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Modification of Darcy's Law for Extremely Fine-Grained Soils

Article  in  Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering · January 2012

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 Modification of Darcy’s Law for
Extremely Fine-Grained Soils

Alabi O.O.1, Popoola O.I.2 and Adegoke J.A.2

1. Department of Mathematical and Physical Sciences,
College of Science, Engineering and Technology,
Osun State University, Osogbo,Nigeria
geosciencealabi@yahoo.com(+2348035028760)
2. Department of Physics,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
Darcy’s law which governs the free flow of water through soils is inadequate for extremely
fine grained soils because variation in porosity was not incorporated into its formulation.
Thus, the statement of the law which implies that zero seepage velocity, v, is attainable only at
zero hydraulic gradient, i, is not always true. The aims of this work were to modify Darcy’s
law to include variations in porosity. Samples of sand from river-bed were used as porous
media. These were washed, dried and sieved into different grain sizes. Porosities of the
different samples were determined using volumetric approach. The volume flux and seepage
velocity for different hydraulic gradients were determined by filling each sample into
constant-head permeameter. The hydraulic gradient at which seepage velocity is zero
(threshold hydraulic gradient) was obtained from its v - i graph. Using curve fitting, the
relationship between threshold hydraulic gradient, i', and porosity, φ, was obtained and
incorporated into Darcy’s equation. . The threshold hydraulic gradient varied from 0.03 to
0.76. The relationship between threshold hydraulic gradient and porosity was i'(φ) = 15.77φ2–
14.78 φ + 3.46 (R2 = 0.99). The modified Darcy’s equation was modelled as v = K(i – i'(φ)).
KEYWORDS: Darcy’s law, Porosity ratio, Hydraulic gradient, Direction of flow,
Porous media.

INTRODUCTION
The rate of flow in porous media such as soil is a vital tool in seepage and drainage in control
in soils (Cedergreen, 1978). It has been observed that detailed knowledge of soil physical
properties and processes in an environmental engineering perspective is very essential to respond
to increasing problems of soil contamination in most urban areas.

Threshold gradient range of a soil is the range of hydraulic gradients when the seepage
velocity is zero or the minimum gradient required before flow can take place in a medium. This
range has been found to be a very useful parameter in seepage control engineering (Sower and
Sower, 1970).

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1306

In 1927, Stearns found that the presence of appreciate threshold gradient. Later in 1934,
Meinzer and Fishel made a generalized conclusion that this property of threshold gradient is
limited to only surface-active materials such as clay. However, it was later observed that apart
from clay material, there is existence of threshold gradient in extremely fine-grained sands and
this threshold gradient range depends on their porosity (Bell, 2007 and Arora, 2009).

Threshold gradient range can be obtained from velocity-gradient curve by extrapolating the
straight line graph to the hydraulic gradient i- axis. (Swartzendruber, 1962).

The purpose of this work is to establish the relationship between the threshold gradient and
the porosity; so that this relationship can be of help in choosing a suitable soil of a certain
threshold gradient as a liner or filter in landfills wastewater disposal techniques

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Laminar Flow through Porous Media
It was established by Darcy through experiments that the velocity of a fluid through a porous
medium varies linearly with the loss of head hf, which indicates that the flow through porous
media is laminar.

Consider a circular pipe of Length L and diameter D completely filled with porous material of
grain diameter ds. The flow takes place through the interstices of the porous material. If porosity
is n, the diameter of the passes through the particles is nds. The loss of head when liquid flows
through a porous medium can be determined by using the general expression for head loss in
laminar flow.

