1.

1) Language family - a group of languages deriving from a single ancestor or parent.

2) Typology - the analysis, comparison, and classification of languages according to their common
structural features and forms.
3) Cognates - having the same linguistic derivation as another; from the same original word or root.
4) Roots - A morpheme, not necessarily surviving as a word in itself, from which words have been
made by the addition of prefixes or suffixes or by other modification.
5) Synthetic - characterized by the use of inflections rather than word order to express grammatical
structure.
6) Analytic - tending not to alter the form of its words and to use word order rather than inflection or
agglutination to express grammatical structure.
7) Agglutinative - forming words predominantly by agglutination, rather than by inflection or by
using isolated elements.
8) Isolating – each word in the sentence consists of just one morpheme.
9) incorporating – combine many morphemes to form very long words.
10) flectional languages - The process or result of joining two or more morphemes together to form a
single word.
11) Ergative - Relating to or denoting a case of nouns that identifies the doer of an action as the
object rather than the subject of a verb.
12) absolutive cases - used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, as well as the object of
a transitive verb.
13) language variation - a characteristic of language: there is more than one way of saying the same
thing.
14) Diatopic - variation in language on a geographical level.
15) Diastratic - variation in language between social classes.
16) diachronic variation - variation in language over time.
17) variant of English - A form or version of something that differs in some respect from other forms
of the same thing or from a standard.
18) Lect - a distinct variety of a language, as a standard variety or a nonstandard regional dialect.
19) Idiolect - an individual way of speech, which is a result of ethnic, race, national, social identity
and peculiarities of a physical being.
20) Dialect - a variety of a language which is grammatically, lexically as well as phonologically
different from other varieties of one and the same language.
21) regional dialect - is a distinct form of language spoken in a particular geographical area.
22) Accent - refers to the way in which a speaker pronounces, and therefore refers to a variety which
is phonetically and/or phono- logically different from other varieties.
23) Homogeneous - composed of parts or elements that are all of the same kind.
24) Heterogeneous -  consisting of elements that are not of the same kind or nature.
25) Inner - norm-providing.
26) Outer - norm-developing.
27) expanding circles of English - norm-depending.
28) Sociolect - result of diastopic variation
29) Aetalect - age variation of a language.
30) Ethnolect - a variety of a language spoken by a certain cultural/ethnic group.
31) national variety - result of both diatopic and diastopic types of variation.
32) Standard (literary) variety - a form of the language that is accepted (at any point in time, and in
any particular country) as the national norm, encompassing grammar, vocabulary and spelling.
33) pan-dialectal competence - is a common to all dialects of one language ‘core’ vocabulary,
accentual patterns and a set of grammatical structures that are understood (mutually intelligible)
by the speakers of geographically adjacent dialects areas.
34) linguistic diversity - the practice or quality of including or involving people from a range of
different social and ethnic backgrounds.
 35) language contact - is the social and linguistic phenomenon by which speakers of different
languages (or different dialects of the same language) interact with one another, leading to a
transfer of linguistic features.
36) Adstratum - just a language that influences another nearby language, without having a
recognisably higher or lower prestige than it.
37) Substratum - one that influences another similarly, but that has lower prestige than the languages
it influences.
38) Superstratum - a language that influences another and has higher prestige over the languages it
influences.
39) Koine - a common language shared by various peoples.
40) Pidgin - denoting a simplified form of a language, especially as used by a non-native speaker.
41) Creole - a mother tongue formed from the contact of a European language with local languages.
2.
3.

Ukrainian Russian English German Latin

Терен Тёрн Blackthorn Schwarzdorn prunus
Яблуко Яблоко Apple Apfel malum
Фрукт Фрукт Fruit Frucht fructus
Яйце Яйцо Egg Ei ōvum
Сіль Соль Sault Salz sal
Сім‘я Семья Family Familie familia
Ягня Ягнёнок Lamb Lamm agnus
Вовк Волк Wolf Wölfe lupus
Миша Мышь Mouse Maus apodemus

4.

