FORENSIC 2 - PRELIM

CHAPTER 1
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION

HISTORY OF FINGERPRINT

 The development of fingerprint science predates the Christian era by many centuries. Pre-historic Indian picture writing of hand with
crudely marked ridge patterns, fingerprint impressions on clay tablets recording business transaction in ancient Babylon, and clay seals of
ancient Chinese origin bearing thumbs prints, were found as evidence of early use of fingerprint as identification of persons impressing the
prints.
 The formal study began as early as 1686 but has finally gained official use in 1858 by Sir William James Herschel, a British chief
administrative officer in Hoogly District of Bengal, India. Herschel used fingerprints in India to prevent fraudulent collection of army pay
accounts and identity on other documents.
 In 1880 two major developments were achieved that ushered to a more holistic acceptance of fingerprint use. Dr. Henry Faulds, an English
Doctor based in Japan, wrote to publication nature on the practical use of fingerprints to the identification of criminals. His argument was
supported by his studies and successful experiments on permanency of one’s fingerprint. After Fauld’s breakthrough, Sir Francis Galton, a
noted British anthropologist and scientist Charles Darwin’s cousin, devised the first scientific method of classifying fingerprint patterns.
 It was in 1882 when the first authentic record of official use of fingerprint was noted in the USA.
 In 1891, Juan Vucetich, an Argentinian Police, used a system of fingerprint as criminal identification based on Sir Francis Galton’s studies.
 As early as the start of the 20 th century, fingerprint use in criminal investigation has gained widespread acceptance across the USA and was
adopted in use by the different branches of the United States Armed Forces. The use of fingerprint since then had begun to take its toll. The
United States has fostered the fingerprint development to its most intricate system.
 Today, the US Federal Bureau of Investigation’s identification files are rapidly approaching 200 million sets of fingerprints- the largest
collection in the world.

Why Fingerprint identification?

Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification. The science of fingerprint identification stands out among all other forensic
science for many reasons, including the following:

 Has served all governments worldwide in providing accurate identification of criminals. No two fingerprints have ever been found alike in
many billions of human and automated computer comparison. Fingerprints are the very basis for criminal history foundation at every police
agency.
 Established the first forensic professional organization, the International Association for Identification (IAI), 1915.
 Established the first professional certification program for forensic scientists, the IAI’s Certified Latent Print Examiner Program (in 1977),
issuing certification to those meeting stringent criteria and revoking certification for serious errors such as erroneous identifications.
 Remains the most commonly used forensic evidence worldwide – in most jurisdiction fingerprint examination cases match or outnumber all
other forensic examination casework combined.
 Continues to expand as the perimeter method for identifying persons, with tens of thousands of persons added of fingerprint repositories
daily in America alone far out phasing similar database in growth.
 Outperforms DNA and all other human identification systems to identify more murderers, rapists and other serious offenders (fingerprints
solve ten times more unknown suspect cases than DNA in most jurisdictions).
 Other visible human characteristics change – fingerprints do not. In earlier civilization, branding and even maiming were used to mark the
criminal for what he was. The thief was deprived of the hand which committed the theft. The Romans employed the tattoo needle to
identify and prevent desertion of mercenary soldiers.
 Before the mid-1800s, law enforcement officers with extraordinary visual memories, so-called "camera eyes," identified previously arrested
offenders by sight. Photography lessened the burden on memory but was not the answer to the criminal identification problem because
personal appearances change.

Method of Identification before the Science of Fingerprint

1. Tattoo Marks
2. Scar Marks
3. Anthropometry - the first scientific method of identification done by measuring various bony structure of the human body devised by
Alphonse Bertillon.

ALPHONE BERTILLON – (FATHER OR SCIENTIFIC IDENTIFICATION )

 Around 1870 a French anthropologist devised a system to measure and records the dimensions of certain bony parts of the body. These
measurements were reduced to a formula which, theoretically, would apply only to one person and would not change during his/her adult
life. This Bertillon system, named after its inventor, Alphonse Bertillon, was generally accepted for thirty years.
 In 1888, Bertillon was made Chief of the newly created Department of Identity in Paris, where he used anthropometry as the main means of
identification. He later introduced fingerprints, but relegated them to a secondary role in the category of special marks.
 Bertillon was involved in the first recorded case of a conviction using fingerprints, in Paris in 1902, but still maintained that anthropometry
was the superior system.
 In 1903, Bertillon system never recovered, when a man named Will West was sentenced to the US Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas.
There was already a prisoner at the penitentiary at the time whose Bertillon measurements were nearly exact, and his name was William
West.
 Upon investigation, there were indeed two men. They looked exactly alike, but were allegedly not related. Their names were Will and
William West respectively. Their Bertillon measurements were close to identify them as the same person. However, a fingerprint
comparison quickly identified them as two different people. The West men, it was later discovered were identical twin brothers.
Origin of Fingerprints

 Chinese are the ones noted to be the first user of Fingerprint.

