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Article history: A new generation of Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) will make its appearance in the market in the
Received 23 April 2015 forthcoming years based on the amendments to the IEEE 802.11 standards that have recently been approved
Revised 8 October 2015
or are under development. Examples of the most expected ones are IEEE 802.11aa (Robust Audio Video Trans-
Accepted 18 October 2015
port Streaming), IEEE 802.11ac (Very-high throughput at < 6 GHz), IEEE 802.11af (TV White Spaces) and IEEE
Available online 10 November 2015
802.11ah (Machine-to-Machine communications) specifications. The aim of this survey is to provide a com-
Keywords: prehensive overview of these novel technical features and the related open technical challenges that will
WLANs drive the future WLAN evolution. In contrast to other IEEE 802.11 surveys, this is a use case oriented study.
IEEE 802.11 Specifically, we first describe the three key scenarios in which next-generation WLANs will have to oper-
Video streaming ate. We then review the most relevant amendments for each of these use cases focusing on the additional
Cognitive radio functionalities and the new technologies they include, such as multi-user MIMO techniques, groupcast com-
Internet of Things
munications, dynamic channel bonding, spectrum databases and channel sensing, enhanced power saving
mechanisms and efficient small data transmissions. We also discuss the related work to highlight the key
issues that must still be addressed. Finally, we review emerging trends that can influence the design of future
WLANs, with special focus on software-defined MACs and the internet-working with cellular systems.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comcom.2015.10.007
0140-3664/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25
increase in traffic demands [2]. A second fundamental characteristic which can be particularly useful to improve rural coverage of WLANs
of the IEEE 802.11 standards is the adoption of a media access control [17]. However, cognitive radio mechanisms are required for enabling
(MAC) protocol called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision WLAN communications in TV white spaces. A new generation of
Avoidance (CSMA/CA). The main reason is that IEEE 802.11-based sys- amendments is consequently under development or has been com-
tems are half-duplex, i.e., a station cannot carrier-sense/receive while pleted since 2012 to address these new application requirements. The
it is sending, and it is hence impossible to detect a collision as in the most relevant are the IEEE 802.11aa (approved in 2012), IEEE 802.11ac
case of transmissions over twisted copper wires (e.g., using Ethernet). (approved in 2013), IEEE 802.11ad (approved in 2012), IEEE 802.11af
A major advantage of the CSMA/CA method is that channel access (approved in 2013), IEEE 802.11ah (in progress, expected for 2016),
procedures are simple and cheap to implement, as they do not im- and IEEE 802.11ax (in progress, expected in 2019), among other.s2
pose stringent timing requirements on the radio interface. Further- In this survey we discuss the most compelling challenges of the
more, CSMA/CA protocols are scalable and they provide easy support new usage models and applications for WLANs that we have identi-
for mobility and decentralised network architectures, from classical fied above. Then, based on those scenarios, we classify and review a
ad hoc networks to emerging people-centric networks [3,4]. On the selected group of IEEE 802.11 amendments, i.e., IEEE 802.11ac, IEEE
negative side, CSMA/CA protocols can only provide a best effort trans- 802.11ax, IEEE 802.11aa, IEEE, 802.11ah and IEEE 802.11af, by describ-
mission service and major efforts have been dedicated to the design ing the new technologies and functionalities they introduce to cope
of mechanisms for supporting better QoS, such as in the IEEE 802.11e with these challenges, such as multi-user MIMO techniques, group-
amendment [5]. cast communications, dynamic channel bonding, spectrum databases
The perceived shortcomings of the first WLAN products have and channel sensing, enhanced power saving mechanisms and effi-
driven the evolution of the IEEE 802.11 standards [6]. In particu- cient small data transmissions. A summary of the main features of
lar, throughput enhancements have been a key priority in the IEEE these amendments in provided in Table 1. It is important to point
802.11 technology development. The key enabler for high-throughput out that the IEEE 802.11 specifications do not define all mechanisms,
WLANs was the adoption of new physical-layer techniques. The first but they typically provide the building blocks and interfaces to al-
of these techniques was the orthogonal frequency-division multi- low different manufacturers to implement compatible procedures.
plexing (OFDM), which allowed achieving maximum data rates up to Thus, we also provide a detailed review of the main research activ-
54 Mb/s. However, it is only with the adoption of the IEEE 802.11n ities in the various areas and we identify open technical challenges.
amendment in 2009 that the throughput performance of WLANs Finally, we look at emerging new trends for WLANs, with a special
came close to that of a wired Ethernet network, as a result of the interest in Programmable WLANs and LTE-WiFi interworking. Over-
introduction of multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technologies all, this survey provides a comprehensive overview of the most rele-
[7]. At the same time, new amendments to the original standard vant features in next-generation WLANs, which may be of interest to
were proposed to foster a more diversified use of WLAN products in both researchers and engineers working in the field. For the sake of
various application domains. For instance, the IEEE 802.11p amend- completeness, in Table 2 we also list the other on-going IEEE 802.11
ment was approved in 2010. This defines enhancements to the IEEE amendments that have not been analysed in this survey.
802.11 standards to support vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle- Given the importance of WLANs, other surveys have been pub-
to-infrastructure (V2I) communication (together referred to as V2X) lished on the IEEE 802.11 standards. Earlier surveys primarily focused
in the 5.9 GHz band, which is licensed for Intelligent Transporta- on presenting the different classes of proposed MAC protocols [18].
tion Systems (ITS) [8]. Following the same diversification strategy, A complete overview of the wealth of amendments that have been
the IEEE 802.11s amendment was approved in 2011; this described accepted or were in the process of being standardised before 2010 is
how wireless mesh networks should operate on top of the existing provided in [1]. More recently, other surveys have given detailed con-
IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol [9]. This includes the specification of new sideration to specific amendments (e.g., IEEE 802.11s [19]), or classes
infrastructure-based elements needed for mesh networking and the of similar amendments [11,16,20]. However, none of the existing sur-
routing protocol to establish mesh paths between these elements. veys follows our use-case oriented approach and covers in such detail
In an attempt to consolidate and systematise all the adopted IEEE all the amendments that we believe will be relevant in coming years.
802.11 enhancements, the last IEEE 802.11 standard (identified as We also include some of the latest advances and related research.
IEEE 802.11-2012) was finally released to incorporate in an unique The structure of this survey is illustrated in Fig. 1 and explained
specification all the amendments published from 2008 to 2011 [10]. in the following. In Section 2 we introduce the four key scenar-
As pointed out above, the technological development of the WLAN ios for WLAN technologies that are considered here. In Section 3
specifications is a continuously evolving process. Thus, while the IEEE we focus on high-throughput WLANs, presenting the IEEE 802.11ac,
802.11–2012 major revision of the IEEE 802.11 standard was finalised, IEEE 802.11ax and IEEE 802.11aa amendments. Section 4 discusses
the IEEE 802.11 working group was also rapidly moving its focus the IEEE 802.11ah amendment to support M2M communications
towards next-generation WLANs [11]. Three key drivers were fore- and we review the IEEE 802.11af for WLANs operating in TV white
casted: (i) Machine-to-Machine communications (ii) High-Definition spaces. Finally, Section 6 presents some emerging trends for future
Multimedia Communications and (iii) “Spectrum Sharing” in licensed WLANs.
bands by using cognitive radio technology. Specifically, with the
emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT) vision, i.e., a world were
2. Future scenarios and new challenges
all sorts of smart objects (ranging from home appliances to small
battery powered devices) are connected to the Internet [12], a low-
WLANs can be found everywhere. They are common in homes, of-
power WLAN technology is required [13,14]. At the same time, the
fices, public parks in cities, shops, airports and hotels, among many
widespread diffusion of mobile devices with diverse networking and
different places. Today’s WLANs are able to provide a fast and reliable
multimedia capabilities, as well as the wide adoption of advanced
wireless access to Internet for browsing the web, exchanging files,
multimedia applications, is fuelling the growth of mobile video traf-
chatting, receiving and answering e-mails, and for low-quality real-
fic, which was already more than half of the global mobile data traf-
time audio/video streams, as just a few representative examples of
fic by the end of 2013 [15]. Thus, WLANs need specific functions to
their current usage. This situation is changing rapidly however. The
cope with various multimedia applications, including real-time inter-
active audio and video, or streaming live/stored audio and video [16].
Finally, new regulations for the unlicensed usage of TV white spaces 2
The association between the IEEE 802.11 amendments and the different use cases
are offering new opportunities for additional spectrum utilisation, is specified in Section 2.
B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25 3
Table 1
Summary of the IEEE 802.11 amendments that are reviewed in this survey.
802.11af 2014 470–790 MHz (EU) WLAN in the TV White Space • Geolocation-based spectrum
databases
• Channel sensing
• Non-contiguous channel
bonding
Table 2
List of other on-going and upcoming IEEE 802.11 amendments.
number of persons that use Internet applications and objects that are use of smart-phones, tablets and other multimedia portable devices;
connected to the Internet is growing every day, proportionally to the and (ii) the increasing interest in IoT applications driven by the al-
number of new applications and services that constantly appear. This most ubiquitous existence of devices able to collect data from the en-
clearly results in a steady increase of the Internet traffic. Two repre- vironment, ranging from low-power sensor nodes to connected cars.
sentative examples of the change in Internet use are: (i) the high de- Therefore, WLANs must also evolve to provide effective solutions
mand for mobile-rich multi-media content, mainly motivated by the to these new upcoming scenarios, and the challenges they pose to
4 B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25
Table 3 fraction of their time sleeping. This facilitates energy saving at the
Performance requirements for different HD streaming applications.
cost of additional complexity for the channel access and networking
Type Max data rate Max latency protocols.