Isolating languages Agglutinative Incorporating Flectional languages

languages languages
Sanskrit Turkish Chukchi Ukrainian
Hungarian English
Kazakh Hindi
Chinook French
Finnish Spanish
Korean Lithuanian
Arabic

5.
1) In the Basque country by Basque people.
2) Over 700 000
3) It is co-official in the Basque Autonomous Community and official in the Basque-speaking areas
of Navarre.
4) There is conclusive evidence that Basque is a descendant of the Aquitanian language, which is an
ancient language spoken in the Pyrenees region. Some similarities are known between Aquitanian
and the ancient Iberian language, so some people think that they might be related.
5) ? The Basque country's forested mountain terrain, and it’s lack of tempting resources that
prevented invasion. This isolation is probably what allowed their language to survive and develop
into the Basque language of today.
6) is the most homogenous.
7) State external and internal factors.
 8) Ergative - special form of the noun when it's the subject and takes a transitive verb; it's marked by
a “K” at the end of the noun; ( wewúkiyene péexne qíiwnim ‘the old man saw an elk’.) Absolutive
- special form of the noun when it's the subject and takes an intransitive verb. There's no ending
at the end of the noun (mutila etorri da "the boy came")
7.

Name three things that are Name three things that are
different in British accents. similar in British accents
1. prosody (intonation, stress, 1. clarity
rhytm)
2. phonetics 2. pace
3. grammatical 3. volume