 Use fingerprints as symbolism in the early part of their rituals until they utilize it in the signing of a contract on the part of the illiterate.
 A Chinese deed of sale, 1839, signed with a finger print. (From Laufer, courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural History)
 In China fingerprint is called "Hua Chi "
 Emperor Te'in Shi (246-210 BC) - first Chinese ruler who devised a seal carved from white jade; on one side of it was the name of the
owner, and on the other side the thumb mark of the destitute.

PERSONALITIES IN THE STUDY OF FINGERPRINTS

1686 - MARCELLO MALPIGHI - ( GRANDFATHER OF DACTYLOSCOPY )

 In 1686, Marcello Malpighi, a professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna, noted in his treatise, ridges, spirals and loops in
fingerprints. He made no mention of their value as a tool for individual identification. A layer of skin was named after him; "Malpighi"
layer, which is approximately 1.8mm thick.
 An Italian Anatomist, who published his work “De Externo Tactus Organo” depicting the construction of the layer of the human skin.
He described the ridges found on the palmar surface of the hand which course in diverse and designs and the pores which served as the
mouth of the sweat glands.
 He was noted for the discovery of the inner and outer structure of the skin:
 Epidermis - outer layer
 Dermis - inner layer

1788 - J.C.A. MAYER

 A German doctor and anatomist who published a book which was an atlas of anatomical Illustrations of Fingerprint. His remarks
contain a statement which clearly pronounced one of the fundamental principles of Fingerprint Science although the arrangement of
the skin, ridges is never duplicated in two persons; nevertheless the similarities are closer among some individuals.
 His book included detailed drawings of patterns and friction skin. He wrote: "Although the arrangement of skin ridges is never
duplicated in two persons, nevertheless the similarities are closer among some individuals. In others the differences are marked, yet in
spite of their peculiarities of arrangement, all have a certain likeness."
 He was the first to state that the prints of two different persons are never alike.

JOHN EVANGELIST PURKINJE - ( FATHER OF DACTYLOSCOPY )

 In 1823, John Evangelist Purkinje, Professor of Physiology at the University of Breslau, Germany, published a thesis in which he
described nine types of fingerprint patterns. He did not mention the value of fingerprints for personal identification.
 He published his book "Commentary of the Physiological Examination of the Organs of Vision and the Cutaneous System" describing
the ridges, giving their names and establishing certain rules of classification (nine groups) and discovered in his study of physiology
that the skin on the inner surface of the hands bore patterns.

1856 - HERMAN WELCKER

 He took the prints of his own palms and after forty-one years (1879) he printed the same palms to prove that prints do not change
except for some scratches due to old age.

1858 - SIR WILLIAM JAMES HERSCHEL - ( FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY )

 The English first began using fingerprints in July of 1858, when Sir William James Herschel, Chief Magistrate of the Hoogly district
in Jungipoor, India, first used fingerprints on native contracts. On a whim, and with no thought toward personal identification,
Herschel had Rajyadhar Konai, a local businessman, impress his hand print on a contract.
 The idea was merely, to "frighten him out of all thought of repudiating his signature." The native was suitably impressed, and Herschel
made a habit of requiring palm prints, and later, simply the prints of the right index and middle fingers on every contract made with the
locals. Personal contact with the document, they believed, made the contract more binding than if they simply signed it. Thus, the first
wide- scale, modern-day use of fingerprints was started, not upon scientific evidence, but on beliefs.
 By conducting his own experiments with colleagues and friends, taking their fingerprints over periods of time, and with careful
notation, Herschel established the principle of 'Persistence" and 'Immutability'. While his experience with fingerprinting was
admittedly limited, Sir Herschel's private conviction that all to the individual, as well as permanent throughout that individual's life,
inspired him to expand their use.
 Using his various posts as a Magistrate, including the control of prisons, he introduces the use of fingerprints to prevent impersonation,
and suggested that this practice should be more universally used.
1880 - DR. HENRY FAULDS
 During the 1970'2, Dr. Henry Faulds, from Beith, North Ayrshire, was the Surgeon-Superintendent of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo,
Japan, and took up the study of 'skin-furrows' after noticing finger marks on specimens of 'prehistoric' pottery.
 A learned and industrious man, Dr Faulds not only recognized the importance of fingerprints as a means of identification, but devised
a method of classification as well.
 In 1880 he advocated the use of fingerprint in the detection of crimes. His article "On The Skin - Furrows of the Hand" points out his
observation that chance prints left at the scene of the crime would provide for positive identification of offenders when apprehended.
He discussed fingerprints as a means of personal identification, and the use of printers ink as a method for obtaining such fingerprints.
 He is also credited with the first fingerprint identification of a greasy fingerprint left on an alcohol bottle.

1882 - GILBERT THOMPSON

 In 1882, Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico, used his own thumb print on a document to prevent
forgery. This is the first known use of fingerprints in the United States.

1883 - ARTHUR KOLLMANN

  In the late 1800's, Kollmann of Hamburg Germany, was the first researcher to address the formation of friction ridges on the fetus and
the random physical stresses and tensions which may have played a part in their growth..