Popular wireless protocol standards for M2M communications are
Uncompressed raw video 1.49 Gbit/s 100 ms
uncompressed HDTV 150 Mbit/s 150 ms
Bluetooth, ZigBee and BT-LE [12]. An alternative, promoted by mobile
Blue-ray Disc 54 Mbit/s 200 ms networks, is to connect devices in M2M systems directly to the In-
MPEG2 HDTV 19.2 Mbit/s 300 ms ternet by using the cellular network infrastructure, for which specific
MPEG4 HDTV 8–10 Mbit/s 500 ms protocols are being developed [26]. WLANs are envisioned as an al-
ternative to both multi-hop WSNs and cellular networks. However,
current WLANs are not able to satisfy the minimum requirements
satisfy their requirements. Four of the key use cases for next- for M2M communications [13]. Novel specific power-saving mech-
generation WLANs are discussed in the following subsections. anisms are required to support the long periods of inactivity needed
by the sensor/actuator devices and to manage the thousands of nodes
2.1. High-quality multimedia content delivery associated with a single AP. These challenges will be discussed in
Section 4, when presenting the IEEE 802.11ah amendment.
Our new mobile and portable devices are designed to handle rich
multimedia contents, including high-definition video and images. 2.3. Efficient use of the spectrum
Table 3 reports the requirements in terms of maximum data rate and
latency for some of the most common real-time video applications The ISM bands are used by several wireless communication tech-
[21]. Key scenarios in which the support of real-time video trans- nologies, including IEEE 802.11, IEEE 802.15.4 and Long Term Evo-
mission is required of course include Internet TV and video stream- lution (LTE)-Unlicensed networks. This results in a high spectrum
ing. Similarly, scenarios in which multiple users connect to the same occupancy. Unfortunately, wireless networks operating in the same
wireless network to request different multi-media content at the spectrum region can suffer from mutual interference, which might
same time are increasing every day. However, not all multi-media degrade the performance of all of them. This is exacerbated by the un-
content is real time. Stored video and image files can also be ex- controlled deployment of wireless networks in the ISM band, which
changed between different devices. Those files can have sizes rang- is typically very common in urban environments. For example, let us
ing from a few Megabits to several Gigabits, hence requiring a high consider a building with several apartments and a WLAN in each one.
network transport capacity in order to provide a good Quality-of- There would easily be several WLANs operating in overlapping chan-
Experience to end users. Although video encoding schemes exist that nels and suffering mutual interference [27]. To deal with this issue, it
offer substantial video compression efficiency, such as H.264/MPEG- is expected that new APs will increasingly incorporate DCA (Dynamic
4 AVC [22], WLANs must be able to achieve very high transmission Channel Allocation) mechanisms to select and update their operating
rates and have content-aware mechanisms that are specifically de- channel at run-time.
signed for multi-media applications to ensure a satisfactory service An alternative approach to alleviate the spectrum occupancy
for multimedia delivery. The mechanisms that are considered by var- problem is to move to a different part of the spectrum, even if the new
ious IEEE 802.11 standardisation groups to satisfy those requirements part of the spectrum is occupied by communication systems operat-
are described in Section 3, such as group-cast communication proto- ing under a license. In that case, WLANs would be the secondary users
cols, single and multi-user spatial multiplexing and channel bond- and therefore must avoid causing interference to the primary users. In
ing among others to make the communication more efficient, and of- recent years, the change from analogue to digital TV broadcast emis-
fer higher transmission rates. The reference IEEE 802.11 amendments sions has resulted in a reorganisation of the spectrum at VHF/UHF
for high-quality multimedia content delivery are IEEE 802.11aa, IEEE bands. This reorganisation has shown that there are many empty TV
802.11ac, and IEEE 802.11ax. channels, called TV white spaces, that can be used for data communi-
cation, especially in rural regions [28]. Furthermore, WLANs operat-
2.2. Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communications ing in those TV white spaces can take advantage of radio propagation
properties in the UHF band to provide large coverage areas. The chal-
The almost ubiquitous presence of sensor/actuator devices that lenges to be addressed to use CSMA/CA protocols in VHF/UHF bands,
are able to interact with the environment has fostered the creation as well as how to obtain higher transmission rates when the spec-
of new services and applications. Concepts such as smart cities and trum is fragmented, will be discussed in Section 5, when presenting
smart grids are being developed on the basis of the existence of those the IEEE 802.11af amendment.
sensor/actuator networks to achieve a more sustainable use of the
environmental resources and provide citizens with a higher quality 3. High performance WLANs for multimedia applications
of life [23,24].
In a classic sense, Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technologies This section reviews the IEEE 802.11ac, IEEE 802.11ax and IEEE
are used to collect data from spatially distributed sensor nodes and to 802.11aa amendments. These three amendments target multimedia
transmit the data over a multi-hop wireless network to a central sink scenarios by introducing new physical-layer technologies and MAC
[25]. The M2M paradigm is broadening the scope of the WSN con- functionalities to improve the WLAN capacity and QoS provision. Ap-
cept because it enables networked devices, wireless and/or wired, as plication examples include home scenarios in which a WLAN AP can
well as services, to exchange information or control data seamlessly, act as an Internet gateway and wireless media server for home appli-
without explicit human intervention. Clearly, M2M communications ances (e.g., IPTV set-top boxes, projectors, game consoles) and con-
face most of the technical challenges of WSNs. One of the main lim- tent storage devices. A possible use case is illustrated in Fig. 2.
itations of WSNs and M2M systems is that the network nodes are
usually battery powered or have limited access to power sources. De- 3.1. The IEEE 802.11ac amendment
signing mechanisms and protocols to reduce their power consump-
tion with the goal of extending the network lifetime is therefore cru- IEEE 802.11ac [29] aims to provide users with a throughput close
cial for the successful commercial take-up of these kinds of networks. to 1 Gbps, which represents a roughly four-fold increase with respect
Fortunately, devices in M2M systems typically generate or consume a to IEEE 802.11n [7]. Compared to IEEE 802.11n, IEEE 802.11ac supports
limited amount of data per unit of time. Thus they can spend a large larger channel widths (up to 160 MHz), introduced a new modulation
B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25 5
creating the groups of STAs for DL-MU-MIMO transmissions, smart group the STAs, as the goal is to find groups of STAs with compat-
packet schedullers able to decide when the use of DL-MU-MIMO out- ible (i.e., orthogonal) channels. In [45], the authors show the chal-
performs SU-MIMO transmissions, and the implementation of the lenges inherent to the group assignment problem, and they propose
TXOP sharing feature between several ACs. The results and conclu- an heuristic method to solve them. TXOP sharing is considered in [46]
sions obtained in both cases will be very valuable in the development by presenting two alternative approaches to enhance the considered
of IEEE 802.11ac technologies, as well as in the conception of the fu- back-off procedure for the purpose of improving both throughput and
ture amendments that will substitute IEEE 802.11ac in four to five fairness.
years, such as the recently initiated IEEE 802.11ax. A third key challenge for IEEE 802.11ac is to achieve an efficient use
Following the first mentioned research direction, there are several of the spectrum when several channel widths are used in scenarios
efforts that have focused on understanding both theoretical and exper- with multiple overlapping WLANs. Increasing the channel width the-
imental performance bounds of IEEE 802.11ac. The maximum downlink oretically allows individual WLANs to achieve a higher throughput.
throughput that an IEEE 802.11ac AP can achieve when packet aggre- However, the presence of other WLANs in the vicinity also increases
gation, channel bonding and different spatial stream configurations the chances of frequency overlapping, which may cause the opposite
are considered is presented in [33]. In [34], the authors evaluate the effect as there appears inter-WLAN contention [27]. Adaptive mecha-
IEEE 802.11ac performance experimentally using commodity devices, nisms to select the channel centre frequency and the channel width,
focusing on the effects that the use of wider channels, the 256-QAM and MAC protocols to choose the instantaneous channel width used
modulation and the number of SU-MIMO spatial streams have in for each transmission are thus required. For instance, in [47], the au-
terms of throughput and energy consumption. It is worth mentioning thors focus on the channel selection problem when WLANs can use
that DL-MU-MIMO was not yet implemented in the equipment they multiple channel widths using a game-theoretic framework. In [48]
were using, and that feature was therefore not considered. The evalu- a scheme is proposed to enable the communication between nodes
ation of a DL-MU-MIMO implementation for WLANs using the WARP with partially overlapping channels, which may provide stronger re-
platform is presented in [35], where a deep evaluation of the potential silience to channel interferences.
benefits of DL-MU-MIMO transmissions is done in terms of the loca-
tion of the receivers, number of users, and user mobility, among other
3.2. The IEEE 802.11ax amendment
aspects. A solution that combines both packet aggregation and DL-
MU-MIMO transmissions is presented in [36]. Results show the need
In 2014 the High Efficiency WLANs (HEW) Task Group [49] initi-
of properly dimensioning the buffer space to achieve the full potential
ated the development of a new IEEE 802.11 amendment, called IEEE
of such a combination. In [37], the authors compare the throughput
802.11ax. The IEEE 802.11ax amendment is expected to be released in
achieved by IEEE 802.11n and IEEE 802.11ac when packet aggrega-
2019, and, to some extent, it will be the IEEE 802.11 response to the
tion is used, with and without channel errors. They show that in most
challenges of future dense and high-bandwidth demanding WLAN
cases the packet aggregation mechanism introduced in IEEE 802.11ac
scenarios [50,51].
outperforms the one in IEEE 802.11n. An analytical model to evalu-
The challenges in the development of the IEEE 802.11ax amend-
ate the performance of the IEEE 802.11ac TXOP sharing mechanism in
ment are to:
DL-MU-MIMO communications is developed in [38]. The main goal of
this study is to identify how the TXOP sharing mechanism could im- (i) Improve the WLANs performance by providing at least a four-
prove the system efficiency while achieving channel access fairness fold capacity increase compared to IEEE 802.11ac.
among the different ACs. (ii) Provide support for dense networks, considering both the ex-
How to optimally exploit the new DL-MU-MIMO capabilities pro- istence of multiple overlapping WLANs and many STAs in each
vided by IEEE 802.11ac is still an open challenge. First, due to the need of them. Spatial reuse of the transmission resources is a must.