8.
o Letter /r/ is pronounced in the following words: arm, farm, horse and flower: South of England
(Plymouth, Portsmouth, Brighton); South-East of England (Birmingham, Oxford)
o Letter /h/ is not pronounced in the following words: house, happy and hurry: East of England
(Norwich, Ipswich), North of England (Newcastle)
o Vowels in the words last, fast, castle are pronounced the same as fat, cat and hat: Centre and
South-West of England (Liverpool, Nottingham, Manchester, Chester, Leeds)
9.
There are 5 accents commonly spoken in England today, which differ in terms of region, class,
and ethnicity: Received Pronunciation, Estuary English, Multicultural London English, General
Northern English, and Urban West Yorkshire English.
In the Ukrainian language there are 3 major dialectal groups according to territory: the
southwestern group (Ukrainian: південно-західне наріччя), the southeastern group (Ukrainian:
південно-східне наріччя) and the northern group (Ukrainian: північне наріччя) of dialects.
11.
1) What does the article claim the regional "voice" means to the people of the Black Country?
The Black Country has both good people and people who mock the accent. So, this "voice"
means that the differences between people's accent were so different, and the residents of Black
Country forced the government to change the pronunciation of the stop.
2) What attitudes to regional speech are being reported here?
Each person used to perceive the pronunciation as it convenient. So, when people heard the
wrong spelling (for them) the started to rebel.
12.
1) What attitudes to regional speech are being represented in this extract?
I can see in this text the phrases in Geordie accent: “What not gan to see the toon!” (gan – go,
toon - Newcastle city centre).
2) What ideas and attitudes are reflected in the representation of particular characters?
Those students who couldn’t wait the new student with Geordie accent thought that he’ll be a
good-looking man, but the other thought in another way.
Another accent that doesn’t like yours isn’t a reason for dissidence.
13.
 Regional characters of Ukrainian language in Zaporizhzhia:
 Is close to the literary language form by the core vocabulary;
 Unsyllabic «y» [ў] in practical speech is closer to the phoneme [в] ( “ходив” ):
 [ходи́ў] – type of pronunciation, which is casually used by the natives from West
of Ukraine;
 [ходи́в] – local type of pronunciation;
 Incorrect usage of traced translation from russian of certain expressions or direct
violation of literary norms («На протязі», «недолік», «міроприємства», «з
наступаючими святами»).
14.
1) It is the official language of Great Britain taught at schools and universities, used by the press, the
radio and television. It may be defined as that form of English which is current and literery,
substantially uniform.
2) It’s spoken by a limit British population it has been termed as a social dialect, the one of Higher
Class, that is of educated people. Local dialects are varieties of the English language peculiar to
some districts and having no normalised literary form.
3) American English cannot be called a dialect, because it has a literary normalised form called
Standard American, whereas a dialect has no literary form. Neither it is a separate language,
because it has neither independent grammar nor vocabulary of its own.
4) The American variety differs from British English in pronunciation, some minor features of
grammar, but chiefly in vocabulary.
5) The difference is occasional and mostly concerns the vocabulary which is the most inconstant
part of any language
6) For more than three centuries the American vocabulary developed more or less independently of
the English stock and was influenced by the new surroundings. The early Americans had to coin
words for the unfamiliar flora and fauna, hence bull-frog "a large frog", moose "American elk"
for animals and corn, hickory for plants. They also had to find names for the new conditions of
economic life: back-country "districts not yet thickly populated, backwoods "the forest beyond
the cleared country". Many of the foreign elements borrowed into American from the Indian
dialects or from Spanish penetrated very soon not only into British English but also into several
other languages.
7) They are: canoe, moccasin, tomahawk, wigwam, etc. and translation loans: pipe of peace, pale-
face and the like, taken from Indian languages and the Spanish borrowings: cafeteria, mustang,
sombrero, etc. From the Dutch settlers the first colonists borrowed boss and cookie, and from
French chowder and bureau.
8) Cozy – cosy, offence – offense, practice – practise, travelling – traveling, encase – incase, centre
center, autumn – fall, biscuit – cookie, class – grade, flat – apartment, holiday – vacation, bill –
check, chemist – druggist. Another big group of peculiarities as compared with the English of
Great Britain is caused by some specific features of pronunciation, stress or spelling standards,
such as [æ] for [ a:] in ask, dance, path, or [e] for [ ei ] in made, day.
9) American slang uses alongside the traditional ones also few specific models, such as verb stem +
-er+adverb stem+-er: e.g. opener-upper "the first item on the programme". The trend to shorten
words and to use initial abbreviation is even more pronounced than in the British variant: e.g.
G.F. "a girl friend". Particularly common in American English are verbs with the hanging
postpositive. They say that in Hollywood you never meet a man: you meet up with him, you do
not study a subject but study up on it.
10) Canadian English is influenced both by British and American English but it has some specific
features of its own. Specifically Canadian words (called Canadisms) are not very frequent outside
Canaa, except a shack "a hat" and to fathom out "to explain".
 11) There are many theories about the evolution of the Australian accent. There would appear to be
influences from cockney pronunciation, and there are also Irish influences as well (a lot of early
teachers were of Irish background). One will also find the remnants of Irish, Scottish and Welsh
influences in the Australian pronunciation of some words. Then, there was a large nflux of
German, Greek and Italian immigration. Later the language has been strongly influenced by TV
media from the USA.
12) An intense development of cattle breeding in new conditions necessitated the creation of an
adequate terminology. English nouns like stock, bullock, land find a new life on Australian soil:
stockman "herdsman", to bullock "to work hard", to overland "to drive cattle over long
distances".
13) Many terms, such as kangaroo, dingo, wombat, boomerang, dingo came from Aborigional
language . A high percentage of words borrowed from the native inhabitants of Australia will be
noticed in the sonorous Australian place names (Wooloomooloo, Bulkomatta).
14) Yes, they’re.
15) New Zealand English is different from Australian English; it's pure and clear and is easily
understood everywhere in the world.
16) The term Austral English is sometimes used to cover the language of the whole Australasia
17) Borrowings from Maori include: aroha "love, sympathy", whare "house", hongi "the ritual of
pressing noses". New Zealand English has many borrowings from polynesian languages: kiwi,
moa, tui (birds), kauri, rata, maire (trees).
18) No, we can’t.

15.
a) Druggist, vacation, cookie, fall, grade, apartment, movie, barbecued, elevator, truck, sidewalk,
gas, candies, restroom, subway.
b) banana, tobacco, tomato, tapioca, potato, cocoa, ananas, apricot, guitar, tango, rumba.
c) center, meter, theater, color, neighbor, traveling, cozy, offense, incase, practice.
d) kangaroo, dingo, wombat, boomerang, koala, gibber, waddy.
e) "Albany doctor" means "an abrupt wind"; "Buckley's chance" means "no chance"; "not to know
whether it's Pitt Street or Christmas" means "to be confused".
f) Love, hut/house, nosepressing
g) Trousers, marble, herdsman, dinner, bum, milkie, good day, food, Pommy, chicken, dampener, be
all right, Australian, afternoon.

16.