The loss of head for laminar flow through a pipe is given by

32 μ uL
hf = (1)
wD 2

Similarly, the loss of head for laminar flow through parallel plate or given by

12 μ uL
hf = (2)
wD 2

Hence, the general expression for laminar flow may be expressed as

Kμ u L
hf = (3)
wD 2

where,
hf = the loss of head in length L,
K = a constant, the value of which depends on the shape of the passage,

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1307

μ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid,

u = average velocity of flow,
w = unit weight of the fluid, and
D = a characteristic length representing the geometry of the passage

Equation (3) can be used for laminar flow through porous media. The diameter of the passage
through particles is given by

d = nd s (4)

Substituting this value of d for D in Equation (3), we get

Kμ uL
hf =
wn 2 d s2
(5)
− wn 2 d s
2
 hf 
or , u=  
Kμ  L 
 

−
or, u = ki (6)

where,
k = a constant, called the coefficient of permeability, and
 hf 
i =   hydraulic gradient

 L 

Equation (6) is well known Darcy’s equation for flow of water through soil. The equation is
applicable for the Reynolds number less than 1.

Seepage Velocity
The volume flux q is not the actual velocity through the interstices of the soil (Arora, 2009).
It is fictitious velocity obtained by dividing the total discharge (Q) by the total cross-sectional
area (A). The total cross-sectional area consists of not only the voids but also the solids. As flow
can take place only through voids, the actual velocity through the voids is much greater than the
volume flux (or discharge velocity). The actual velocity on the macroscopic scale is known as
seepage velocity v (Bear and Arnold, 1990; Arora, 2009).

The seepage velocity v is equal to the volume flux divided by porosity and is given as
Q q (7)
ν = = (Bear and Arnold, 1990)
Aφ φ

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1308

where,
φ = porosity of the medium

The maximum pore velocity is a function of the pore geometry and cannot be easily predicted
except for simple shapes.

Adaptation of Darcy’s Law

Fluid flow through a porous material of permeability k, by Darcy is generally written as (after
Frick and Taylor, 1978)

k
ν =− ∇ ( p − ρgz ) (8)
μ

This can be expressed as

k  ( dp ) dz 
ν =−  − ρg  (9)
μ  ds ds 
where
s = distance in the direction of flow,
v = volume flux across a unit area of the porous medium in unit time along the flow path
z = vertical coordinate, considered downward
ρ = density of the fluid,
g = acceleration of gravity,
dp
= pressure gradient along s at the point to which v refers
ds
μ = viscosity of the fluid,
k = permeability of the medium, and
dz
= sin θ (it is the angle between z and horizontal)
ds
Equation (9) can be expressed further as follows:
k  dz dp 
ν=  ρg − 
μ  ds ds 

νμ dz dp
= ρg −
k ds ds

Then

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1309

νμ dp  dz 
= ρ g sin θ −  = sin θ 
k ds  ds 
(10)
νμ dp
− ρ g sin θ =
k ds
Integrating both sides

 νμ
P2

  k − ρg sin θ ds = − P dp
1

 νμ 
 − ρg sin θ  s = p1 − p 2 = p (11)
 k 

νμ p
= + ρg sin θ
k s

For downward (vertical) flow when the driving head (difference in hydraulic head) is h

Then Equation (11) becomes

νμ p
= + ρg
k s

νμ  ρgh 
Therefore = + ρg  ( P = ρgh )
k  s 
νμ h 
= ρg  + 1 
k s 
(12)
ρg  h 
ν = k  + 1
μ L 

where L = length of the sample (or medium) and it is equivalent to s in the general equation,
h=head constant (or hydraulic head).

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1310

OVERFLOWING
ARRANGEMENT
h WATER

d = 1.85 x 10-2 m
Cross sectional Area =
SAND 2.69 x 10-4 m 2
L SAMPLE

BEAKER

Figure 1: Sand Model for Vertical Flow under h (Jacob, 2001)

Hydraulic conductivity is related to permeability by equation

ρg
K= k (Hubert, 1940, Domenico and Schwartz, 2000) (13)
μ

where K = hydraulic conductivity (ms-1),

k = permeability (m2),
μ = viscosity of the fluid (Nsm-2), and
ρ = density of the fluid, (kgm-3)
By using equation (13) in equation (12), equation (12) becomes

h 
ν = K + 1
L 

Q
ν =q= ( Bear and Arnold , 1990)
A

Then

h 
q = K  + 1 (Ghildyal and Tripathi, 1987 and Alabi, 2007) (14)
 L 

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1311

h 
where q is the volume flux (ms– 1) and  + 1  is the hydraulic gradient. This expression of
 L 
Darcy’s law (Equation 14) shall be used in this work to determine the hydraulic conductivities of
the samples.