1888 - FRANCIS GALTON

 Sir Francis Galton, a British anthropologist and a cousin of Charles Darwin, began his observations of fingerprints as a means of
identification in the 1880's. He devised a practical system of filing based on the ridge patterns.
 In 1892, he published his book 'Fingerprints', establishing the individuality and permanence of fingerprints. It included the firs
classification system for fingerprints. Galton's primary interest in fingerprints was as a aid in determining heredity and racial
background.
 While he soon discovered that fingerprints offered no firm clues to an individual intelligence or genetic history, he was able to
scientifically prove what Herschel an Faulds already suspected:
 "That fingerprints do not change over the course of an individual's lifetime, a that no two fingerprints are exactly the same".
 According to his calculations, the odds of two individual fingerprints being same were 1 in 64 billion. Galton identified the
characteristics by which fingerprints be identified. These same characteristics (minutiae) are basically still in use today, are often
referred to as Galton's details.
 He was able to discover the three families of fingerprint patterns - Arch, Lo Whorl. He is also credited for being the first scientist of
friction skin identification established the first Civil Bureau of Personal Identification in London, England.

JUAN VUCETICH
 An Argentine Police Official began the first fingerprint files based on Galton pattern types. He developed his own system of
classifying prints that was officially adopted in Argentina and was used in most Spanish Speaking Country.
 1982, Inspector Eduardo Alvarez, taking direction from Vucetich took digital impressions from a crime scene. This led Vucetich in
making the first criminal fingerprint identification. He was able to identify a woman by the name Rojas, who had murdered her two
sons and cut her own throat in an attempt to place blame on another. Her bloody print was left on a door post proving her identity. She
confessed to the murders.

1897 - AZIZUL HAQUE AND HEM CHANDRA BOSE

 On 12 June 1897, the Council of the Governor General of India approved a committee report that fingerprints should be used for
classification of criminal records. Later that year, the Calcutta (now Kolkata) Anthropometric Bureau became the world's first
Fingerprint Bureau. Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau (before it became the Fingerprint Bureau) were Azizul Haque and
Hem Chandra Bose. Haque and Bose are the two Indian fingerprint experts credited with primary development of the Henry System of
fingerprint classification (named for their supervisor, Edward Richard Henry). The Henry classification system is still used in all
English-speaking countries (primarily as the manual filing system for accessing paper archive files that have not been scanned and
computerized).

1900 - SIR EDWARD RICHARD HENRY - ( FATHER OF FINGERPRINTS )

 On 2 April 1891, Henry was appointed to the office of the Inspector General of the Bengal Police. In 1892 the police force adopted the
anthropometric measuring system devised by Bertillon for the identification of criminals, and others concerning the use of fingerprints
to identify criminals. Henry and Galton exchanged regular letters during 1894 discussing the merits of fingerprints.
 In January 1896, Henry issued an order to the Bengali Police that criminal record forms should not only display a prisoners
anthropometric measurements but also the prisoner/s rolled fingerprint impressions.
 With the assistance of Azizull Haque and Hem Chandra Bose, Edward Henry devised his classification system between July 1896 and
February 1897. The Henry fingerprint system enabled fingerprints to be easily filed, searched and traced against thousands of others.
The simple system found worldwide acceptance within a few years.
 In July 1, 1901, the first fingerprint Bureau in the UK was established at Scotland Yard. His system of identification finally replaces
the Bertillionage system of identification in France (Anthropometry of Alphonse Bertillon).

 NEHEMIAH GREW - published a report before the Royal society of London England describing the ridges and the pores of the hands
and feet.
 GOVARD BIDLOO - published a thesis "Anatomia Humanis Corporis which emphasize the appearance and arrangement of the ridges of
the thumb due to their importance.
 MARY K. HOLLAND - the first American Instructress in Dactyloscopy

1912 - DR. EDMOND LOCARD - (FATHER OF POROSCOPY)

 Professor at the University of Lyons in France, Locard established the Institution of Criminalistics in 1910
 He made a remarkable statement on contact trace evidence "When two objects come into contact there is an exchange of material from
each to the other"
 Locard studies and investigated identification using the position and variation of pores as unique ridge characteristics. He presented
evidence of identification in one case at Court using poroscopy, even though the impression already contained many characteristics in
agreement.

Official Use of Fingerprint in USA

 1883 - Mark Twain in his book, Life on the Mississippi, a murderer was identified by the use of fingerprint identification.

 1896 - International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), National Bureau of Criminal Identification, for the exchange of arrest
information.

 1902 - The New York Civil Service Commission required all applicants to be fingerprinted.

Henry P. Forest - Chief Medical Examiner of New York Civil Service Commission and an American Preacher in fingerprint science in the
US for the New York Civil Srevice Commission to prevent applicants from having better-qualified persons to take the test for them.
 1903 - The New York State Prison system began the first systematic use of fingerprints in U.S. for criminals

 1903 - The William West-Will West Case at a Federal Prison in Leavenworth, Kansas, changed the way that people were classified and
identified.

 1905 - U.S. Army begins using fingerprints. U.S. Department of Justice forms the Bureau of Criminal Identification in Washington, DC to
provide a centralized reference collection of fingerprint cards.