1) American English has always shown a marked tendency to use nouns as verbs. Examples of
verbed nouns are interview, advocate, vacuum, lobby, pressure, rear-end, transition, feature,
profile, belly-ache, spearhead, skyrocket, showcase, service (as a car), corner, torch, exit (as in
"exit the lobby"), factor (in mathematics), gun ("shoot"), author (which disappeared in English
around 1630 and was revived in the U.S. three centuries later) and, out of American material,
proposition, graft (bribery), bad-mouth, vacation, major, backpack, backtrack, intern, ticket
(traffic violations), hassle, blacktop, peer-review, dope and OD, and, of course verbed as used at
the start of this sentence. The saying goes, 'In the US of A there is no such thing as a noun that
can't be "verbed"'. Many compound nouns have the form verb plus preposition: add-on, stopover,
lineup, shakedown, tryout, spin-off, rundown ("summary"), shootout, holdup, hideout, comeback,
cookout, kickback, makeover, takeover, rollback ("decrease"), rip-off, come-on, shoo-in, fix-up,
tie-in, tie-up ("stoppage"), stand-in. These essentially are nouned phrasal verbs; some
prepositional and phrasal verbs are in fact of American origin (spell out, figure out, hold up, brace
up, size up, rope in, back up/off/down/out, step down, miss out on, kick around, cash in, rain out,
check in and check out (in all senses), fill in ("inform"), kick in ("contribute"), square off, sock in,
sock away, factor in/out, come down with, give up on, lay off (from employment), run into and
across ("meet"), stop by, pass up, put up (money), set up ("frame"), trade in, pick up on, pick up
after, lose out.

Noun endings such as -ee (retiree), -ery (bakery), -ster (gangster) and -cian (beautician) are also
particularly productive. Some verbs ending in -ize are of U.S. origin; for example, fetishize,
prioritize, burglarize, accessorize, itemize, editorialize, customize, notarize, weatherize,
winterize, mirandize; and so are some back-formations (locate, fine-tune, evolute, curate, donate,
emote, upholster, peeve and enthuse). Among syntactical constructions that arose in the U.S. are
as of (with dates and times), outside of, headed for, meet up with, back of, convince someone
to..., not to be about to and lack for.

Americanisms formed by alteration of existing words include notably pesky, phony,

rambunctious, pry (as in "pry open," from prize), putter (verb), buddy, sundae, skeeter, sashay
and kitty-corner. Adjectives that arose in the U.S. are for example, lengthy, bossy, cute and
cutesy, grounded (of a child), punk (in all senses), sticky (of the weather), through (as in "through
train," or meaning "finished"), and many colloquial forms such as peppy or wacky. American
blends include motel, guesstimate, infomercial, and televangelist.

2) The major features of AusE pronunciation are:

(1) It is non-rhotic.

(2) Its intonation is flatter than that of RP.

(3) Speech rhythms are slow, stress being more evenly spaced than in RP.

(4) Consonants do not differ significantly from those in RP.

(5) Vowels are in general closer and more frontal than in RP, with /i/ and /u/ as
in tea, two diphthongized to /əɪ/ and /əʊ/ respectively.

(6) The vowel in can't dance may be /æ/ or /a/.

(7) The schwa is busier than in RP, frequently replacing /ɪ/ in unaccented positions, as
in boxes, dances, darkest, velvet, acid.

(8) Some diphthongs shift, RP /eɪ/ towards /ʌɪ/, as in Australia, day, mate, and /aɪ/ towards /ɒɪ/, as
in high, wide.

(9) Speakers whose first language is not English or who have a bilingual background (Aboriginal,
immigrant) often use sounds and a delivery influenced by the patterns of the first or other
language.

(10) The name of the letter h is often pronounced ‘haitch’ by speakers wholly or partly of Irish-
Catholic background.