METHOD
Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity (Constant head
method)
The soil samples were soaked (saturated) overnight before being transferred to the transparent
cylindrical tube of cross-sectional area 2.69 x 10-4m2. To ascertain uniform compaction
throughout the samples, the screened end was blocked so as to prevent the water passage, the
soaked sand was then poured into the water column up to the height h. After this, the material that
was used to block the passage was removed. A continuous supply of water was fed through the
sample and at height h, a hole was drilled, this enabled the height to be maintained as excess
water was drained through it (Fig. 1). The water that passed through the sample for 60 seconds
was collected with a beaker and the volume measured by measuring cylinder and steady-state
flow has been maintained at a constant head. This procedure was repeated for all the samples.

By adoption of Darcy’s fluid flow equation, length of sand, L is varied in order to obtain
different hydraulic gradients, i. Measurements were made at gradients of i = 1.875, 3.750, 7.500,
15.000 and 30.000 for each samples. The value of the volume flux, q at each hydraulic gradient
was computed from the value discharge volumetric flow rate, Q, knowing that volume flux,
q = Q A , where A = π (d 2 ) and d is the diameter of the cylindrical tube used, given as 1.85 x
2

10-2m. A plot was prepared between volume flux, q and hydraulic gradient, i for samples A – E.
The slope of the respective lines gave the hydraulic conductivity of the medium concerned.

Figure 2: Constant head Permeameter (Arora, 2009)

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1312

Determination of Threshold Gradients

Threshold gradients are gradients at which seepage velocity are equals zero. The velocity-
gradient curve is zero at i − i 1 as well as at the origin. From the curve of velocity v against
gradient i threshold gradient range i 1 are determined to be zero up to gradient intercept,i1 for the
samples.

If the equation of the graph of velocity against hydraulic gradient is given as (Reiner, 1960,
Swartzendruber, 1962 and Alabi, 2007)
v = c1i − c 2 (15)
where
v= seepage velocity
i = hydraulic gradient, and
c1 and c2 are constants

If v = 0, i − i 1 = c 2 c1 and i 1 is the maximum gradient for the sample. Threshold gradient

range can be described by specifying v equals zero for 0 ≤ i < i 1 (Reiner, 1960, Swartzendruber,
1962 and Alabi, 2007)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 presents the values of volume flux at various hydraulic gradients through media of
varying porosities. The values for volume flux, q were obtained by using relation q = V At
(Domenico and Schwartz, 2000) where A is the cross sectional area and A = π (d 2 ) , d is the
2

diameter of the permeameter used given as 1.85x10– 2m and t is the constant total time for water
to be discharged, which is 60 seconds. The volume flux increases with increasing hydraulic
gradient in all the samples.

Table 2 is a direct consequence of Table 1, where values of volume flux are shown. It
presents the values of seepage velocity at various hydraulic gradients through media of varying
porosities. The values were obtained by using the relation q φ (Domenico and Schwartz, 2000)
where q is the volume flux and φ is the porosity of the medium or sample.

Table 3 presents the threshold gradient range, hydraulic conductivities and permeabilities for
sample A-E. It shows that threshold gradient ranges decrease with increase in both hydraulic
conductivity and permeability.

Figures 3 – 7 are the plot of volume flux against hydraulic gradient for samples
A – E. The slope of each indicates the hydraulic conductivity as presented in Table 4.5.

Figures 8-12 are the plot of seepage velocity against hydraulic gradient for samples A – E.
The threshold gradient ranges were obtained from intercept on the i axis from the straight line
plots and presented in Table 3.