of frequent CSI exchanges between STAs and the AP, it is not yet clear (iii) Achieve an efficient use of the transmission resources by min-
in which conditions DL-MU-MIMO outperforms SU-MIMO [39–42], imising the exchange of management and control packets, re-
or even whether MU-MIMO does or does not outperform multi-user visiting the structure of the packets, and improving channel
packet aggregation when the amount of data directed to each des- access and retransmission mechanisms, among others aspects.
tination is not balanced [43]. Packet aggregation can be a solution (iv) Provide backward compatibility with previous amendments.
to balance the duration of the multi-user spatial streams as shown This is achieved by the mandatory transmission of the legacy
in [36], although it will always depend on the amount of traffic di- PHY preamble in all frames, and by keeping EDCA as the basic
rected to each destination and the buffer capacity at the AP. In [44], channel access scheme.
the authors compare different strategies to assign the spatial streams (v) Introduce effective energy saving mechanisms to minimise the
between the available destinations at each transmission in a fully energy consumption.
connected mesh network, showing in ideal channel conditions the (vi) Support multi-user transmission strategies by further devel-
theoretical benefits of MU-MIMO vs. SU-MIMO. oping MU-MIMO and Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Closely related to the previous point, a second open challenge is Access (OFDMA) capabilities in both downlink and uplink.
the design of efficient schedulers that consider traffic priorities, the
buffer state, the different MIMO strategies, TXOP sharing policies, In addition to the aforementioned challenges, next-generation
grouping of STAs and the availability of fresh CSI feedbacks to max- WLANs will have to implement some other functionalities beyond the
imise the throughput and guarantee the required QoS for each ac- raw packet transmission and reception. Examples are a fast, efficient
tive traffic flow. It is important to consider that the availability of up- and robust handoff between APs in the same administration domain
dated CSI estimates from all STAs allows the AP to reduce the mutual [52], device-to-device communication (D2D) [53] and coordination
interference between the transmitted spatial streams, which means of multi-AP networks [54]. In the first case, the IEEE 802.11ai amend-
lower packet error probabilities and higher transmission rates. How- ment, called Fast Initial Link Setup, is in progress and expected for
ever, the overheads for obtaining the CSI from all STAs is large, and 2016. Its target is to complete a handoff in less than 100 ms, including
increases linearly with the channel sounding rate and the number new AP discovery, user authentication and configuration. Using D2D
of STAs. Proposals for reducing the CSI overhead are under develop- communication, we can avoid the use of the AP as a relay, hence im-
ment. For example, in [40], the CSI overhead is reduced by inhibiting proving the overall efficiency as the number of packet transmissions
the channel sounding whenever possible based on the estimation of required is reduced. Finally, the virtualisation of network functions
the channel stability for all users. Another related problem is how to adds a new dimension in the management of multiple APs, which in
B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25 7
dense scenarios can contribute to notably improving the user experi- with the static approach, while minimising the inter-WLAN negative
ence. We further discuss this last topic in Section 6. interactions [27]. Furthermore, additional mechanisms are required
Different from the other amendments covered in this survey, the to fully exploit the use of channel bonding, such as the use of ef-
IEEE 802.11ax amendment is just in its initial stages of development, ficient algorithms to select the position of the primary channel, or
with only very few technical aspects consolidated at this stage. There- even to consider the existence of multiple primary channels to in-
fore, in the following subsection, we will overview both the new fea- crease the number of bonded channel combinations that a node can
tures and open challenges of the IEEE 802.11ax amendment at the use for transmission.
same time. The MAC layer in IEEE 802.11ax may work with the PHY layer
to implement an efficient Hybrid ARQ mechanism able to retrans-
3.2.1. Novel features and open challenges mit only incremental redundancy bits in short packets. Opportunistic
The IEEE 801.11ax Task Group is currently working in four areas: piggy backing of data packets in ACKs and vice versa may further im-
PHY, MAC, Multi-user, and Spatial Reuse [49]. Next, we will overview prove the efficiency of IEEE 802.11ax WLANs by reducing the num-
some of the topics currently under discussion in the IEEE 802.11 Task ber of transmissions in a bidirectional data exchange [57]. Finally,
Group in each category. packet headers can be reduced if shorter STA identificators are used
PHY layer. The IEEE 802.11ax PHY layer will be an evolution of instead of MAC addresses, and unnecessary fields are avoided in all
the IEEE 802.11ac one. The challenges in the design of the IEEE transmissions.
802.11ax PHY layer are related with the extensions required to sup- Finally, in terms of power saving mechanisms, it is expected IEEE
port multi-user MU-MIMO and OFDMA transmissions, and Dynamic 802.11ax will follow the same trends as in previous IEEE 802.11 stan-
CCA. Also, improvements in the supported modulation and channel dards, including the extensions currently under development for the
coding techniques will be likely considered to allow for higher trans- IEEE 802.11ah amendment that are discussed in Section 4.
mission rates at lower SNR values. For example, IEEE 802.11ax may Multi-user. Multi-user communications will likely be one of the
consider LDPC (Low-Density Parity Check) coding, which is optional main characteristics of IEEE 802.11ax, as both uplink and downlink
in IEEE 802.11ac, instead of the traditional convolutional codes, as MU-MUMO and OFDMA are under consideration. The use of multi-
they provide a coding gain of 1–2 dB. Moreover, the PHY layer may user communication techniques does not necessarily represent a sys-
also include some functionalities to support the use of Hybrid ARQ tem capacity increase because the available transmission resources
schemes to improve the efficiency of packet retransmissions. may be the same as in the single-user communication case. However,
Medium acess control. In order to keep backward compatibility in WLANs, the simultaneous transmission from different users is able
with previous IEEE 802.11 amendments, besides a common PHY to parallelise the large temporal overheads of each transmission (i.e.,
frame preamble, compatible MAC protocols are required. This means DIFS, SIFS, ACKs, packet headers, etc.) which can notably improve the
that it is likely that EDCA will be kept as the main channel access WLAN efficiency.
technique in the IEEE 802.11ax amendment. Therefore, the most rel- IEEE 802.11ax will further develop the MU-MIMO capabilities of
evant open challenges are related to EDCA extensions to support a IEEE 802.11ac by allowing multiple simultaneous transmissions in the
large number of STAs, improve traffic differentiation capabilities, im- uplink, which is known as uplink (UL-) MU-MIMO [58]. Similar to DL-
prove the energy consumption and provide mechanisms to fairly co- MU-MIMO transmissions, an open challenge to enable UL-MU-MIMO
exist with neighboring wireless networks. is to design a mechanism able to efficiently schedule the users that
To support a large number of contenders with a low collision prob- will transmit at the same time. In one hand, a pure decentralised ap-
ability a simple solution is to use large backoff contention windows. proach would be easy to implement with minimal signalling over-
However, it would also increase the time a STA is in backoff, so re- heads. However, since it requires that all STAs finish their backoff at
ducing the number of packets it can transmit. A solution to reduce the same time it may be very inefficient, besides that those STAs may
the backoff duration when using large contention windows is to de- not be compatible in terms of their respective spatial channels. In the
crease the duration of the backoff slots. Latest technological advances other hand, a pure centralised approach requires that the AP has com-
on electronics should require less time to perform a CCA check, to plete CSI and buffer occupancy information from all STAs to select
switch between reception and transmission modes, and to process a the most suitable group to perform a multi-user transmission. Once a
packet, thus enabling such a possibility. suitable group of STAs is selected by the AP, a “Trigger” frame may be
Another approach to enhance the underlying CSMA/CA mecha- used to notify the group of selected users that can initiate a transmis-
nism in EDCA and achieve a higher efficiency is to consider decen- sion. This approach guarantees efficient multi-user transmissions but
tralised collision-free MAC strategies. Those MAC protocols are able to requires some extra overheads to collect all the required information
build collision-free schedules, thus improving the network efficiency by the AP and signal the selected STAs. In both cases, new multi-user
as collisions are reduced, while preserving backward compatibility ACKs will be likely introduced by IEEE 802.11ax to acknowledge all
with the default EDCA implementation. An overview of several de- transmissions with a single control packet.
centralised collision-free MAC protocols can be found in [55]. Among Multi-user OFDMA is also in the agenda for IEEE 802.11ax. Using
them, CSMA/ECA [56] is especially relevant since it is fully compatible OFDMA, a channel can be split in several sub-channels and assigned
with EDCA, and latest upgrades made it adaptive to the instantaneous to different users. Likely, OFDMA will be implemented in combina-
number of contenders in a single WLAN. tion with channel bonding, where each of the 20 MHz subchannels
In addition to EDCA, IEEE 802.11ax WLANs can rely on the IEEE will be assigned to a different user, in both downlink and uplink. Be-
802.11aa amendment to further improve the WLAN traffic differenti- sides that, a similar operation as in the multi-user MIMO case is ex-
ation capabilities with intra-AC traffic differentiation and groupcast pected, as there are almost the same challenges to solve. A survey
communication mechanisms, among other features. In Section 3.3, of current OFDMA proposals for WLANs is presented in [59], show-
we will provide further details about the IEEE 802.11aa amendment. ing also how the use of OFDMA is able to significantly improve the
IEEE 802.11ax will likely keep the same channel widths that were WLAN efficiency. Fig. 4 illustrates an uplink OFDMA and MU-MIMO
defined in the IEEE 802.11ac amendment, i.e., 20, 40, 80 and 160 MHz. transmission.
However, it is expected that IEEE 802.11ax will extend current chan- In addition to Multi-user MIMO and OFDMA, the use of Simul-
nel bonding mechanisms to further improve the spectrum utilisation taneous Transmit and Receive (STR) techniques, commonly known
and the coexistence between neighbouring WLANs. For example, it as full-duplex transmission, have been suggested for IEEE 802.11ax
has been shown in [32] that the use of dynamic channel bonding [50,51]. Using STR a pair of nodes is able to transmit and receive si-
provides significant throughput gains in dense scenarios compared multaneously [60], which theoretically doubles the channel capacity.
