when stamp-pad ink was one of the materi-
als at the intersecting positions.
The samples where there were different opinions among the
document examiners contained more difficult intersections. The
main reason is that two pigments of intersecting positions dis-
solve into each other because of their similar polarity. In other
words, intersecting strokes wherein the inks blend together are
more difficult to determine.
Conclusion
In this study, a fluorescence method was used to determine
the sequence of lines. The fluorescence technique was found to
be very successful in determining the sequence of intersecting
ballpoint pen, gel pen, fountain pen, photocopier, laser and inkjet
printers, and inkpad inks. The fluorescence technique was also
successful in determining the sequence of intersecting ballpoint
pen, photocopier, laser printer, and stamp-pad inks under most
conditions. The technique was not successful in determining the
order of crossing lines that mutually blend together because of
polar similarities.
It should be emphasized that the results from our experiments
are only preliminary. The effectiveness of the fluorescence
method used to determine the sequence of intersecting lines is
influenced by many factors, such as the color shade and pigment
distribution of the seals, the color shades of the printing or writ-
ing strokes, the aging of intersecting lines, the polarity of the
two kinds of crossing pigments. Therefore, it is necessary to
conduct further tests in this area of study.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their
insightful and helpful comments.
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Additional information and reprint requests:
Biao Li, M.Sc.
Department of Document Examination
National Police University of China
No.83 Tawan Str.
110854
Shenyang
China
E-mail: ccpc721129@126.com