 1907 - US Navy begins using fingerprints. US Department of Justice's Bureau of Criminal Identification moves to Leavenworth Federal
Penitentiary where it is staffed at least partially by inmates.

 1908 - The first official fingerprint card was developed

 1908 - US. Marine Corps begins using fingerprints. 1911 First Criminal Conviction was based solely upon fingerprint evidence, Illinois
USA (People vs. Jennings)

 1915 - Inspector Harry H. Caldwell of the Oakland, California Police Department's Bureau of Identification wrote numerous letters to
"Criminal Identification Operators" in August 1915, asking them to meet in Oakland for the purpose of forming an organization to further
the aims of the identification profession. In October 1915, a group of twenty-two identification personnel met and initiated the
"International Association for Criminal Identification" In 1918, the organization was renamed the International Association for
Identification (IAI) due to the volume of non-criminal identification work performed by members. Sir Francis Galton's right index finger
appears in the IAI logo. The IAI's official publication is the Journal of Forensic Identification.
 1916 - First organized school for teaching fingerprint (Institute of Applied Science - Chicago).

 1918 - Edmond Locard wrote that if 12 points (Galton's Details) were the same between two fingerprints, it would suffice as a positive
identification. Locard's 12 points seems to have been based on an unscientific "improvement" over the eleven anthropometric measurements
(arm length, height, etc.) used to "identify" criminals before the adoption of fingerprints.

 1924 - The Identification Division of the FBI was established after J. Edgar Hoover was appointed Director.
In 1924, an act of congress established the Identification Division of the FBI. The IACP's National Bureau of Criminal Identification and
the US Justice Department's Bureau of Criminal Identification consolidated to form the nucleus of the FBI fingerprint files.

 1946 - By 1946, the FBI had processed maintained files; and by 1971, 200 million cards. 100 million fingerprint cards in manually.
With the introduction of automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS) technology, the files were split into computerized criminal files
and manually maintained civil files. Many of the manual files were duplicates though, the records actually represented somewhere in the
neighborhood of 25 to 30 million criminals, and an unknown number of individuals in the civil files.

 1974 - In 1974, four employees of the Hertfordshire (United Kingdom) Fingerprint Bureau contacted fingerprint experts throughout the UK
and began organizing that country's first professional fingerprint organization, the National Society of Fingerprint Officers. The
organization initially consisted of only UK experts, but quickly expanded to international scope and was renamed The Fingerprint Society
in 1977. FFS. Used behind a fingerprint expert's name indicates they are recognized as a Fellow of the Fingerprint Society. The Society
hosts annual educational conferences with speakers and delegates attending from many countries

 1977 - At New Orleans, Louisiana on 1 August 1977, delegates to the 62nd Annual Conference of the International Association for
Identification (IAI) voted to establish the world's first certification program for fingerprint experts. Since 1977, the IAI's Latent Print
Certification Board has proficiency tested thousands of applicants, and periodically proficiency tests all IAI Certified Latent Print
Examiners (CLPEs). IAI CLPE status is considered by many identification professionals to be a measurement of excellence. During the
past three decades, CLPE status has become a prerequisite for journeyman fingerprint expert positions in many US state and federal
government forensic laboratories.

 1980- First computer data base of fingerprints was developed, which came to be known as the Automated Fingerprint Identification System,
(AFIS). In the present day, there are nearly 70 million cards, or nearly 700 million individual fingerprints entered in AFIS

 2007- The largest AFIS repository in America is operated by the Department of Homeland Security's US Visit Program, containing over 74
million persons' fingerprints, primarily in the form of two-finger records. The index finger records are non-compliant with FBI and Interpol
standards, but sufficient for positive identification and valuable for forensics because index fingers are the most commonly identified crime
scene fingerprints. The US Visit Program is migrating from two flat (not rolled) fingerprints to ten flat fingerprints during 2007. "Fast
capture" research funded by the US government will enable implementation of ten "rolled print equivalent" fingerprint recording (within 15
seconds per person fingerprinted) in future years.

All US states and many large cities have their own AFIS databases, each with a subset of fingerprint records that is not stored in any other
database. Thus, law enforcement fingerprint interface standards are very important to enable sharing records and reciprocal searches for
identifying criminals.

Fingerprint Event in the Philippines

1. Mr. Jones - one who first taught fingerprint in the Philippine Constabulary in the year 1900.
2. Bureau of Prison - records shows that in 1918, CARPETAS (Commitment and Conviction Records) already used fingerprint.
3. Lt. Asa and N. Darby - established a modern and complete fingerprint files for Philippine Commonwealth during the reoccupation of
the Philippines by the American Forces.
4. Generoso Reyes - First Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by the Philippine Constabulary.
 5. Isabela Bernales - first Filipina Fingerprint Technician
6. Capt. Thomas Dugan - New York Police Department and Flaviano Guerrero, FBI Washington gave the first examination in
fingerprinting in 1927 and Agustin Patricio of the Philippines, top the examination.
7. People of the Philippines vs. Medina - first conviction based on fingerprint leading judicial decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence.
8. Plaridel Education Institution - now known as the Philippine College of Criminology the first government recognized school to
teach the Science of Fingerprint and other Police Sciences.
9. The First National Bureau of Identification (1924) - was created by the act of Congress. The bureau was established with the U.S.
DOJ (Washington D.C.)