8 B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25
(i) the lack of reliable and efficient support for multicast and
group communications;
(ii) the incapacity of applying traffic prioritisation to different
multimedia streams or different types of frames from the same
stream;
(iii) the absence of methods for cooperative resource sharing
among neighbouring APs;
(iv) the lack of mechanisms for graceful degradation of audio/video
streaming quality;
Fig. 4. Multiuser uplink transmission using two different OFDM subchannels. Trans- (v) the non-interoperability with existing IEEE 802.1 standards for
missions from STA B and C over the same subchannel represent an uplink MU-MIMO Audio Video Bridging (AVB).
transmission. All transmissions are acknowledged with a single Multiuser ACK. The
trigger frame is used to signal the selected STAs. In the following sections we present in detail the solutions to
those problems introduced in the IEEE 802.11aa amendment. We
The challenge is that both the AP and the STA involved in a full-duplex
further discuss the research studies that have provided the basis
transmission have to start to transmit at the same time. To achieve
for the IEEE 802.11aa design and we identify the remaining open
that, information about full duplex transmission capabilities can be
challenges.
included in RTS/CTS control packets to set-up a full-duplex transmis-
sion between the transmission initiator and its destination.
Spatial reuse. Dense WLAN deployments are necessary to offer a 3.3.1. Novel features
continuous coverage with high transmission rates. To improve both Groupcast communication mechanisms. In most audio/video
the co-existence with those neighboring networks and the spatial streaming applications a group of clients must receive the same
reuse of the spectrum, a WLAN has two options: (i) minimise its stream simultaneously. A multicast protocol is necessary to avoid that
area of influence by reducing its transmit power, and (ii) accept the same content is replicated throughout the network. In wireless
higher interference levels by increasing the Clear Channel Assess- networks, multicast transmission can exploit the intrinsic broadcast
ment (CCA) level. Use of both techniques may increase the number of nature of the wireless channel, i.e., broadcast transmissions from an
concurrent transmissions between neighbouring WLANs, and there- AP are physically received by all other stations in the same collision
fore their capacity, although it may also result in the opposite effect domain. However, multicast and broadcast frames in IEEE 802.11 net-
since the achievable transmission rates may be negatively affected by works are not protected by an acknowledgement mechanism as in
the higher interference levels observed, which is the main challenge the case of unicast frames. Thus, layer-2 multicast transmissions de-
to solve. fined by legacy IEEE 802.11 standards are unreliable and not suit-
Due the high WLAN dynamics, the use of adaptive systems is cru- able for streaming applications. To partially address this limitation,
cial but challenging as adaptivity requires extra complexity in terms the Direct Multicast Service (DMS) was first specified in the IEEE
of computing and memory resources, and there are no guarantees 802.11v amendment [67]. Basically, DMS converts multicast streams
that the implemented solution converges due to the decentralised into unicast streams. In this way, frames destined to a multicast ad-
operation of each WLAN. The use of DSC (Dynamic Sensitivity Con- dress are individually transmitted as unicast frames to the stations
trol) to dynamically adjust the CCA level is one of the aspects cur- that joined that multicast group. Obviously DMS provides the same
rently under discussion in the IEEE 802.11ax Task Group. First studies reliability as unicast transmission services but the consumed band-
evaluating the performance of DSC for IEEE 802.11ax WLANs show width increases linearly with the number of group members. To ad-
a clear improvement on the spatial reuse and the area throughput dress this scalability issue, IEEE 802.11aa includes the Groupcast with
[61]. Another example of the achievable throughput gains obtained Retries (GCR) service in addition to DMS. Specifically, the GCR ser-
by adapting the CCA level can be found in [62], where the authors vice defines new mechanisms and the related management frames
show that gains of up to 100% can be achieved. Moreover, trans- for group formation, which allows a set of stations to agree on a
mit Power Control (TPC) to mitigate interference between WLANs in shared (non-multicast) address, called the groupcast concealment ad-
dense scenarios is studied in [63], showing the need of jointly opti- dress.3 Furthermore, the GCR service specifies two retransmission
mising both TPC and CCA to maximise the network performance. policies: GCR Unsolicited Retry (GCR-UR) and GCR Block Ack (GCR-
Finally, sectorisation by using beamforming is also under consid- BA). When using GCR-UR, the AP can proactively retransmit all group-
eration for the development of the IEEE 802.11ax amendment as a cast frames a number of times to mitigate the impact of channel
potential solution to improve spatial reuse [64]. Using sectorisation, errors (see Fig. 5a)), while receivers are not requested to send ac-
only the nodes of a given area are allowed to receive or transmit data, knowledgements. Intuitively this approach improves transmission
hence reducing the contention between different networks whenever reliability, but it still suffers from scalability issues. In contrast, when
they activate non-overlapping sectors. A challenge here is to coor- GCR-BA is used the AP sends a burst of consecutive groupcast frames
dinate the different neighboring APs when they belong to different and it requests the receivers to reply with a Block ACK frame, which
administration domains. Decentralised learning approaches may be contains a bitmap to positively or negatively acknowledge trans-
implemented to find feasible temporal patterns of non-overlapping mitted frames (see Fig. 5b)). The Block ACK mechanism defined for
sectors. the GCR-BA service is quite flexible because Block ACK frames can
be requested immediately after a transmission burst or after a ran-
domised back-off delay. Furthermore, the AP can request the Block
3.3. The IEEE 802.11aa amendment
which was finalised in 2012, included several of these proposed im- As discussed above one main difference between unicast services
provements. Significant research efforts have focused on improving and multicast services in the legacy IEEE 802.11 standard was the
the transmission reliability of multicasting by integrating ARQ mech- lack of acknowledgements. Another critical difference is that mul-
anisms in IEEE 802.11-based multicast transmissions. Modifications ticast frames must be transmitted using a fixed rate in the basic
to the legacy MAC protocol were proposed in [78] to enable the rate set while the transmission rate of unicast frames can be dy-
RTS/CTS option in multicast mode and to select one or more multi- namically adapted to the channel and traffic conditions [85]. Thus,
cast receivers (called leaders) for acknowledging multicast data pack- a group of research papers has investigated the use of rate adap-
ets. However, these enhancements require changes to the standard tation to improve the throughput of multicast services in IEEE 802.11
specifications. The main problems of leader-based ARQ schemes are networks [71,86–89]. For instance, the authors in [86] propose us-
leader election and the trade-off between scalability and reliability. ing RTS frames to allow group members to estimate channel condi-
The authors in [79] propose selecting the multicast recipient operat- tions. Each member will then send a dummy CTS frame with a length
ing in the worst channel conditions as the unique leader but this ap- inversely proportional to channel quality. In this way, the multicast
proach may perform poorly in lossy environments. In the Batch mode transmitter can use the collision duration to predict the lowest data
multicast MAC (BMMM) [80] all multicast recipients are polled by rate that can be used for group transmissions. The overhead intro-
the multicast originator to send individual ACKs, but this scheme is duced by this mechanism is quite high, however. The solution pro-
not suitable for large multicast groups. The Enhanced Leader Based posed in [88], called ARSM, also relies on feedback messages sent by
Protocol (ELBP) is proposed in [81] on the basis of multiple ACK- the multicast receivers, called multicast response frames, to identify
leaders and block acknowledgement techniques. Analytical models the group member exhibiting the poorest channel conditions. How-
are then developed to help select optimal ACK-leaders to meet ap- ever, in this case a different back off timer is associated with each
plication QoS requirements. However, the models apply only to sat- multicast receiver depending on the SNR of previously received feed-
urated traffic while multimedia streams are typically bursty. Another back messages in order to prevent collision. An approach similar to
class of reliable multicast protocols relies on busy tones to reduce the one employed in the Auto Rate Fallback (ARF) protocol, a rate
packet losses due to collisions [82], but the additional radio inter- adaptation scheme originally proposed in [90], is used in [87]. Specif-
face needed for the busy tone limits the practicality of such solu- ically, the number of successful consecutive transmissions and con-
tions. An alternative approach to avoid collisions of multicast pack- secutive transmission failures are used to decide when to increase
ets is the multicast collision prevention (MCP) scheme [83], which or decrease the transmission data rate, respectively. A modified ARF
is based on the use of a shorter waiting time for transmitting mul- scheme is also proposed in [71], which can be applied to videos that
ticast packets. An interesting approach is also proposed in [84], to are encoded into two layers, namely the base and enhancement lay-
retransmit lost packets using an online linear XOR coding algorithm. ers. However, how to integrate rate adaptation with the different re-
However, a modification to the standard MAC protocol is required to transmission policies that are defined in IEEE 802.11aa is still an open
enable simultaneous ACK transmissions. In summary, several differ- issue.
ent methods have been proposed to improve multicast transmission One research area that is expected to be crucial in the success-
reliability by integrating ARQ schemes into the protocol architecture, ful development of IEEE 802.11aa-based products is the design of
but there are not conclusive results on which is the best solution. The efficient scheduling algorithms for supporting voice/video traffic. Al-
choice of the most efficient mechanism depends on a variety of in- most all research work in this field has been triggered by the IEEE
terdependent factors, such as loss ratios, channel congestion, multi- 802.11e amendment that enhanced the original IEEE 802.11 MAC with
cast group size, and QoS requirements of multimedia streams. A com- two new QoS-aware access mechanisms, i.e., EDCA and HCCA [91].
prehensive analytical framework is needed to optimise the setting of In principle, with a well-designed admission control and schedul-
the parameters for each scheme and to dynamically select the best ing scheme, HCCA is able to provide hard QoS guarantees to traf-
one. fic flows [92,93]. However, HCCA is rarely implemented in IEEE
B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25 11
frequencies lower than 1 GHz are evaluated in [115]. The authors Since the PS mechanisms affect only the operation of TIM STAs,
compare two path loss propagation models proposed by the IEEE the performance of non-TIM and Unscheduled STAs has not yet been
802.11ah Task Group (one for macro, and one for pico/hotzone de- considered in the literature. To identify the scenarios in which the
ployments) [116] with Lee and Hata–Okumura propagation models. use of non-TIM and Unscheduled STAs are of interest is still an open
Results show that the IEEE 802.11ah channel models underestimate challenge, as further investigating how non-TIM STAs negotiate over
path loss with respect to Lee and Hata models. Moreover, in a compar- which PRAWs they can use to transmit and receive data. Co-existence
ison with empirical data, it is observed that the IEEE 802.11ah channel issues between the three types of STAs in a single network is also an
models also underestimate the initial loss and the slope of the path- open challenge that requires further work to guarantee a minimum
loss function. A new model parameterisation is thus proposed by the performance level for all of them.
