KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING

POLLUTION CONTROL
ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: NUCLEAR WASTE

GROUP MEMBERS INDEX NO:

ADJEI KUFFOUR RAINNO 8364219

AMEKPEWU NEWLEAF SELORM 8365519

SEWORNU EBENEZER 8371519

JOSHUA JEREMERE 8368519

OKYERE BERNARD KEELSON 8370119

AZANTO GABRIEL AWINIMI 8367219

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 Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................2
Fig 1: Image of Nuclear waste; creator: EuropeNow..........................................................................3
TYPES OF NUCLEAR WASTE................................................................................................................3
Natural Nuclear Waste:......................................................................................................................4
Artificial Nuclear Waste:.....................................................................................................................4
SOURCES OF NUCLEAR WASTE...........................................................................................................5
GENERAL OVERVIEW ON THE EFFECT OF NUCLEAR WASTE...............................................................5
HANDLING AND STORAGE OF NUCLEAR WASTE................................................................................7
CHERNOBYL DISASTER........................................................................................................................8
Fig 2: Image of Chernobyl disaster.....................................................................................................9
FUKUSHIMA DISASTER.....................................................................................................................10
Fig 3: Image of Fukushima disaster;.................................................................................................12
REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................................13

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INTRODUCTION

Most people think of nuclear waste as fuel that has only been used once in a reactor. The

majority of the radiation connected with nuclear power remains in the fuel that was used to

generate it. As a result, nuclear waste (spent fuel) is designated as highly radioactive waste.

During around five years, nuclear fuel is utilized to generate power. The waste is then

collected and carefully kept until a permanent disposal location is available. Nuclear power

facilities also generate low-level radioactive waste, which is carefully controlled and

disposed of at various locations around the country. Nuclear fuel is solid when it enters the

reactor and solid when it exits. It is placed in sets of sealed metal tubes called fuel

assemblies, which contain ceramic uranium pellets. The fuel still contains the radioactive

byproducts of nuclear reactions. There isn't a whole lot of it. A whole football field's worth

of spent fuel generated by the commercial nuclear sector since the late 1950s would reach a

height of around 10 yards. It is still a source of energy. After five years in a reactor, used

fuel has only partially used up the uranium pellets' potential energy. Some nations, like

France, recycle nuclear fuel by removing components still able to produce energy for use in

fresh fuel and encasing the radioactive leftovers in solid glass logs for long-term disposal.

Bottom line, nuclear waste is the byproduct of nuclear power generation, nuclear medicine,

and nuclear weapons production. It includes various materials that have been contaminated

with radioactive isotopes, which can pose significant health and environmental risks. These

wastes from nuclear activities are highly hazardous to human health and the environment

due to their long half-lives, which means they will remain radioactive for thousands of

years. They can emit ionizing radiation, which can cause damage to living cells and lead to

cancers and other illnesses.

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Nuclear waste can include various materials such as spent nuclear fuel, which is the used

fuel from nuclear power reactors, as well as the waste produced during the reprocessing of

spent fuel to extract usable materials like plutonium. Other types of nuclear waste include

contaminated materials, equipment, and buildings from nuclear facilities, as well as

radioactive medical waste from hospitals and research facilities.

Fig 1: Image of Nuclear waste; creator: EuropeNow

TYPES OF NUCLEAR WASTE

There are basically two types of nuclear waste; these are natural nuclear waste and artificial

nuclear waste. Natural nuclear waste is primarily composed of uranium tailings, radon gas,

and cosmic radiation, while artificial nuclear waste includes high-level radioactive waste,

low-level radioactive waste, intermediate-level radioactive waste, transuranic waste, and

spent nuclear fuel.

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Natural Nuclear Waste:

Uranium tailings: Uranium is a naturally occurring element found in soil and rock, and is

extracted for use in nuclear reactors. The leftover waste, known as uranium tailings,

contains small amounts of radioactive materials such as radium and thorium.