Development of Fingerprints

The system of identification using fingerprints is based on the fact that no two individuals have the same finger, palm or foot prints and rests
upon three fundamentals - formation, uniqueness and persistence.

Formation - Fingerprints develop early in fetal life before birth. Pads form on the babies' fingers and palms between 6 and 13 weeks of its life.
Where these bumps occur, how the baby moves around inside the womb and how fast and big the baby grows all effect how the fingerprint
patterns and ridges form and ensure the unique properties of fingerprints are never duplicated

Uniqueness - The details of a person's prints are unique to them and only them. Even IDENTICAL TWINS do not have identical fingerprints.

Persistence - A person's fingerprints will remain the same throughout their life. If superficial damage occurs the skin will grow back in exactly
the same arrangement as at birth. This is why fingerprints are a reliable means of identification at all stages of a person's life. They are even one
of the last features to decompose after death.

Dogmatic Principles of Fingerprints

1. PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALITY (VARIATION, UNIQUENESS) - This principle states that no two fingerprints of different persons
or the neighboring fingers of the same person have ever been found to be identical or exactly alike in all respect that the ridges appearing in
fingerprint patterns of identical twins are never found to be identical to each other.

2. PRINCIPLE OF CONSTANCY (PERMANENCY, IMMUTABILITY) This principle states that the papillary ridges are immutable,
perennial and individual from the third month of the embryonic while the child is still at the mother's womb and it will never change until
decomposition sets in after death. Some attempts of destroying Ridges and Disguised

3. PRINCIPLE OF INFALLIBILITY - this states that the fingerprint can never be forged or copied. Fingerprint is reliable means of
identification.

 JOHN DILLENGER - US notorious public enemy No. 1, who tried to remove his fingerprints with acid but failed. Post-mortem
fingerprints was taken when he was shot by FBI agents proved that he was Dillenger.

 ROBERT JAMES PITTS - gained fame as the man without fingerprints knowing from an inmate of a possible destruction of fingerprints.
He contacted a doctor. He removed the skin up to the generative layer and served thin into incisions on each side of Pitts chest. Scar tissue
was developed. Almost a year later, he was picked up and the police were amazed to find that he had no fingerprints. The Texas
Department of Public Safety was able to affect identification out of the second joints of his fingers. He is also known by the Name Roscoe
Pitts.

 LOCARD AND WITKOWSJI of Lyons - who performed rather painful experiments on themselves by burning their fingerprints with
boiling water, hot oil and hot metal, had shown that after the healing of the epidermis, the original patterns of fingerprints reappeared.

Legal Basis of Fingerprint Evidence

1. People vs. Jennings (1911, Illinois) - pass upon the admissibility of fingerprint evidence. People v Jennings became a landmark legal case
because it was the first American appellate case regarding the admissibility of fingerprint expert testimony. The appellate court concluded
that fingerprint identification is a science and that expert testimony was appropriate to aid members of the court in understanding fingerprint
evidence. Jennings appealed his conviction to the Illinois Supreme Court on the basis of a questionable new scientific technique. The
Illinois Supreme Court cited the historical research and use of fingerprints as a means of reliable identification in upholding the conviction,
and thus establishing the use of fingerprints as a reliable means of identification. Jennings was executed in 1912.

2. State vs. Cerciello (New Jersey) - fingerprint evidence was permitted to be introduced.

3. State vs. Conners - it was held competent to show by a photograph the fingerprints upon a balcony post of a house entered, without
producing that post in court.

4. People vs. Coral (California) - it is completely settled law that fingerprints are the strongest evidence of the identity of a person. It was
reasserted in another California case, People v. Riser - fingerprint evidence is the strongest evidence of identity and is ordinarily sufficient
aid to identify the defendant.

5. Bilangawa vs. Amador (Philippines) - a fingerprint expert and constabulary sergeant testified and successfully defended fingerprint
evidence based on eight identical ridge points.
6. People vs. Medina - the first leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence on the science of fingerprinting. (Robbery case,
December 23, 1933 G.R. No. L-38434 THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, plaintiff- appellee, vs. MARCIANO MEDINA Y
DIOKNO (alias MARIANO MEDINA, alias ALEJANDRO DOLA), defendant-appellant.)

The Friction Skin

 Friction Skin is the epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral/lower surface of the hands and feet covered with minute ridges and furrows
and without pigment and coloring matters. It is the skin covering of the palms of hands and the soles of feet these are strips of skin on the
inside of the end joints of our fingers and thumbs by which fingerprints are made.