authors. In [117], the feasibility of an IEEE 802.11ah WLAN deploy- The design of strategies to distribute the STAs between all the TIM
ment is also evaluated in terms of the achievable range and bit rate, groups based on their specific traffic profile, position, battery level
computed on the basis of the link budget using the same path loss and application priority is another important challenge that is still
propagation models as in [115]. Results show that the transmission completely open. EDCA is the default channel access scheme included
power limitations in the uplink can limit the overall network per- in the IEEE 802.11ah amendment and provides some basic traffic dif-
formance. Finally, in [118] the authors evaluate the achievable trans- ferentiation capabilities at the packet level. Besides the different ac-
mission range for the different transmission rates, and the achievable cess categories (ACs) needing to be renamed and their parameters
throughput for different combination of transmission power values (Arbitration Inter-Frame Spacing, or AIFS, CWmin , TXOP duration) up-
and transmission rates. Further studies are required due to the het- dated to fit the specific traffic profiles of M2M communications, other
erogeneity of scenarios in which IEEE 802.11ah WLANs can be de- mechanisms can be implemented. A mechanism to assign the down-
ployed to characterise the effective coverage ranges, with special at- link RAW slots when packets from multiple priority levels are wait-
tention to mixed indoors and outdoors scenarios and in presence of ing for transmission at the AP is required, for example. Also, uplink
mobile nodes. RAW slots are currently selected randomly by the STAs that want to
Due to the wide coverage, IEEE 802.11ah WLANs may be severely transmit a packet. A mechanism to reserve some slots at each up-
affected by the presence of hidden terminals. To mitigate such a prob- link RAW for high priority STAs may therefore be an option, although
lem, smart solutions to guarantee that the STAs assigned to the same this may severely degrade the performance of the low priority STAs.
TIM Group are inside each other transmission range, or the employ- Lastly, different repetition patterns for different priority TIM groups
ment of RTS/CTS-based solutions may contribute to mitigate such may also allow priority STAs assigned to those priority TIM groups to
a problem. An overview of long-range scenarios for IEEE 802.11ah access the channel more often. We expect this challenge will receive
is presented in [119], including a detailed description of the hidden much attention in the upcoming years because of the heterogeneity
node problem in them. of sensors that will be connected though a single IEEE 802.11ah AP,
Single-hop uplink transmissions from distant STAs require high especially in urban scenarios.
transmission power to reach the AP. Since not all STAs may be able Similar to what has been discussed for 4G cellular networks used
to transmit at the required power, a solution could be the introduc- for M2M communications [126], the development of mechanisms to
tion of nodes able to relay transmissions from them. However, the avoid and resolve congestion situations is another open challenge for
use of relays has to be efficiently harmonised with the operation in IEEE 802.11ah WLANs with many nodes. For instance, a mechanism
power saving mode, allowing temporal periods in which the relays in which STAs have to wait a random number of DTIM periods before
can gather the data from their associated STAs, and then periods in they can start a transmission may be implemented. This approach
which they forward the data to the AP, which is still an open challenge would effectively distribute the traffic over a longer period of time
for IEEE 802.11ah WLANs. In case relays are used, data prediction and in overload conditions but, otherwise, would unnecessarily increase
aggregation techniques could be implemented to make more efficient the access delay. Adaptive and load-aware solutions may play again
transmissions [120]. an important role to keep the optimal WLAN operation in all possible
Another challenge is the assessment of the efficiency of IEEE circumstances.
802.11ah PS mechanisms, including their optimisation. In [111], the Finally, since IEEE 802.11ah will compete with 4G/5G cellular net-
authors evaluate the capacity of the TIM and page segmentation works and WSNs to provide M2M connectivity in many different ap-
mechanisms in terms of the maximum number of nodes supported plication domains, such as smart cities or e-health, comparative per-
and the energy consumed given a certain network traffic profile. Re- formance studies to determine the strong and weak points of each
sults confirm that a large number of STAs can be supported with technology are required, including also aspects such as the cost of the
low energy consumption. The impact of the number of nodes oper- devices and the system reliability.
ating in PS mode on the energy consumption and the delay perfor-
mance is analysed in [121]. A detailed analysis of the TIM Group-
5. Cognitive radio technology for TV White Spaces
based channel access adopted by the IEEE 802.11ah task group is
made in [122], where the STAs assigned to each TIM are uniformly
This section gives an overview of the IEEE 802.11af amendment,
distributed between the slots of the RAW. Since only one group of
introducing its most relevant features and open challenges. Fig. 9
STAs is allowed to transmit in each RAW slot, the channel contention
shows the basic components and features considered for WLANs op-
is minimised. The number of downlink and uplink slots in a RAW,
erating in the TV White Spaces (TVWS), which include local spectrum
as well as their duration, is optimised on the basis of the number
sensing by the AP and STAs, and the use of geolocation data bases
of active STAs and the network traffic profile in [123]. In [124], the
with information on channel availability.
authors propose an algorithm to determine the optimal size of the
RAW interval for uplink transmissions based on the estimation of
the number of STAs transmitting and the duration of the RAW. Fi- 5.1. The IEEE 802.11af amendment
nally, in [125], the authors address the contention problems in Smart
Grid communication networks with many nodes and periodic traf- Thanks to the transition from analog TV to digital TV, several VHF
fic when using an IEEE 802.11ah WLAN. It is still a challenge to con- and UHF spectrum channels used for decades for analog TV broad-
sider smart systems able to adapt the IEEE 802.11ah parameters to casting are now unused or are under-utilised in many geographical
the instantaneous system state in order to save as much energy as areas [127–129]. This “digital dividend” of spectrum has suggested
possible. national regulators, such as the FCC in the U.S., and Ofcom in the U.K.,
14 B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25
methodology that is receiving more attention in the literature is power limitations for transmission (in general, conservative and ac-
based on distributed channel sensing solutions [127,144,145]. These curate enough to avoid relevant interference effects on primary users
solutions include the observation of spectrum use, and possible identified in the area).
cooperative aggregation of spectrum sensing information to increase The basic IEEE 802.11af mechanisms regulating the communica-
the accuracy of detection and reduce the vulnerability of primary tion between STA and GDB can be found in [137,138].
users’ transmissions. The spectrum sensing capability is required in In parallel with IEEE 802.11af, standards such as the IEEE 1900.6
all the secondary devices, with a −114 dBm sensitivity. Dynamic have been created that consider interfaces and data structures sup-
transmission power control must be provided and the upper limit porting spectrum sensing information exchange, applicable to spec-
on emissions is 100 mW EIRP (20 dBm) for portable devices (further trum sensing (and particularly distributed spectrum sensing) sce-
limited in the case of adjacent channel use to reduce out-of-band in- narios. In particular, in October 2014 the IEEE 1900.6 WG initiated
terference). However, database (DB) coordination of TVWS combined a project for a new standard, called IEEE 1900.6b [146], concerning
with spectrum sensing is considered the most promising and effec- the use of spectrum sensing information to support and optimise the
tive technique, compared with spectrum sensing alone. The DB spec- effectiveness, reliability and robustness of spectrum database solu-
trum information has more chances to be effective (i.e., identifying tions. The aim is to enhance the performance and capabilities of spec-
all free channels opportunities) and reliable (i.e., not prone to attacks trum databases through the use of spectrum sensing information.
or erroneous interpretation of channels status). In fact, regulators de- Co-existence. Support for co-existence mechanisms so that mul-
cided to push for the conservative solution of a remotely accessible, tiple technologies can effectively utilise the TVWS spectrum is im-
centralised spectrum DB that maintains the information on the avail- portant. Self co-existence between network devices of a common
ability of all TVWS channels at any given point in time and location technology (e.g., deployed by different operators in the same area),
(with a target accuracy around 50 m), under their responsibility. For and co-existence among different technologies, are relevant topic of
this reason, the spectrum databases have become a mandatory part research for Cognitive Radio (CR) systems, and specifically for IEEE
of many spectrum sharing systems, and the dominant technical solu- 802.11af. Many solutions appeared on the research scene, but no one
tion to support TV white spaces. was so far finalised as the target solution for IEEE 802.11af. Specific
The IEEE 802.11af standard adheres to this vision and also has standardisation has been started to regulate coexistence between
the role of a common regulatory framework for different spectrum wireless standards of unlicensed devices, including the IEEE 802.19.1
DB implementations, defining a generalised coordination architec- [147]. The purpose of the IEEE 802.19.1 standard is to enable the fam-
ture, protocols and interfaces for spectrum queries and local spec- ily of IEEE 802 Wireless Standards to most effectively use TV White
trum information management. The protocol explicitly considers out Space by providing standard coexistence methods among dissimilar
of scope the communication protocol and technology adopted in or independently operated TVWS devices. Early examples of gener-
the background, leaving the freedom to those players responsible alised coexistence mechanisms included Dynamic Frequency Selec-
for the deployment to select any suitable Internet-based and local tion (DFS), Transmission Power Control (TPC), listen before talk (e.g.,
access network technology. Secondary devices that need to access for contention based IEEE 802.11, 802.15), time division multiplex-
the TVWS spectrum should get information on which channels they ing (also among different techniques such as the IEEE 802.16, 802.20,
can effectively use, and which parameters to adopt, without impact- 802.22), and Message-based Spectrum Contention (that is, beacon-
ing primary users’ transmissions (and receptions), by querying the ing messages that carry coexistence information). Opportune met-
available spectrum DB. The query must contain the transmission rics must be defined to assess the measurable coexistence achieved
characteristics and accurate geographical position of the secondary among different technologies: as an example, the hidden node prob-
device, which can be determined by means of a geo-positioning sys- ability for a target scenario, or the estimate of percentage variation
tem (GPS), regularly updated in the case of movement (or manually in normalised network throughput and latency (before and during
set for static devices). The IEEE 802.11af reference system architec- the SU transmissions). On the other hand, a centralised coexistence
ture for DB spectrum access is composed of multiple Geolocation- control mechanism could be effectively realised by a central manager
based Spectrum information Databases (GDBs) entities connected via (or coexistence-DB, like the GDB) in critical scenarios. To this end,
Internet to Registered Location Secure Servers (RLSS). RLSSs work as IEEE 1900.4 [148] (a standard for heterogeneous networks in dynamic
local proxies of the GDB for a localised group of Basic Service Sets spectrum context, part of IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 41)
(BSS). RLSS are connected via a secure protocol architecture with the aims to standardise the overall system architecture and information
equivalent of multiple Access Points (AP) in different BSS, realising exchange between the network and mobile devices, which will allow
a trusted DB infrastructure. APs locally coordinate the exchange of these elements to optimally choose from available radio resources.