Radon gas: Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that is released from rocks and

soil. It can accumulate in buildings and is a known cause of lung cancer.

Cosmic radiation: Cosmic radiation is a type of natural nuclear waste that comes from

outer space. It is a form of ionizing radiation that can penetrate the atmosphere and cause

damage to living organisms.

Artificial Nuclear Waste:

High-level radioactive waste (HLW): HLW is the most hazardous type of nuclear waste

and is generated from the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel. It contains highly radioactive

fission products and transuranic elements such as plutonium.

Low-level radioactive waste (LLW): LLW includes a wide range of materials that have

been contaminated with radioactive materials, such as clothing, tools, and medical waste. It

is typically less hazardous than HLW, but still requires careful handling and disposal.

Intermediate-level radioactive waste (ILW): ILW is generated from nuclear fuel

reprocessing and decommissioning activities. It includes materials with higher levels of

radioactivity than LLW, but lower levels than HLW.

Transuranic waste (TRU): TRU waste is generated from nuclear weapons production and

is made up of materials that contain artificially created elements such as neptunium,

americium, and plutonium.

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Spent nuclear fuel: Spent nuclear fuel is the used fuel that is removed from nuclear

reactors after a certain amount of time. It is highly radioactive and contains fission products

and transuranic elements.

SOURCES OF NUCLEAR WASTE

 Nuclear Power Plant: Nuclear power plants generate electricity by splitting atoms in

a process called nuclear fission. This process produces highly radioactive waste

materials such as spent nuclear fuel rods and other radioactive waste products.

 Research facilities: nuclear research facilities use nuclear reactor and other

radioactive materials study the properties of atoms and to develop new technologies.

These facilities generate a significant amount of radioactive waste materials.

 Medical Institutions: Medical institutions use radioactive radioactive isotopes for

diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Radioactive waste is produced when these

isotopes are no longer needed or have decayed to the point where they are no longer

effective.

 Industrial Processes: Some industrial processes, such as oil and gas drilling, produce

naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) that can be hazardous to human

health and the environment.

 Military Operations: Military operations, such as nuclear weapons testing and

decommissioning also generate nuclear waste. the exact amount of nuclear waste

generated by military operations is classified information.

GENERAL OVERVIEW ON THE EFFECT OF NUCLEAR WASTE

Nuclear waste is the byproduct of nuclear power generation, nuclear weapons production,

and nuclear research. It is made up of materials that are highly radioactive and can remain

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dangerous for thousands of years. The effects of nuclear waste can be harmful to both the

environment and human health. Here are some of the potential effects of nuclear waste:

 Radioactive Contamination: Nuclear waste is made up of materials that are

highly radioactive, and if not properly contained, can contaminate the

environment. This contamination can occur through leaks from storage

containers, spills during transportation, or releases from nuclear power plants.

Exposure to radioactive material can cause radiation sickness, cancer, and other

health problems.

 Environmental Damage: Nuclear waste can contaminate soil, water, and air,

and can have a long-lasting impact on ecosystems. Radiation can damage DNA

and cause mutations in plants and animals, potentially leading to decreased

biodiversity and ecological instability.

 Groundwater Contamination: Nuclear waste can also contaminate

groundwater, which can be a source of drinking water for people and wildlife.

Contaminated groundwater can be difficult and costly to clean up.

 Public Health Risks: People who live near nuclear waste storage or disposal

sites are at risk of exposure to radiation, which can cause cancer and other

health problems. In addition, accidents or leaks from nuclear facilities can

release radioactive material into the air or water, putting nearby communities at

risk.

 Economic impact: Nuclear waste management can be expensive and time-

consuming. The cost of building and maintaining nuclear waste storage and

disposal facilities, as well as cleaning up contaminated areas, can be significant.