 The inner surfaces of the hands and the soles of the feet are covered with patterns formed by raised ridges of skin known as friction or
papillary ridges. The study of fingerprints, or dactyloscopy, forms only one privileged section of the wider of lophoscopy: dactyloscopy is
the more widely used section in practice even though prints from the soles of the feet are as characteristic as fingerprints; they are less often
used for identification purposes due to their low rate of occurrence.

 The patterns formed by the papillary ridges are important since they are already formed in the fetus by the fourth month of pregnancy and
they do not change until death. These patterns cannot be altered, except by accident, mutilation, or very serious skin disease, as they are
formed in deep layers of the dermis.

Structure of the Skin

 Skin is an essential organ of the human body. Finger, palm and sole areas of the epidermis display a series of friction ridges taking various
forms and shapes. These volar areas of the skin are known to display friction ridge skin. Depending on the surface considered, we generally
refer to them as fingerprints, palm prints and sole prints.

 The skin consists of two main layers: the outer skin or epidermis, and the inner or true skin, known the dermis. The epidermis is constantly
being worn away and replaced by new skin generated by the upper layer of the dermis - a papillary layer (stratum mucosum) which is the
source of the ridges known as 'papillary ridges'. The sweat glands, located in the dermis, discharge sweat at the skin surface through sweat
pores found at the top of the ridges.

Fundamental Layers of the Skin

1. EPIDERMIS - the outer covering of the skin

 2 Main Layers of the Epidermis:

 Stratum Corneum - outer layers
Five Subdivisions of Stratum Corneum
1. Corneous Layer
2. Transparent Layer
3. Granucar Layer
4. Malphigian Layer
5. Generating Layer

 Stratum Mucusom - immediately beneath the covering layers.

2. DERMIS - the inner layer of the skin containing blood vessels, various glands and nerves. It is where the dermal papillae are found.

Uses of Fingerprints

 Fingerprints is very essential in the conduct of investigation either criminal or civil cases because it aids the investigator. Fingerprints is
useful in identifying suspects for investigation purposes, providing identity for unidentified dead person, identifying missing person,
detecting a criminal identity through fingerprints collected at the scene and determining recidivism or habitual delinquency. It is also
important in the verification or confirmation of public documents, issuance of clearance, opening volts or doors leading to confidential
matters and in checking or verifying entry of authorized personnel on certain establishments

 DACTYLOSCOPY - the science which deals with study of fingerprints as a means of personal identification.
Greek Words:
 Dactyl - a finger
 Skopein - to examine

Allied Sciences of Dactyloscopy

1. CHIROSCOPY - scientific examination of the palm of the hand

Greek words:
 Cheir-palm/hand
 skopein to examine

2. PODOSCOPY - scientific examination of the sole of the foot.

Greek words:
  Podo-sole/foot
 skopein- to examine

3. POROSCOPY - scientific examination of sweat pores/glands.

Greek words:
 Poros - a pare
 skopein- to examine

 DACTYLOGRAPHY - the study of fingerprints for the purpose of identification. Palms and soles.
 DERMATOGLYPHICS - are the lines, tracings and designs on the skin of fingers, POLYDACTYL - a hand having more than the
required numbers of fingers
 DACTYLOMANCY - an attempt at character reading through the pattern of fingerprints.

Other Scientific Means of Personal Identification

1. Handprints

 Just like fingerprints, handprints have their own unique ridges. The ridges of the fingertips continue down to the palm and can also be
used for identification.

2. Footprints

 Shoeprints can be lifted or developed in order to compare worn edges or differences in the bottom of the shoe. The way a person walks
causes the shoe to be worn in a certain pattern and there will be breaks or small rock indentations. Feet also have unique prints like
fingers that can be used to identify with a suspect print. When dealing with shoeprints of footprints, there is a larger surface so the
characteristics are spread out and harder to mistake so fewer points of comparison are needed for a positive identification than for
fingerprints.

3. Retina Patterns

 The retina is located inside and at the rear of the eye. A retinal scan works on the principle of retina pattern uniqueness. A retina
scanner is used to illuminate a region of the retina. It records the reflected vasculature contrast information and maps the capillary
pattern of the retina. This type of scanning is considered accurate. Retina scanning works for user identification and exceptionally
verification.

 Retinal scans use a low-intensity infrared light that is projected through to the back of the eye onto the retina. The blood vessels on the
retina absorb the light faster than the eye tissue surrounding them. This creates a pattern which is reflected back to the scanner.

 The blood vessel patterns of the retina and the pattern of flecks on the iris both offer unique methods of identification. Orientation
problems don't often occur because of the tendency of the eye to naturally align itself as it focuses on a target that is illuminated. A
video image can be taken of the eye from one foot away so that the person doesn't have to be in direct contact with the scanner.

 Retinal scan is a biometric technique that uses the unique patterns on a person's retina to identify them. It is not to be confused with
another ocular- based technology, iris recognition.

 Iris scanning can also be used for identification. In the iris alone, there are over 400 distinguishing characteristics that can be used for
identification. These characteristics mean that the iris has six times more distinct features for identification than the fingerprint and the
iris also remains unchanged throughout life.