information and channel access management between the GDB (via There are three possible classification of co-existence archi-
RLSS) and the secondary users’ end stations (STA). tectures and inter-network coordination channels for CR systems:
Mode I devices are those under the control of a device that em- centralised, coordinated and autonomous co-existence mechanisms
ploys geo-location database access, while Mode II devices are those [149]. In centralised co-existence schemes, the co-existence is admin-
employing geo-location database access by themselves. The informa- istered by a central entity (e.g. like in IEEE 802.19.1). This solution
tion exchange provided between the GDB and a secondary user STA could be applied in both homogeneous IEEE 802.11af systems (e.g.,
can be provided in both an open-loop (e.g., adopted by FCC) and a incarnated by the centralised spectrum DB entity) and in hetero-
closed-loop (e.g., adopted by ETSI) implementation. In an open loop geneous inter-networks, without requiring modifications to existing
implementation daily spectrum availability information is provided standards, under the assumption that all the involved co-existing
by the GDB and no feedback on the spectrum information received network entities would adhere to the same centralised coordination
is provided by STAs; thus the system approach for spectrum access scheme and inter-network coordination protocol. On the other hand,
is much more conservative, leading to low channels’ utilisation po- this assumption could be hard to satisfy in some practical scenar-
tential. In a closed loop implementation the STA can provide feed- ios. The centralised schemes are effective in providing minimisation
back to the GDB, and there are more communication overheads due of inter-network interference, based on the availability and quality
to the high granularity of updates, however, the system is more effec- of centralised co-existence information. In coordinated co-existence
tive and reliable in the exploitation of TVWS on behalf of STAs. The schemes, the centralised entity could be present, but not taking de-
typical information provided by the GDB includes (1) the updated cisions, in general. The central entity could provide a co-existence
White Space Maps (WSM) of frequencies allowed for secondary use DB with required information which can be used via in-band and
at the time/space of the querying STA, and (2) the device-dependent out-band signalling for co-existence decisions taken by the cluster
16 B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25
heads of many co-existing inter-networks, for implementing a proper co-existence problems could be exacerbated and must be resolved,
common coordination protocol (e.g., out-band busy tone signalling). e.g., see [139]. However, studies in the literature show how the sig-
These are often hybrid solutions realising a compromise between ef- nal coming from an indoor transmitter on TV White Spaces remains
fectiveness and suitability. In autonomous co-existence schemes, all the constrained inside the house, making it difficult to deploy indoor-to-
decisions and coordination are implemented in a distributed way outdoor networks. On the other hand this shadowing limit can be
by the involved network entities. In these schemes, many policies seen as an opportunity, lowering the interference outside the build-
can be adopted to realise a sufficient level of co-existence, under a ing in which the TVWS network is locally operated [134,150]. Un-
best effort approach. Solutions that could be implemented include der this approach, HDTV streaming has recently been considered as
the use of busy tones, beaconing and other signalling protocols in a possible use case of WLAN networks operating in the TV White
dedicated control channels, dynamic distributed frequency selection Space [160].
schemes, listen before transmit, token-based and dynamic reserva- Non-contiguous channel bonding. A relevant novel feature of IEEE
tion schemes. All the above mentioned solutions have goods and 802.11af is the potential for contiguous and non-contiguous chan-
bads, and a general illustration can be found in [149]. Other proac- nel bonding, which permits aggregating basic channels (also non-
tive co-existence techniques try to early detect and recover/mitigate adjacent ones), and leveraging the possible large frequency spread
co-existence issues with relaxed inter-network coordination, e.g., re- between multiple available channels. Due to the rather static nature
alised via spectrum sensing and interference avoidance/suppression of primary DTV transmissions, where a busy channel is unlikely to
techniques. become free in the near future, and state changes are coarse-grained
It must be clear that different aims exist, regarding the co- in general, it is crucial to exploit the time-locality effect and exploit
existence, for primary TVWS users protection against secondary the maximum physical channel availability that could be aggregated
users, and for secondary devices mutual interference avoidance. at any given location. With the methodology inherited from IEEE
Many co-existence problems have been analysed in the literature 802.11ac, IEEE 802.11af is capable of bonding together two up to four
for TVWS technologies, in particular between the primary (licensed) basic channels grouped in up to two different non-contiguous chunks
and secondary (unlicensed) devices. The coexistence management in [137]. The spectrum bandwidth of a DVB-T basic channel can be ei-
TVWS is complex because primary users of DVB transmissions are in- ther 6, 7, or 8 MHz, depending on the country in which the service
tended to be the pure receivers, rather than the broadcasters. In other is operated. As an example, this creates a 144 to 168 OFDM chan-
words, potential protected users could be everywhere, and the hid- nels’ bandwidth potential when up to four 6–7–8 MHz channels are
den terminal problem could arise for these systems. The co-existence bonded [137].
problem is also complicated by many factors that cause asymme-
try and dynamicity in the TVWS, such as the mobility, variable den- 5.1.2. Open challenges
sity, power asymmetry, and heterogeneous MAC/PHY layers. TVWS The deployment of WLANs in the TVWS at their maximum poten-
co-existence problems originate between the IEEE 802.11af technolo- tial still requires the resolution of open problems. Generally speaking,
gies and the IEEE 802.22 technologies for wireless regional area net- as mentioned in previous sections, the challenges for such networks
works (WRAN). Results of analysis of TVWS usage in Europe show can be divided into three main categories: (1) spectrum sharing
that white spaces are typically present and fragmented. They are typ- between opportunistic (secondary) and heterogeneous devices, (2)
ically more abundant in rural areas, where larger contiguous blocks spectrum sensing/management and maximum exploitation of avail-
of unused channels are available, due to broadcast network planning able spectrum (potentially enabling the spectrum-on-demand con-
giving priorities linked to population density. However, the exploita- cept), and (3) co-existence and interference mitigation to the primary
tion of TVWS in urban areas is possible, e.g., some recent research network (primary user protection) and secondary networks [154].
was realised under the assumption of exploiting shadowing effects The overall aim of spectrum sharing techniques is to maximise
created in the communication environment (e.g., by buildings, obsta- separation to avoid overlapping or contiguous channels operations,
cles) in favour of frequency reuse [150]. provided that sufficient channels are available in the TVWS spectrum
Since different standards for opportunistic communication in the in a given space/time scenario [154]. In general, important research
TV White Spaces have now been published, such as IEEE 802.22 [151], contributions have to be realised for the design of proper spectrum al-
IEEE 802.15.4m [152], Weightless [153], and of course IEEE 802.11af, location methodologies and techniques satisfying multi-factorial QoS
improved methods to guarantee the coexistence of different devices, requirements at the system-level and the user-level. Novel ideas in-
operating on several protocols in the same bands, must be deployed. clude the spectrum sharing and spectrum sensing techniques being
We highlight here some work, e.g., [150,154–157], that focuses on further divided into cooperative and non-cooperative.
the coexistence between different technologies operating in the same Non-cooperative solutions attempt to realise spectrum sharing
bands. In particular, [155] studies the performance degradation of and sensing on a local basis, without direct cooperation between de-
IEEE 802.22 when an IEEE 802.11af network is operated in the same vices. Examples include the “listen-before-transmit” approach, and
area. The problem becomes even worse when the IEEE 802.11af net- transmission power control to limit the interference, and spectrum
work is located near 802.22 user equipment, causing both networks allocation policies that are based on local node feedback only. Coop-
to perceive a strong interference from each other. One proposed solu- erative solutions rely on the existence of a common communication
tion is the Coexistence Beacon Protocol [158], studied for 802.22 net- channel, through which devices can tentatively agree on the spec-
works, which foresees the exchange of a periodic beacon to identify trum allocation that provides the desired spectrum separation and
the neighbouring, and possibly interfering, networks. QoS. Major issues include the definition of a methodology to identify
For what concerns the co-existence problems, research has ad- a common channel (or multiple channels mutually shared in space
dressed other important related aspects of new WLANs on TV White by pairs of heterogeneous and distributed devices) and to efficiently
Spaces. For instance, the higher coverage range makes them attrac- share common information. For the access to the spectrum DBs, the
tive for applications in the smart grid, and also for M2M on TVWS identification of proper common access channels is still under dis-
[134,150,159]. Here, the increased range compared to standard tech- cussion: out-of-TVWS-band cellular communications can be widely
nologies in the ISM bands can have beneficial effects for indoor used, given their high coverage, also indoor.
mobile devices [150], and M2M [159]. Specifically, indoor devices Trying to avoid the use of complex and resource-hungry coordi-
communicating on TV White Spaces offer better propagation char- nation schemes, and dedicated control channels, rendezvous proto-
acteristics and penetration through obstacles, making it easier to cols play a significant role, both for co-existence and for establish-
realise scalable home connectivity [135], although interference and ing dynamic communication channels, based on spectrum sharing.