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HANDLING AND STORAGE OF NUCLEAR WASTE

For proper handling or disposal of nuclear waste, the waste must be processed to make it

safe for disposal. This includes its collection and sorting; reducing its volume and changing

its chemical and physical composition, such as concentrating liquid waste, and finally, its

conditioning so it is immobilized and packaged before storage and disposal.

Before selecting a waste processing strategy, it is essential to know and understand waste

sources and the rate of waste generation, as well as the amounts and characteristics of the

waste. Characterization is the technique that provides information on the physical, chemical

and radiological properties of the waste, which helps to identify appropriate safety

requirements and potential processing options. It also ensures compatibility and compliance

with accepted storage and disposal criteria.

There are three main steps in the processing of nuclear waste: pre-treatment, treatment and

conditioning. Pre-treatment prepares the waste for processing and may include sorting and

segregation to separate out contaminants from non-contaminants ones. Sometimes, it is

necessary to reduce the size of the waste by, for example, cutting or shredding it to

optimize its downstream processing. Decontamination technique reduces the volume of the

waste requiring treatment, which in turn minimizes the cost of its disposal.

Once the waste is suitably prepared, the next step is treatment to enhance its safety and

reduce the costs of further management phases, such as storage and disposal. Generally,

treatment processes tend to reduce the volume or radioactive waste by separating out the

radioactive components from the bulk waste, often changing the waste’s composition the

process. A variety of waste treatment processing steps are available for use, depending on

the nature of the waste and the waste acceptance requirements of the chosen disposal site.

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Two common treatment techniques are: incineration of solid waste, where the solid

components of the nuclear waste are burnt and evaporation of liquid waste.

The third is the process-conditioning where the nuclear wastes are brought into safe, stable

and manageable form so it can be transported, stored and disposed. Conditioning

techniques are designed to slow the release of radionuclides from the disposed waste

package into the environment. To condition waste for disposal, it’s often encapsulated or

solidified in cement, bitumen or glass or over packed into special containers.

When used nuclear fuels such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239 are removed from

nuclear reactors, they are placed in water-filled pool where their heat and radioactivity

decrease. After seven to ten years, the fuels are placed in dry storage containers, silos or

vaults.

Case study of nuclear waste or nuclear disaster is described below

CHERNOBYL DISASTER

One of the most well-known examples of a nuclear waste accident is the Chernobyl

disaster, which occurred on April 26, 1986, in Ukraine, then part of the Soviet Union. The

accident was caused by a combination of human error and design flaws in the reactor.

During a safety test, the operators of the reactor inadvertently caused a power surge,

leading to a catastrophic explosion and fire. The explosion destroyed the reactor and

released a large amount of radioactive material into the environment. The radioactive

release was estimated to be equivalent to 500 times the amount released by the atomic

bomb dropped on Hiroshima in 1945.

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The immediate aftermath of the accident was devastating. Two workers were killed in the

explosion, and 29 others died within a few months from acute radiation sickness. The area

surrounding the reactor was evacuated, and a large exclusion zone was established around

the site to prevent access to the highly contaminated area.

The long-term effects of the accident have been significant. The release of radioactive

material led to an increase in cases of cancer and other health problems among those

exposed to the radiation, including local residents and cleanup workers. The accident also

had significant economic and social impacts, including the displacement of thousands of

people and the disruption of agricultural and industrial activities in the region.

The Chernobyl disaster remains one of the most severe nuclear accidents in history and

serves as a reminder of the importance of safety in the operation and management of

nuclear facilities. It has led to significant improvements in safety measures and regulations

in the nuclear industry, as well as increased public awareness of the potential risks

associated with nuclear energy.

Fig 2: Image of Chernobyl disaster; creator: Wojtek Laski

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FUKUSHIMA DISASTER

The Fukushima disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on March 11, 2011, in Japan.

It was caused by a massive earthquake and subsequent tsunami that severely damaged the

Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, resulting in multiple reactor meltdowns and

releases of radioactive material.