 The current problem for retina and iris scanning is user acceptance. This type of identification isn't accepted by many people because
of the fear of eye damage, high costs and intrusiveness.

4. Bertillon System

 This method was developed by Alphonse Bertillon, a French anthropologist which emphasized the measurement of the body as a
means of identification. The theory states that "if a man reaches the age of twenty years old, he already has developed a permanent
body structure thus it will enable the investigators to measure fully the body structure and put it on record.

5. Odontology

 This system measures the teeth structure as a means of identification. Investigators usually resort to this identification system in cases
where a skull or skeletal remains are found and no other means of identification can be established.

 Forensic dentistry or forensic odontology is the proper handling, examination and evaluation of dental evidence, which will be then
presented in the interest of justice. The evidence that may be derived from teeth, is the age (in children) and identification of the person
to whom the teeth belong. This is done using dental records including radiographs, ante-mortem (prior to death) and post-mortem
photographs and DNA. Forensic odontology is derived from Latin, meaning forum or where legal matters are discussed.

 Orthodontology is a branch of dentistry that deals with diagnosis, treatment and prevention of dent facial anomalies.

6. Bite Marks
  The other type of evidence is that of bite marks, left on either the victim (by the attacker), the perpetrator (from the victim of an
attack), or on an object found at the crime scene. Bite marks are often found on children who are abused.

 Each of the thirty-two teeth in humans is unique due to age and wear. Bites can tell how quickly the offender subdued the victim. Bites
can often be matched to dental records.

 Forensic dentists assist in crime solving by studying teeth and teeth impressions. Dental records are often used to identify people.
Because teeth are one of the hardest substances in the human body, they are frequently well preserved. Dental x-rays or records
showing fillings, position of teeth, etc. can help forensic dentists find a match of teeth to the individual. Eighty percent of the time
teeth impressions are used to identify unknown victims.

 Forensic dentists are responsible for six main areas of practice:

 Identification of found human remains

 Identification in mass fatalities Assessment of bite mark injuries

 Assessment of cases of abuse (child, spousal, elder)

 Civil cases involving malpractice Age estimation

7. Hair Examination

 Hair examination is one of the oldest forms of physical evidence. It is used to determine the following:
 If suspected hair originates from human or animal.
 If human, what part of the body did it come from?

8. Blood Examination

 Blood is usually spilled in most crimes involving violence and it may be shed by the criminal while committing other crimes. It is the
best specimen for testing for alcohol in sobriety examinations. It is also used to investigate disputed paternity cases.

9. DNA Fingerprinting

 DNA Fingerprinting, method of identification that compares fragments of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) It is sometimes called DNA
typing. DNA is the genetic material found within the cell nuclei of all living things. In mammals the strands of DNA are grouped into
structures called chromosomes. With the exception of identical twins, the complete DNA of each individual is unique.

 A DNA fingerprint is constructed by first extracting a DNA sample from body tissue or fluid such as hair, blood, or saliva. The sample
is then segmented using enzymes, and the segments are arranged by size using a process called electrophoresis. The segments are
marked with probes and exposed on X-ray film, where they form a characteristic pattern of black bars-the DNA fingerprint. If the
DNA fingerprints produced from two different samples match, the two samples probably came from the same person.

 DNA fingerprinting was first developed as an identification technique in 1985. Originally used to detect the presence of genetic
diseases, DNA fingerprinting soon came to be used in criminal investigations and forensic science. The first criminal conviction based
on DNA evidence in the United States occurred in 1988. In criminal investigations, DNA fingerprints derived from evidence collected
at the crime scene are compared to the DNA fingerprints of suspects. The DNA evidence can implicate or exonerate a suspect.

 Generally, courts have accepted the reliability of DNA testing and admitted nty DNA test results into evidence. However, DNA
fingerprinting is controversial in a number of areas; the accuracy of the results, the cost of testing, and the possible misuse of the
technique.

 The accuracy of DNA fingerprinting has been challenged for several reasons. First, because DNA segments rather than complete DNA
strands are "fingerprinted," a DNA fingerprint may not be unique; large-scale research to confirm the uniqueness of DNA
fingerprinting test results has not been conducted. In addition, DNA fingerprinting is often performed in private laboratories that may
not follow uniform testing standards and quality controls. Also, since human beings must interpret the test, human error could lead to
false results. DNA fingerprinting is expensive. Suspects who are unable to provide their own DNA experts may not be able to
adequately defend themselves against charges based on DNA evidence.

 Nucleic acids are complex molecules produced by living cells and are essential to all living organisms. These acids govern the body's
development and specific characteristics by providing hereditary information and triggering the production of proteins within the body.
This computer-generated model shows two strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and the double-helical structure typical of this
class of nucleic acids.

 DNA fingerprinting can help investigators identify the suspect in a crime. The horizontal pattern of lines represents a person's genetic
make-up. In the sample shown, suspect S2 matches the evidence, blood sample E (vs).

 The chemical structure of DNA in everyone is the same. The only difference is the order of the base pairs. Like in fingerprinting, there
are so many millions of base pairs in everyone's DNA that every person has a unique sequence.