B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25 17
Rendezvous is considered a fundamental problem in generalised CR channel for cooperation purposes could become a bottleneck and re-
networks, at the basis of many communication processes, e.g., in- duce the potential advantages of dynamic spectrum allocation. The
cluding neighbour discovery, routing and broadcast. Rendezvous pro- IEEE 802.19 foresees the presence of a shared common control chan-
tocols attempt to establish a new link for communication on a se- nel (CCC), to which devices need to tune in order to gather the state
lected and agreed frequency band (channel) identified within a set of the network. Solutions such as [141] propose the use of TVWS for
of available resources (channels), thus creating the basis for com- the CCC.
munication between two or more SUs. This problem is often exac- A promising direction for research is the adoption of cluster-
erbated by the high (and unknown) numbers of contending SUs, high ing schemes for secondary devices, associated with a hybrid dis-
number of available channels and their ambiguous boundaries and tributed/cooperative vs. centralised/non-cooperative approach, in an
identifiers, and tough co-existence requirements satisfaction in cog- effort to reduce overheads while maximising advantages. In this
nitive radio systems [161]. Preliminary approaches for rendezvous way, secondary nodes could implement cooperation for sensing func-
were based on the existence of a dedicated Common Control Chan- tions using properly identified common channels, and delegate the
nel (CCC) agreed among all the SUs, or the existence of a centralised centralised decisions and spectrum-DB management to well instru-
agent (decision maker) assigning channels to any pairs of requesting mented cluster-leader nodes. This concept is incarnated to some ex-
users. This approach could be considered in the case of IEEE 802.11af tent by RLSS in IEEE 802.11af. More recently there have been propos-
solutions based on the spectrum DB implementation, however, the als to build distributed databases that refresh their contents period-
problem is complicated by the fact that the common channel must ically by querying the remote spectrum database [167]. Here, Mas-
be identified and made available for all the requesting SUs at the ter devices (according to Ofcom terminology) periodically cache the
same time, even when these are spread over multiple collision do- query replies from the spectrum database in order to reply to and
mains in space. On the other hand, the scalability and reliability is- broadcast the spectrum availability to neighbour Slave devices.
sues which are caused by the congestion of CCCs, and the vulner- Another challenging direction for research is the definition of ac-
ability risks of centralised DBs, motivate the research of alternative curate models and efficient simulation tools enabling dynamic spectrum
distributed solutions, called blind rendezvous protocols [162]. Dis- analysis for both rural and urban areas. Recent developments of dig-
tributed solutions have been mainly based on beaconing and/or slot- ital maps, simulation tools and propagation models theoretically al-
based channel hopping algorithms exploiting randomisation, sensing low improving the capability of predicting radio propagation effects
and discovery/synchronisation messages spread in slotted time over in complex scenarios with an acceptable computation time. This en-
a set of candidate available channels [161]. These protocols aim to abling technology could be used in parallel to spectrum DBs to pro-
minimise the convergence time, to maximise the use of resources, vide more accurate forecasting of dynamic frequency allocation in
and to avoid collisions among SUs, by identifying and agreeing on time/space scenarios. Another issue to be taken into account is the
the use of a given common channel among N non-overlapping and accuracy of the remote spectrum database regarding the channel
unambiguously labelled channels. The main complication in IEEE availability estimation. Several works have already shown the inac-
802.11af systems is given by the wide availability of many different curacy of propagation models, due to the complexity of parameters
non-contiguous spectrum bands, which cannot be uniformly quan- to be considered and differences between modelled and real scenar-
tised in single channels and unambiguously labelled in space, in or- ios [132,134,168,169]. Better propagation models will make it possible
der to realise a common reference domain for all the IEEE 802.11af to more efficiently estimate the interference between devices, and
devices. In fact, the knowledge of the number of channels, their com- build Radio Environment Maps (REM) or White Space Maps (WSM)
mon labels, the unique IDs of SUs and the number of SUs contending that will possibly lead to a more accurate sharing of the radio spec-
for the channel assignment are the key factors determining the effec- trum [144]. To this end, current research could focus on how to lever-
tiveness and good properties of blind rendezvous protocols. Recently, age simulation models in order to build more accurate frequency
new classes of rendezvous protocols have been proposed which are DBs.
distributed, blind and oblivious. Oblivious means that available chan- In general, the adoption of remote spectrum DBs methodology
nels may be identified with different labels on behalf of the differ- pushed by national regulators has made the spectrum sensing pro-
ent involved SUs. A number of these distributed blind and oblivious cess optional and conservatively realised (e.g., power control for
rendezvous protocols have been proposed and have been referenced sensing-only devices is limited to below 17 dBm EIRP). Thus, much
and analysed in [162]. To conclude, solutions for dynamic spectrum of the research has focused on techniques and solutions to successfully
handoff issues (e.g,. in case PUs suddenly appear in a region) must query the remote database, also in challenging environments, such as
be resolved in advance to minimise the latency of re-establishing a rural areas and indoor. However, since the queries must provide the
functional communication channel, e.g., by implementing a proactive position of the mobile device, the accuracy of positioning for mobile
alternative rendezvous channel selection in background to ongoing and handheld devices still needs more appropriate solutions. Trian-
communication processes [163]. gulation can be used to estimate the position of mobile devices with
Another challenge is to provide cooperative techniques in a dis- the accuracy needed by the current regulations outdoor (50 m). How-
tributed vs. centralised implementation, by analysing their convergence ever, a low GPS accuracy is possible indoors [170]. Certified man-
under variable conditions, overheads and tradeoffs. In some cases, as ual positioning can be provided by technicians for static and indoor
in vehicular networks, the exploitation of scenario characteristics and devices, although limiting mobility. Alternatives to costly infrastruc-
factors such as the constrained mobility could help to realise effec- tures for positioning (e.g., based on short range beaconing devices)
tive dissemination of sensing information over an extended and pre- must be deployed in indoor scenarios.
dictable horizon under a cooperative approach [164–166]. Coopera- Finally, regarding spectrum sensing and interference mitigation,
tion could be helpful in the realisation of the cooperative spectrum new challenges come from the heterogeneity and different charac-
sensing in combination with the Geolocation DB approach. Another teristics that networks operating in the TV White Spaces can have,
interesting direction of research is the investigation of mutual ef- such as different transmitting power (4 W for static devices, 100 mW
fects of coexisting cooperation-based vs. non-cooperative techniques. for mobile and portable devices, and 40 mW for communication
In cooperation-based devices the exchange of information could al- in channels adjacent to occupied ones), different bandwidths (5,
low a quick convergence to a solution, and avoidance of further 10, 15, and 20 MHz are currently foreseen for IEEE 802.11af; IEEE
interference [145]. Certainly, cooperative techniques have desirable 802.15.4m can have narrower bandwidths or wider ones), and dif-
advantages over non-cooperative ones. However, tight time synchro- ferent medium access schemes (protocols that use either CSMA or
nisation and high coordination overheads are required. The common TDMA are required to co-exist in the TV White Spaces). With all this
18 B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25
in place, the problem of determining whether another secondary de- data transmission. In contrast to DenseAP [181] or DIRAC [182], which
vice is currently transmitting in the same channel is still an open are also based on a centralised controller but do not modify clients,
issue. TRANTOR exercises much more control on clients by the use of a ded-
Spectrum sensing is a very hot topic in the literature, with many icated API, which enables a significantly higher gain in coordination
proposals that leverage the cooperation between devices to raise the and thus capacity. CENTAUR [183] is another example of a centralised
accuracy of the detection process, e.g., [144,171]. The current litera- controller that centrally schedules hidden and exposed terminals in
ture also offers room for proposals that suggest exploiting sensing to the downlink while using standard CSMA MAC for uplink traffic and
build more accurate spectrum DBs [164,172,173]. Lastly, regarding the legacy downlink traffic. To achieve good performance, it uses a fixed
interference mitigation to the primary network, regulators provide a back-off, packet staggering techniques and a hybrid data path that
conservative approach based on a remote spectrum database to avoid only schedules downlink transmissions towards hidden and exposed
high risk for the primary users. However, in particular for the indoor terminals centrally. All other traffic is sent using standard DCF with
scenario, the concept of secondary users’ transmission in TV Grey a standard back-off procedure. In contrast to previous approaches, it
Spaces has been proposed. TV Grey Space identifies busy channels does not require any modifications to the clients but does require data
that are formally used by primary users in the area of interest (e.g., plane centralisation and it remains questionable how scalable such
at the rooftop level of a building for DVB-T), but which could be con- a solution is for large WLAN deployments with high PHY layer data
sidered usable indoors (e.g., at the basement level), without causing rates beyond 100 Mbps. However, new approaches for fast data plane
effective interference to the primary users [134,150,174]. This concept processing that are currently explored in the virtualisation commu-
is based on the generalised spectrum underlay paradigm [175]. The nity which move all the packet processing into user space may be
remaining research challenge is to provide TV Grey space access guar- an option to significantly increase speed. Designing such manage-
anteeing a sufficient amount of protection to the primary user, while ment systems, raises several interesting research questions: (a) Cen-
providing a satisfactory QoS to opportunistic devices, e.g., through tralised infrastructures may incur high latency but are more simple to
the use of customised and validated propagation models for indoor program and maintain while designing a completely distributed ap-
TVWS networks, and feedback mechanisms to constantly monitor the proach that operates close to WLAN devices may result in significant
interference generated to the primary network. distributed coordination and consistency problems; (b) what level of
distributed control is required in order to support the flexibility needs
6. Emerging new trends and technologies of future WiFi based networks supporting a high level of mobility.
Traditionally, WLAN APs are built on proprietary operating sys-
In this last section we review three emerging trends that, in our tems that are tightly coupled with the hardware. This design makes
opinion, will have a large influence in the conception of future WLANs it hard to create new applications on top of such networking devices.