3) The colonial American English that the Loyalists brought to Canada was established in the
17th century, before several of the changes that created modern Standard British English had
occurred in southeastern England. In particular, most modern North American English retains
the /r/ sound after vowels, in words like start and north, and has the same short-a sound in words
like trap and bath, rather than the lengthened and further-back /ah/-sound of bath and similar
words (past, staff, etc.) that is heard today in London.
Other general North American features shared by Canadian English may reflect more recent
American influence. The /t/ sound, when it occurs after a stressed vowel in the middle of a word,
as in city, better, Ottawa, battle and party, sounds more like a /d/: “siddy,” “bedder,” “Oddawa,”
“baddle” and “pardy” (linguists call this “flapping”). The vowel sound of words
like news, student and Tuesday, which is like that of few in British English, is more like that
of food in the US and Canada: “nooze,” “stoodent,” “toozeday” rather than “nyooze,”
“styoodent,” “tyoozeday” (though some Canadians prefer the British variants).
 4) In Indian regional languages, there is a lack of the voiced palatal or postalveolar sibilant [dʒ],
as in "pleasure" and also a lack of affricates. The pronunciation of Indian English affricates [tʃ]
and [dʒ] are related to palatal plosives without the following friction.
Due to the presence of regional languages, there are several variations of Indian English.
Nevertheless, Indian English pronunciation is considered as non-rhotic. Words like "spark" and
"world" having the sound [r] are not pronounced but it is well pronounced when it comes at the
end of the word, for example, an actor or a vowel followed in the beginning, for example, a
friend. In Indian English, the sound [r] may be realised as a frictionless alveolar approximant or
as an alveolar tap.
Indian English uses retroflex plosives of sounds [T] and [D] despite alveolar plosives like [t] and
[d]. In the speech of some English speakers, syllables [l], [m] and [n] are usually substituted by
the voiced consonant clusters.
Phonemes [p], [t], and [k] are slightly aspirated in R.P. when used in a word or syllable at the
initial position. However, contrasting Indian English, the difference between aspirated and
unaspirated plosives is phonemic. Therefore, in such situation, Indian English uses the equivalent
unaspirated voiceless plosives [p], [t], [k] instead of [ph], [th] and [kh].
5) . Philippine English is characterized by a host of words borrowed from a variety of linguistic
sources, the main ones being Filipino, the Tagalog-based national language, and Spanish, the colonial
tongue that preceded English. Loan words and loan blends such as the following form part of the
everyday vocabulary of Philippine English: 

 balikbayan box, n. – a carton shipped or brought to the Philippines from another country by a
Filipino who has been living overseas, typically containing items such as food, clothing, toys, and
household products. 

 barangay, n.  – a village, suburb, or other demarcated neighbourhood; a small territorial and

administrative district forming the most local level of government; from Tagalog. 

 barkada,  n. – a group of friends; from Tagalog, ultimately from Spanish barcada ‘boat-load’. 

 despedida party,  n. – a social event honouring someone who is about to depart on a journey or
leave an organization; a going-away party; a blend of Spanish and English. 

 estafa,  n.  – criminal deception, fraud; dishonest dealing; from Spanish.  

 kikay kit, n.  – a soft case in which a woman’s toiletries and cosmetics are stored; blend of
Tagalog and English. 

 pan de  sal, n.  – a yeast-raised bread roll made of flour, eggs, sugar and salt, widely consumed in
the Philippines, especially for breakfast; partly from Tagalog, partly from Spanish.  

 pasalubong,  n. – a gift or souvenir given to a friend or relative by a person who has returned from
a trip or arrived for a visit; from Tagalog. 

 sari-sari store,  n. – a small neighbourhood store selling a variety of goods; blend of Tagalog and
English. 

 sisig, n.  – a dish consisting of chopped pork, onions, and chillies; from Kapampangan. 

 suki,  n.– a buyer or seller involved in an arrangement whereby a customer regularly purchases
products or services from the same provider in exchange for favourable treatment; also the
arrangement itself; from Tagalog.  

17.

Pren, man bolong Rom, Wantok, harim nau.

Mi kam tasol long plantim Kaesar. Mi noken beaten longen.
English version of Tok Pisin language:

Friends, Romans, Countrymen, lend me your ears.

I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him

We can see that English /f/ has been replaced by /p/ and /š/ by /s/, as in pren ‘friends.’

There are several diphthongs, among them are /ai/ as in taim ‘time’ and /au/ as in nau ”your.’

Consonants:

 /ŋ/ = ng in song
 /j/ = y in yet

Pronouns:

1st person singular: mi (I) (Mi kam…)

Present form (Mi kam tasol)

Prepositions:

There are only two prepositions in Tok Pisin: bilong ‘belong’ which means ‘of” or ‘for,’
e.g., laplap bilong alta ‘altar cloth‘, and long which means everything else, e.g., long
bek ‘backwards’.