 Every person could be identified using the sequence of their base pairs. However, there are so many base pairs in every person that this
would be very time consuming. Repeating patterns in DNA allow scientists to use a much shorter method.
  These patterns help to determine if two DNA samples can from the same person, related people or non-related people. The sequences
analyzed by the scientists are patterns that are known to vary greatly among individuals. This allows the scientist to assign a
probability to a match. Since 1987, more than 150 cases have been decided with the assistance of DNA fingerprint evidence.

 DNA base pair pattern identification has many uses. DNA patterns are inherited from parents, and can therefore be used to indicate
paternity and maternity. They can be to confirm legal nationality and determine biological parenthood.

 DNA analysis can be used to determine whether or not a suspect was at a crime scene. DNA can be found in blood, hair, skin cells,
semen or other genetic evidence left at a crime scene. It can also be used to determine the identity of a victim.

 DNA fingerprinting is an important advance in the diagnosis of inherited disorders because early detection of these disorders allows
the parents and medical staff to prepare for proper treatment of a child. This research can be extended into developing cures for
inherited disorders.

 DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory procedure that can be done in six steps. DNA must be recovered from the cells or tissues of the
body. Restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA at specific locations according to the DNA sequence at that location. The DNA
pieces are sorted according to size through a process called electrophoresis in which the particles are passed through seaweed agarose
to determine particle sizes. The DNA is transferred to nylon by placing the sheet on the gel and letting them soak. Radioactive or
colored probes are added to the nylon sheet and a pattern is produced. This pattern is called a DNA fingerprint and is formed because
each of the colored probes sticks in specific places on the nylon sheet. A final DNA fingerprint is made through the use of several
probes at the same time to form a code.

 There are some problems with DNA fingerprinting. The repeating patterns can only present a probability of the DNA match retrieved.
The probability might be 1 in 20 billion, so it is a reasonable match, but unlike a fingerprint, repeating DNA patterns are not
completely unique to each person. A probability might also be 1 in 20, and this would leave a lot of doubt. The probability values
assigned help to determine the chance that the DNA fingerprint belongs to the person in question.

 There is also room for error in the probing techniques used to acquire the DNA pattern. This presents a problem for court cases
because it could give false results.

 DNA fingerprinting is useful because DNA structure cannot be altered. Unlike fingerprints, there is no way to change the DNA
fingerprint. It cannot be altered by any known treatment. It is the same for every cell, tissue and organ in a person, DNA fingerprinting
is also a way of giving a quantitative assessment to an identification match. This allows for a better idea of the reliability of the results

10. Voice Identification

 Voice identification, police technique for identifying individuals by the time, frequency, and intensity of their speech-sound waves. A
sound spectrograph is employed to record these waves in the form of a graph that may be compared to graphs of other individuals and
differentiated. Though voice graphs (or voiceprints) have been used in courtroom proceedings, the accuracy of this technique in
identifying individuals is a subject of controversy among speech scientists.

 Voiceprint identification can be defined as a combination of both aural (listening) and spectrographic (instrumental) comparison of one
or more known voices with an unknown voice for the purpose of identification or elimination. Developed by Bell Laboratories in the
late 1940s for military intelligence purposes, the modern-day forensic utilization of the technique did not start until the late 1960s
following its adoption by the Michigan State Police. From 1967 until the present, more than 5,000 law enforcement related voice
identification cases have been processed by certified voiceprint examiners.

 Voice identification has been used in a variety of criminal cases, including murder, rape, extortion, drug smuggling, wagering-
gambling investigations, political corruption, money-laundering, tax evasion, burglary, bomb threats, terrorist activities and organized
crime activities. It is part of a larger forensic role known as acoustic analyses, which involves tape filtering and enhancement, tape
authentication, gunshot acoustics, reconstruction of conversations and the analysis of any other questioned acoustic event.

THEORY

 The fundamental theory for voice identification rests on the premise that every voice has individual characteristic enough to distinguish it
from others through voiceprint analysis. There are two general factors involved in the process of human speech. The first factor in
determining voice uniqueness lies in the sizes of the vocal cavities, such as the throat, nasal and oral cavities, and the shape, length and
tension of the individual's vocal cords located in the larynx. The vocal cavities are resonators, much like organ pipes, which reinforce some
of the overtones produced by the vocal cords, which produce formats or voiceprint bars. The likelihood that two people would have all their
vocal cavities the same size and configuration and coupled identically appears very remote.
 The second factor in determining voice uniqueness lies in the manner in which the articulators or muscles of speech are manipulated during
speech. The articulators include the lips, teeth, tongue, soft palate and jaw muscles whose controlled interplay produces intelligible speech.
Intelligible speech is developed by the random learning process of imitating others who are communicating. The likelihood that two people
could develop identical use patterns of their articulators also appears very remote.
 Therefore, the chance that two speakers would have identical vocal cavity dimensions and configurations coupled with identical articulator
use patterns appears extremely remote. While there have been claims that several voices have been found to be indistinguishable, no
evidence to support such allegations has been published, offered for examination or demonstrated to the authors.