as they change the way WLAN protocols and functionalities are de- Despite the fact that protocols and mechanisms are available that
veloped, implemented, tested and integrated with other wireless would greatly improve the utility of existing networks, those new
networks. protocols are not deployed, because the closed system design makes
it very difficult to extend their functionality. An important aspect for
6.1. Programmable Wireless LANs all such new approaches is therefore how to provide open interfaces
and open source to speed up innovation. As an example, Linux-based
Especially in the enterprise environment, WLAN deployments devices are completely open source but in order to increase flexi-
need to support a wide range of functionalities and services. This is bility, much more work is needed in the area of open drivers and
intrinsically difficult because of the large number of APs that must be firmware. In fact the Atheros based ath9k driver has been the main
managed, which calls for scalable solutions. Typical services include driver of innovation in the open source community because it is the
channel assignment, load balancing among APs, authentication, au- only driver that interworks with open firmware. In general solutions
thorisation and accounting (AAA), policy management, support for that modify the OS driver focus mainly on programmable network
client mobility and interference coordination. Another problem is the level solutions for WLANs, such as channel switching or handovers
fact that WLAN clients autonomously take several decisions such as between APs. While the ath9k driver is an excellent example in how
which APs to associate with, when to hand-over, etc. Therefore, sup- to speed up innovation, it is still very cumbersome to support flexi-
porting roaming clients requires the management of a large number ble MAC engine reprogrammability with ath9k. In contrast, MAClets
of association states across several APs, which is a challenge if sup- and Wireless MAC processors (WMP) [184] allow a much more flex-
port for real-time hand-over is desired. Typically, such management ible reprogramming of MAC functionalities. A MAC processor is an
schemes are centralised and most of them are proprietary, such as entity able to execute general MAC commands that specify the MAC
WLAN controller solutions from Aruba [176] or Cisco [177], although operations through a software-defined state machine. The behaviour
the IEEE 802.11u amendment has been released to allow mobile users of the MAC protocol can therefore be updated at run-time by simply
to seamless roam between WiFi networks with automatic authenti- changing the sequence in which those commands are executed (i.e.,
cation and handoff [178]. For example, Dyson [179] enables STAs to the MAClets). As a proof-of-concept, the authors of [184] implement
send information such as radio channel conditions to a centralised the proposed MAC processor solution in a commodity WLAN hard-
controller based on a custom API (e.g., based on Python). As the con- ware card, extending the basic DCF in three directions: piggy-backing
troller has a centralised view of the network, it can enforce a rich ACKs, a pseudo TDMA, and the use of multiple channels. In [185] a
set of policies to control the network also using historical informa- control framework for this WMP system is also proposed to support
tion. A demo system has been implemented along with applications MAClet code mobility, i.e., for moving, loading and activating MAC
such as airtime reservations for specific clients or optimised hand- software programs embedded into ordinary data packets (akin to the
offs. However, Dyson requires STAs to be modified in order to use capsule model of traditional active networks).
those new services offered by the centralised controller. TRANTOR The difficulty in re-programming networking hardware has also
[180] is another example of a centralised management system that led to the concept of Software Defined Networks (SDNs) based on the
requires changes of clients in order for the infrastructure to gather OpenFlow protocol [186]. The main idea of SDNs is to extend net-
information from them in terms of e.g., interference measurements. working devices with standardised APIs that allow third-party pro-
In addition, control commands enable the infrastructure to exercise grammers to flexibly control the data path. In addition, SDNs pro-
control such as modifying the transmit power or influencing the as- vide higher level abstractions to network designers and programmers
sociation procedure. Clients still use standard CSMA MAC layer for through the use of a centralised control plane offered by a network
B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25 19
potential capacity gain of WiFi offloading in real-world WiFi deploy- transferred. However, the design of location prediction models that
ments. For instance, the authors in [215] evaluate offloading effi- have low computation complexity and are suitable for short-term
ciency using trace-based urban mobility patterns and WiFi connec- mobility is an open issue. Also related to the problem of delayed of-
tivity distributions. The authors in [216] instead analyse the offload- floading feasibility is the optimal placement of APs. The authors of
ing performance in an indoor scenario in which femto cells and WiFi [226] develop the HotZones algorithm, which selects the cells with
access points coexist. On the other hand, mathematical models are the highest number of daily visits as the location of additional WiFi
needed to derive performance bounds and guide the design of op- access points. A similar solution, called Drop Zones, is proposed in
timal offloading strategies. A simple queuing model for the analysis [227]. In the context of vehicular networks, the optimal deployment
of the offloading efficiency is developed in [217] by assuming that the of RoadSide Units (RSU) over a given road layout to maximise the
WiFi network availability is exponentially distributed. A more general overall system throughput is analysed in [228]. In [229] it is analysed
scenario is considered in [218] by assuming multiple classes of access the data offloading gain in a vehicular sensor network as a function
points that differ in transmit power, deployment density and band- of the percentage of equipped vehicles, of the number of deployed
width. The optimal association strategy is then derived to maximise road side units, and of the adopted routing protocol. Although exist-
the fraction of time that a typical user in the network is served with a ing work established the potential of delayed offloading, there is still
rate greater than its minimum rate requirement. A somehow related a need for considerable research to design incentive mechanisms for
problem consists of deciding how to optimally deploy WiFi hotspots motivating users to leverage their delay tolerance for cellular traffic
to maximise offloading efficiency. Traditionally, this problem has offloading. For instance, an auction-based pricing framework is pro-
been considered from the point of view of coverage maximisation, posed in [230] to give priority to users with high delay tolerance and
e.g., to ensure continuous WiFi connectivity by taking into consider- a large offloading potential.
ation user mobility characteristics [219]. On the contrary, in the con- We conclude this section by discussing a third type of mobile
text of mobile data offloading, AP deployment is tackled to maximise data offloading, known as opportunistic offloading, which does not
the throughput performance in an heterogeneous wireless network. rely on a WLAN infrastructure but exploits direct communications
For instance, a heuristic algorithm is proposed in [220] that selects between mobile devices, e.g., through the emerging WiFi Direct
as AP locations the cells with the higher frequency of download re- standard [231]. Opportunistic offloading schemes allow saving sig-
quests. A graph-theoretical solution for AP deployment is developed nificant cellular bandwidth because the content spreads through
in [221] by consorting a time-dependent graph that describes the the opportunistic network formed by the users, while the cellular
interdependencies between users’ mobility trajectories, points of in- network is mainly used for signalling and triggering the content
terest and traffic demands. An open issue in this field of research dissemination. Clearly, the performance of opportunistic offloading
concerns the design of more adaptive traffic steering mechanisms solutions depends on several factors, including the user mobility pat-
between cellular and WiFi. Furthermore, the increase in the num- terns, the user density, the delay tolerance for content reception, and
ber of wireless infrastructure nodes with the dense deployment of the popularity of the content that needs to be transferred. Note that
small cells will make the future network deployments quasi stochas- opportunistic offloading requires a less controlled type of interwork-
tic. Thus, new methodologies, such as stochastic geometry, have to be ing between LTE and WLANs because user devices can setup direct
explored to model the performance bounds of heterogeneous wire- connections and start ad hoc communication autonomously with lit-
less networks that allow the inter-working between cellular systems tle or no intervention from the operator. For instance, the authors of
and WLANs [222]. Finally, the use of historical data to predict net- [226] propose a simple algorithm, called MixZones, to allow the cel-
work conditions and user locations may also become infeasible due lular operator to decide when the mobile users should be notified to
to the scale of the network in terms of infrastructure nodes and users. switch their wireless interface for data transfer with potential other
To deal with this issue limited measurements could be coupled with users that they are predicted to encounter. In addition, most of the pa-
statistical inference methods. pers consider that content must be delivered to users within a given
On-the-spot offloading is the dominant but not the only form of deadline. Most of the research in this context addresses the problem
interworking between cellular networks and WLANs. More recently, of selecting the best (e.g., the smallest) set of users, called seeds, that
delayed offloading has also been proposed for delay-tolerant traffic. should receive the content from the cellular network and help to dis-
Basically, if a user is willing to accept a delayed content reception seminate it over the opportunistic network. Three simple algorithms
(e.g., the download of a YouTube video), the cellular operator may in- for initial seed selections are proposed in [232]. The authors of [233]
tentionally postpone the content transfer in order to wait for WLAN propose using social network properties, e.g., betweenness or degree
availability or better transmission conditions. The cellular network centrality, to select the most useful seeds for offloading the cellular
is then used to complete the data transfer only if the content re- network. A similar social-aware approach is also used in [234,235].
ception cannot be guaranteed within a user-specified deadline. A It is assumed in [236] that a centralised entity keeps tracks of the
number of studies have explored the feasibility of delayed offload- speed of the content dissemination process to decide when the cel-
ing for different delay deadlines using trace-based WLAN usage pat- lular network should directly transmit the content to the interested
terns. In particular, results in [215] confirm that increasing the delay- users to guarantee that the delivery deadline is met with high prob-
tolerance of content significantly improves the fraction of traffic that ability. An actor-critic learning framework is designed in [237] to un-
can be offloaded. The offloading performance clearly depends on sev- derstand when and to how many users the cellular network should
eral factors, including the location of IEEE 802.11 hotspots and the directly transmit the content. In this context, an important area of re-
ability to accurately predict the future availability of WLAN coverage. search is the design of scalable and efficient network-aided offload-
Thus, several studies have addressed the problem of forecasting mo- ing schemes, where the cellular network guides the mobile users in
bile connectivity. For instance, the solution proposed in [223], called the connectivity management and dissemination phase. Finally, of-
BreadCrumbs, tracks the movements of the mobile device’s owner floading data traffic when the requests for popular content are not
and maintains a history of observed networking conditions to train synchronised is still an open issue [238].
a forecast model of near-term connectivity. More recently, a time-
based prediction model of visited locations derived from movement 7. Summary
traces of mobile users is given in [224]. Then, the authors in [225]
propose a system, called Wiffler, that allows mobile users to decide In this paper we have described the main scenarios, novel func-
whether or not to wait for a future WiFi offloaded opportunity based tionalities and mechanisms that will characterise the use, opera-
on the predicted WLAN capacity and the total data that needs to be tion and performance of next-generation WLANs and provided an
22 B. Bellalta et al. / Computer Communications 75 (2016) 1–25
extensive and thorough review of the IEEE 802.11ac, IEEE 802.11aa, [24] ETSI, Applicability of M2M architecture to smart grid network, Technical Report
IEEE 802.11ah, and IEEE 802.11af amendments. The paper also pro- 102 935 V2.1.1, ETSI, September 2009.
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