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1313

Volume flux is linearly related to hydraulic gradient with coefficient of relations 0.99, 0.99,
0.99, 1.0 and 0.98 for samples A, B, C, D and E respectively. The slopes of the curves indicate
that 0.46 x 10-4, 1.04 x 10-4, 1.14 x 10-4, 1.63 x 10-4 and 3.16 x 10-4 ms-1 are the hydraulic
conductivities of samples A, B, C, D and E respectively. Also, the permeabilities are 0.47 x 10-11,
1.06 x 10-11, 1.16 x 10-11, 1.67 x 10-11 and 3.23 x 10-11m2 for samples A, B, C, D and E
respectively (Figures 3 – 7). Figures 8 – 12 indicate that seepage velocity and hydraulic gradient
are linearly related with correlation relation of 0.97, 0.99, 0.99, 1.00 and 0.99 for samples A, B,
C, D and E respectively.

The plot was prepared between maximum threshold gradient and porosity and found to be
related in polynomial of degree two (Fig.13) with relation
( i ′ = 15 .77 φ 2 − 14 .78φ + 3..46 ) shows that they are not linearly related. Also this relation
This
could be of help in predicting the range of threshold gradient of a medium of a known porosity

Table 1: Experimentally determined values of volume of flux

for samples A – E at various hydraulic gradient levels
Hydraulic Volume flux Volume flux Volume flux Volume flux Volume flux
gradient q × 10-4(m/s) q × 10-4(m/s) q × 10-4(m/s) q × 10-4(m/s) q × 10-4(m/s)
i A B C D E
1.875 1.11±0.02 1.98±0.02 2.23±0.40 3.24±0.06 5.84±0.07
3.750 1.98±0.03 3.84±0.04 4.40±0.03 6.02±0.05 11.77±0.09
7.500 2.60±0.07 7.44±0.03 8.18±0.05 12.20±0.12 23.64±0.06
15.000 5.08±0.11 14.51±0.10 15.87±0.04 24.47±0.09 47.36±0.10
30.000 14.14±0.14 31.25±0.12 34.47±0.14 49.07±0.13 94.81±0.15

Table 2: Experimentally determined values of seepage velocity for samples A – E at

various hydraulic gradient levels
Seepage Seepage Seepage Seepage Seepage
Hydraulic
velocity velocity velocity velocity velocity
gradient
v × 10-4(m/s) v × 10-4(m/s) v ×10-4(m/s) C v × 10-4(m/s) v × 10-4(m/s)
i
A B D E
1.875 4.44±0.02 5.88±0.02 6.13±0.40 7.35±0.06 13.91±0.07
3.750 7.91±0.03 11.52±0.04 12.09±0.03 15.05±0.05 22.03±0.09
7.500 10.39±0.07 22.34±0.03 22.48±0.05 30.50±0.12 56.28±0.06
15.000 20.34±0.11 43.56±0.10 43.60±0.04 61.12±0.09 112.76±0.10
30.000 56.54±0.14 93.85±0.12 94.70±0.14 122.67±0.13 225.74±0.15

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1314

16

14 q = 0.458i - 0.347
R² = 0.968
12

10
Volume flux (ms-1)

8 Series1
Linear (Series1)
6

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Hydraulic gradient
Figure 3: Volume flux against hydraulic gradient (sample A)

35

30
q= 1.037i - 0.261
R² = 0.998
25
Volume flux (ms-1)

20
Series1
15 Linear (Series1)

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Hydraulic gradient

Figure 4: Volume flux against hydraulic gradient (sample B)

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1315

40

35 q = 1.140i - 0.232
R² = 0.997
30

25
Volume flux (ms-1)

20 Series1
Linear (Series1)
15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Hydraulic gradient

Figure 5: Volume flux against hydraulic gradient (sample C)

60
q = 1.639i - 0.123
R² = 1
50

40
volume flux (ms-1)

30 Series1
Linear (Series1)
20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Hydraulic gradient
Figure 6: Volume flux against hydraulic gradient (sample D)

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1316

100
90 q = 3.163i - 0.09
R² = 1
80
70
60
-1)
Volume flux (ms

50 Series1
40 Linear (Series1)
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40hydraulic gradient

Figure 7: Volume flux against hydraulic gradient (sample E)