Since the disaster, extensive research has been conducted on the effects of the accident on

both the environment and human health. Some of the key areas of research include:

Environmental impact: Studies have been conducted to measure the levels of radioactive

contamination in the air, soil, and water in and around the Fukushima area. These studies

have also examined the impact on local ecosystems, including plants, animals, and marine

life.

Health effects: Researchers have investigated the potential health effects of exposure to

radiation from the Fukushima disaster, including cancer, genetic mutations, and other

diseases.

Emergency response: Studies have evaluated the response of the Japanese government and

emergency services to the disaster, including their preparedness, communication, and

evacuation efforts.

Nuclear safety: The Fukushima disaster prompted a reevaluation of nuclear safety standards

and regulations worldwide, and research has been conducted on ways to improve nuclear

safety and prevent future accidents.

Overall, the Fukushima disaster has served as a stark reminder of the potential risks and

consequences of nuclear power, and has spurred significant research efforts to better

understand and mitigate these risks

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The Fukushima disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on March 11, 2011, in Japan.

It was caused by a massive earthquake and subsequent tsunami that severely damaged the

Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, resulting in multiple reactor meltdowns and

releases of radioactive material.

Since the disaster, extensive research has been conducted on the effects of the accident on

both the environment and human health. Some of the key areas of research include:

Environmental impact: Studies have been conducted to measure the levels of radioactive

contamination in the air, soil, and water in and around the Fukushima area. These studies

have also examined the impact on local ecosystems, including plants, animals, and marine

life.

Health effects: Researchers have investigated the potential health effects of exposure to

radiation from the Fukushima disaster, including cancer, genetic mutations, and other

diseases.

Emergency response: Studies have evaluated the response of the Japanese government and

emergency services to the disaster, including their preparedness, communication, and

evacuation efforts.

Nuclear safety: The Fukushima disaster prompted a reevaluation of nuclear safety standards

and regulations worldwide, and research has been conducted on ways to improve nuclear

safety and prevent future accidents.

Overall, the Fukushima disaster has served as a stark reminder of the potential risks and

consequences of nuclear power, and has spurred significant research efforts to better

understand and mitigate these risks

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Fig 3: Image of Fukushima disaster; creator: Jennifer Straka

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CONCLUSION

In conclusion, nuclear waste management is a critical issue that requires careful

consideration and planning to ensure the safe handling, storage, and disposal of radioactive

waste. There are various methods available for nuclear waste management, including

storage, reprocessing, and geological disposal. Each method has its advantages and

disadvantages, and the choice of method depends on several factors, including the type and

amount of waste generated, the level of radioactivity, and the duration of storage required.

Effective nuclear waste management also requires a collaborative effort between industry,

government, and the public to ensure that the highest standards of safety and security are

maintained. Continued research and development in nuclear waste management

technologies are also essential to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of these methods

and to ensure that they meet the evolving needs of the industry and society. Overall, a

comprehensive and sustainable nuclear waste management strategy is necessary to

minimize the risks associated with nuclear waste and to protect human health and the

environment for generations to come.

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REFERENCES

 R.C.Ewing, W.J.Weber, F.W. Clinard (1995), Radiation effect in nuclear waste

forms for high-level radioactive waste, Progress in nuclear energy, Volume 29, Page

63-127.

 Chapman, M Kinley, I.G (1987), The geological disposal of nuclear waste, United

States: N. P.

 Sergey V. Stefanovsky, Sergey V. Yudintsev, Reto Giere and Gregory R. Lumpkin,

(2004), Nuclear Waste Forms, Geological Society Publications, Volume 236, Page

37-63.

 Paul Slovic, James H. Flynn and Mark Layman (1991), Perceived risk, Trust and

the Politics of Nuclear waste, Vol 254.

 Claire Corkhill and Neil Hyatt (2018), Nuclear Waste Management, IOP Publishing

Ltd.

 L.L. Hench, D.E. Clark and Harker,(1986), Nuclear waste Solids, Springer Nature

Switzerland AG.

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