ACS Chemical Health & Safety
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and sophisticated instruments to execute the detection
protocols. Thus, current LC-MS and GC-MS technologies
are not suitable for molecular detection in the native biological
samples and for field applications. Therefore, new methods of
monitoring personal exposure to QACs are deemed necessary.
Although colorimetric and visual detection of QACs using
reagents immobilized on solid substrates (cotton swab and
plastics) has been reported (as shown in Figure 5),61,62 such
studies are limited to proof-of-concept testing and have not
been used to investigate QACs in real environmental samples
or the complex biological environment. A user-friendly real-
time self-monitoring system that could be deployed without
the need for hazardous reagents and solvents would provide a
sustainable and efficient monitoring system for personal
exposures to QACs. Perhaps, this field can take advantage of
emerging technologies to develop portable and wearable
sensors/devices like those used in monitoring diabetes and
other personal health.
■ EFFECT ON HOUSEHOLD PLASTICS AND FABRICS
Degradation and Unintended Interactions. Household
plastic articles and textile fabrics are made up of polymeric
materials such as polyethylene (PE), polycarbonate (PC),
polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and cellulose (e.g.,
cotton). The pandemic has led to increased disinfection
practices which include wiping surfaces, spraying aerosols, and
frequent decontaminating of plastic and textile products.
Although more frequent disinfection practices are necessary,
the effect of disinfectants coming into contact with commonly
touched surfaces could lead to polymeric material degradation
or decreasing the efficiency of disinfectants and unintended
interactions. For example, studies have reported that cotton
products can deactivate QAC disinfectants, thereby reducing
the efficiency of these chemicals against microbes.21,67−69 The
deactivation by cotton products is due to the strong
interactions between the ammonium group in QACs and the
hydroxyl (−OH) on the cellulose structure.61,70 Engelbrecht et
al. investigated this by comparing the effects of usage on cotton
towels and microfiber cloths (typically made of polyester and
polyamide) in three different QAC solutions.21 When the
disinfecting solution was used with cotton towels, a sharp
decrease in available QAC concentration in the solution by an
average of 85%21 was observed, which resulted in a substantial
decrease in antimicrobial efficacy against bacteria such as S.
aureus, salmonella, and P. aeruginosa.21
QACs may also have a degradation effect on plastics. Jo et al.
investigated the effects of disinfectants on commonly used
polymers to test for surface damage.71 High and low density
polyethylene (HDPE and LDPE) and polycarbonate (PC)
films were tested against QACs by wiping each polymer surface
200 times at 0.04 MPa to mimic six months of routine
disinfection.71 It was observed that the PC film formed a sticky
residue that could not be washed off when treated with diluted
QACs, indicating physicochemical changes at the surface of the
PC film, further confirmed by XPS analysis.71 Also, the residue
was only present on PC films treated with diluted QACs and
not with full strength QACs, meaning that water was deemed
necessary for the aforementioned changes.71 Polycarbonate
polymers are used in many consumer plastics such as water
bottles, food containers, phone cases, and eyeglass lenses
(including laboratory safety glasses). Therefore, the chemical
changes that occur between PC films and diluted QACs should
be noted during disinfecting practices. Although PC films may
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degrade with QAC solutions, LDPE and HDPE did not yield
any significant physicochemical changes. However, mechanical
damage was observed in the form of stress whitening
(scratches on the surface) on LDPE films that reached up to
925 nm in depth.71 This may be of concern as the size of the
SARS-CoV-2 virus is around 150 nm72 which could potentially
lead to the virus embedding itself into scratches produced from
wiping surfaces and potentially reducing the effectiveness of
disinfecting practices.
Bleach has been known to degrade polymers such as
polyethylene and polystyrene due to the oxidative nature of the
free radicals that are produced from dissociation. According to
Mikdam et al., these free radicals can migrate into a
polyethylene matrix and oxidize the material.73 This oxidative
degradation occurred in the range of 50−100 μm PE film
thickness.73 Furthermore, Kelkar et al. noted that bleach
degrades polystyrene at concentrations of 75 and 150 mg min/
L (typical of water disinfection and wastewater treatment).74
However, polypropylene and HDPE were not altered at these
concentrations.74 The effects of bleach on plastics that are
commonly used in households and healthcare facilities should
be noted as the degradation could release polymer additives,
shed microplastics into water systems, and potentially pose a
concern to human health.
Decontamination of Facemasks. Another recently
investigated topic among researchers is the decontamination
of facemasks for reuse. One of the many consequences of the
COVID-19 pandemic is the high demand for masks which
inevitably caused a supply shortage in the early months of the
pandemic. This has led to making homemade masks and
disinfecting routines to reduce the use of disposable masks as
well as increase the durability of N95 masks. Masks effective
against filtering particles around 150 nm (about the size of
SARS-CoV-2) are composed of meltblown polypropylene,
tightly woven cotton, silk, and chiffon (90% polyester, 10%
Spandex).72,75 These materials are effective, especially when
combined/layered, because they provide mechanical and
electrostatic entrapment. For example, N95 masks composed
of meltblown polypropylene layers have mechanical entrap-
ment through the nonwoven fiber network layered on top of
each other, while the electrostatic entrapment is achieved by
charging the fibers through electrets.72 Furthermore, a mask
composed of tightly woven cotton as the outer layer could
provide mechanical filtration while an inner layer of silk or
chiffon would provide the electrostatic barrier.75 Therefore,
disinfection protocols should be chosen wisely as the filtration
efficiency can be significantly impacted depending on the
disinfectant used.
Researchers have shown that disinfection of masks with
alcohol or bleach has reduced filtration efficiency. According to
Liao et al. and Lin et al., the reduced filtration efficiency is due
to the elimination of electrostatic charges.22,72 An increased
particle penetration up to 50 nm was observed in N95 masks
due to the reduction of charge density upon treatment with
alcohol or bleach.22 Furthermore, treatment of N95 masks with
alcohol and bleach revealed reduced filtration efficiencies of
56.33% and 73.11%, respectively.72 Liao et al. hypothesized the
reduction in charge density was due to small particles from the
disinfectants adsorbing onto the fibers and lifting or screening
the frozen electret charges.72 Another consideration for
disinfecting masks is the potential degradation of the materials.
Liao et al. reported the pressure drop of the N95 masks
remained unchanged, which they contributed to the hydro-
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