60
v= 1.833i - 1.39
R² = 0.968
50

40
Seepage velocity (ms-1)

30 Series1
Linear (Series1)

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Hydraulic gradient

Figure 8: Seepage velocity against hydraulic gradient (sample A)

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1317

100
v = 3.118i - 0.821
90
R² = 0.998
80
70
Seepage velocity (ms-1)

60
50 Series1

40 Linear (Series1)

30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40
Hydraulic gradient

Figure 9: Seepage velocity against hydraulic gradient (sample B)

100
v = 3.134i - 0.634
90 R² = 0.997

80

70

60
Seepage velocity (ms-1)

50 Series1
Linear (Series1)
40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Hydraulic gradient
Figure 10: Seepage velocity against hydraulic gradient (sample C)

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1318

250 v = 4.099i - 0.314

R² = 1

200

150
Seepage velocity (ms-1)

Series1
100 Linear (Series1)

50

0
0 10 20 30 40
Hydraulic gradient

Figure 11: Seepage velocity against hydraulic gradient (sample D)

250
v = 7.622i - 0.2210
200 R² = 0.999
Seepage velocity (ms-1)

150
Series1
100 Linear (Series1)

50

0
0 10 20 30 40

Hydraulic gradient

Figure 12: Seepage velocity against hydraulic gradient (sample E)

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1319

Table 3: Values of Threshold gradient range, Hydraulic conductivity and Permeability

for samples A-E

Sample Threshold gradient range Hydraulic conductivity (ms-1) Permeability (m2)

A 0 ≤ i ′ < 0 .758 0.46 x 10-4 0.47 x 10-11

B 0 ≤ i ′ < 0 . 263 1.04 x 10-4 1.06 x 10-11

C 0 ≤ i ′ < 0 .203 1.14 x 10-4 1.16 x 10-11

D 1.64 x 10-4 1.67 x 10-11

0 ≤ i ′ < 0 .075
E 0 ≤ i ′ < 0 .029 3.16 x 10-4 3.23 x 10-11

0.8

0.7 i0= 15.77ϕ2 - 14.78ϕ+ 3.46

R² = 0.994
0.6

0.5
Threshold gradient

0.4 Series1
Poly. (Series1)
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Porosity
Figure 13: Threshold gradient against porosity ( φ )

The flux of water through the soil, as described by Darcy’s law, is directly proportional to the
imposed hydraulic gradient, and under saturated conditions, the proportionality constant is
defined as the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil. However, it was observed in this work
that both volume flux and seepage velocity increase at smaller rate than hydraulic gradient for
fine grained sands. It also confirms the existence of threshold gradient range in media, which
shows that apart from zero-gradient, io seepage velocity, can be found to be zero at higher

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. I 1320

gradients. The threshold gradient was found to be increasing with decrease in porosity φ of media
as io = 15.77φ2 – 14.78φ + 3.46, where porosity ranges from 0.250 to 0.420

Therefore, the Darcy’s equation was modified to include threshold gradient as a function of
porosity as v = k (i – io(φ)), where v is seepage velocity (ms-1),and i is hydraulic gradient. The
modified Darcy’s equation tends to the original one, v = ki as porosity of the medium increases.
The threshold gradient becomes zero when porosity is 0.48 for hydraulic gradients within the
range of 1.875 to 30.000. Therefore 0.48 is the critical porosity at which the modified Darcy’s
equation becomes original Darcy equation completely.

CONCLUSION
The existence of higher gradients at which zero seepage velocity can be obtained is a
breakthrough in solving environmental problems in our society. Thus, a practical situation where
zero – seepage is required can be achieved by using an appropriate material or fine grained sands
of lower porosity. These higher gradients can be predicted or determined from the relationship
between threshold gradient and porosity obtained in this work. A modified Darcy’s equation
modeled in this work can accurately determine the seepage velocity of water in these soils.
However, a modified flow equation does not discredit the monumental contributions which the
assertion of Darcy’s law has made to understanding of the movement of water in soils and porous
media. This will be useful in practical seepage control in man-made constructions as a way of
reducing the free flow of contaminated water in soils using fine grained sands at subsurface layer.

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